�la�s �sFo�rI�X·am-p1€-.

---ilU
A mixrure containing naphthalen and urea can be separated b;
Liqui Al
this techruque n r mains
. Urea dissolves in water \ hile naphtha
:;1____
insoluble. Ur� is recovered from the filtrate by evaporating
water.
Sometime forseparation purposes the filtration of a hot solution
·,,���f:-,,,,,1, B u c hn er
fu n n I
is required. For example. a mi>..'ture of anthracene and benzoic
acid is
separated by dissolving it in hot water and filtering the hot
solution. Benzoic acid crystallizes on cooling v.:hile anthracene
remains as an
insoluble residue.
(a)Filtration through Buchner funnel
If the water soluble component of a mixture is apprecial�· _
luble in hot water but only sparingly soluble in cold water, then
Ftlter paper
to separate
the mixture, filtration of a hot solution is required. This is carried
out through a fluted filter paper to avoid crystallisation during
filtration
and also to remove suspend impurities. If the solution to be
fil1ered is sufficiently large, then filtration is done through a 'hot
water funnel'
to avoid formation of crystals in the funnel and its stern. The
jacket of the hot water funnel keeps the solution hot in the glass Rltration of hot mix'ture

funnel (b)Filtration of hot mi>..'ture

placed in it.

For example, a mixture of anthracene and benzoic acid is

separated by dissolving the mixture in hot v.1ater and filtering the

hot solution.

Benzoic add dissolves in hot water but anthranCP, .:i� or.-r Upon filtration. anthrac.ene remains as a
residue on the filter paper while benzoic acid crystallises f!'on 1l1e -fHtrate on cooling.

Sometimes, the filtration is very slow and take.s a lnrig tirrn,. In su�� cases, filtration js can;ed out under
reduced pressure using a Buchner funnel and water suction pump are sbov.rn in figure below.

Separation of liquid - liquid mixture

(1) Vacuum distillation orisdaisptpililelad ttoiolinquuidnsdwehricrheddeucocmedpopsereonssure i
This technjque of distillation heating to their boiling point. We
know is also point
the boiling
of liquid
that reduced liquid
of aand varies wditihstailtsmaot slopwhetreicmppressure i.e., at reduced pressure the
thus
liqwd point
boiling era ure.
l 0
t .
e
C
(2) TShteisaisma cdoinsvtielnlaietnitomnethod for the separation and purification of organic
compounds (solid or liquid) from .o
j
� .6
non-volatile organic or inorganic impurities. Thvisapmoeutrhod is applicable to only those compounds t - I �1i]
which are
Hg at 373 C �

steam, insoluble
non-volatile
volatile in
contain in water,
impurities. Some ofpossess a pressure
the compounds which can
of about
be purified
10 - 15 this process are
by mm
,'c...
�
Kan
oils, d
of nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene, essent ~�
etc. i -:
 ;� f
·li·Ht334i
� 1� -1
(ii3:f·1!!3:t31J h -----------------�- .. t .
J
/;

E ,
How will you�f
separate a mixture of �trophenol and p-nitropheno!?
.: -
� i
::::r::i:a��o:�o-nitrophenol being volatile distils over along with water while p-ni·trophe
1, .t i I
volatile
flask. cemains in the no 1 •cm� ·1;1, m- ·-·--)t. 1 � j
� _,

------------------------------------
'

34 UP�£<Jn..1�� ., .

-
ALL••- - - - - - ---- --- - - = = - ==-==-===-Che
mistry
Separation of gas - gas mixtures
(1) Diffusion

In this methcx.i of separation, diff e rence in densities of component gases is used . The g as withol wer m o el c
ualr
weight di uses faster than the gas with highe r mole cula r weight. For exam hyrdog e n·(H) andme t h ane
p,le
( CH 4,) hehum (He) and s ulp hur dioxide (S0 2 . )
(2) Dissolution in suit ble solvents
In this method of separation, difference in solubility of component gases in a given solvent is used. For
exam p ,lea mixture of carbon dioxide (CO 2) is soluble in JX)tassium hydroxide (KOH) leavingbe h ind carbon
mono,xide( CO. ) H e r e, in a mixture of ammonia (NH) and nitrogen (N ) ammonia (NH )si soluble in water
2
an d nitro gen (N2 ) is inso luble .
(3) Preferential liquefaction
In this methcx.i of separation, difference in lique faction of component gases in a given<solvent is used. For
e xamp el, a mixture of a mm o nia (NH) and hydrogen (H2 ) can be separated by this method. Herea,
mmon ai gets liquefied under high pressure and hydrogen gas is le ft behi n .d
(4) Fractional evapo·ration- ·
Inthis methcx.i of separation difference in boiling JX>ints o f the comJX>nent gases is used. For exampel , when
airis liquefied, the major comJX)nents of air, n itrogen (N2 ) and oxygen (Oz) can be se parated by subjecting
the liquid toeva JX>ratio n. Here, nitrogen (N2) h as a lo we r boiling po int and hence boils off, oxygen (0 2 ) has
a higher boiling point and remains behind.
Separation of liquid - gas mixtures
(1) H eating : In this method of se paration , decrease in so lubility of a gas with increase in temperature is use d.
Fo r exa mple, when a so lutio n co nt ainin g a gas is s ub je cted to slig ht heating belo w the boiling JX>in t of the
liuq i d, the gas escapes out leaving behind the liquid compo ne nt. For exa mp le , se para tio n of disso
lved
oxygen 0( 2) in water by heating wat e r.
(2 ) Lowe rin g the p re s s u re : In this method of sep aratio n, diff e rence in solubility of gas in the liquid at diffe
rent p ressur e is used. For exa mple , scx.ia wate r caJ 1 l:€ sepa rated by th is me thcx.i . He re , whe n soda
wate r bottle is ope ned , the p ressur e inside th e bottle decreases and carbon dio xide (CO2 ) gas fizzes out of the
bottle .
A s p e c ia l method applicable for all types of mixture is
Chromatog raphy:
The name chromato grap hy is based on the Gree k word chroma, fo r colour since the me thod was firs t used
for the separation of co lo ured substa nces f o und in pla nts .
Types of chromatography: Thestationary phase ca n be e ithe r a solid or tightly bound liquid on a solid
support while the mobile phase can be eithe r a liquid or a gas. Depending UJX>n the nature of the s tatio
nary and the mobile phases, the diff ere nt types of ch ro matograph ic te chniques commonly used are
Some common types of ch ro m atog ra phy
S.No. Type of chro matog ra phy Mo bile / Us es
S ta ti ona ry
phase
1 Adsorption or Column Liquid / Solid Large scale separations
chromatography
2 Thin layer chromatography (11..C) Liquid / Solid Qua lita tive analysis (identification and
characterization of organic compound)
3 1-iigh performance liquid Liquid / Solid Qualitative and qua ntita tive analysis
chromatography (HPLC)
4 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC) Gas / Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
5 Paper or pa rtition chromatography Liquid / Liquid Qualitative and quantitative analysis
of polar organic compounds (sugars ,
amino acids) and inorganic compounds .
given in.
35
 )
:.;_-- - -- - - --. A.LLa•' •
I k p •, 111I i l! l 11111 ,,1 tih · pt 11 \t I1 ,I,· It 1volvt ·cl, < lt1 u 111, tlo!tr1.-1pl 1y - n b, d i vid<· tl i i tlo till' f ollo wit t!:Jtw o o it cg ar k '.":>
.( t\ d• ,(lt p t1lll I lt 1t 11n , 1\l w nplt \J (b) Pt-111 i ti or1 .hnJrni:J t n r t1plt y
d o rp tio 11 cht >Ill 110 !.J,r p h : .
1 •111 11lp h. · T l1 b 11\t'lh 1d b b m wd 1q H111 tlw dllf tm :nll ol < d so 11)tion uf tl H: vari o u orn p o rw.nt of Ji- m ix t u reon -r b
: 11 1 t n l• k n d:• 1, l d H·11 t 11ch is s ill, 1i w l ur .i lu1nin , . Si nce s0111e ·om p0 un d are m o r e str o ng l ya ds o r be d l han t he
,i t l tl 1 1 •y will 1l 11w l thr ll!l h Ilic• <'oh 111 11,1 11 dlf f <•re11I rat s and thu ::. p arated.
w. 1 g et ,. ,..

T :,:::
· 1 p (' · ( ds 11·1) H nd worn ot ogrnph y

( \t\) d s\( ) -Oul

1pll n n cl11u ,11 ,1tn! 1rn ph y i s of th e• followim t wo ::: o: ::y: mopooun d
typ s:
,hmni Jnsmphy
H.(•t(•n ti on fa tor (H,) values - It is ddi1wd <1s R ==
(;» (X)
1 D i stance travelled by the solv ent from (Y) _.., I
Sinn •, th (' solw 11t {1rn1t ,,l ways n 1o w s fast er on th e TL C plat e th an th e compoun ds , R1 v alues are usually I
l 'Xpr css ·d ,1s ,1 d vcilll nl fr action . e:--!"
Partition dtromatography: . .
Prin_·ipl<:.> Pnpcr <'h ro n atogr c phy works on th e principle of partition that is it is based upon co tinuous differential- I
p nrh tton 11111 n{ th e vnn ous c ompon ('n ts of th e mixture between the stationary and the mobile phases. t:-"!
c;-,a; ; JttJ• = tJ,, a111 . .
Name the method which is most suitable for separation of the following:
(;:i) Oxygt>n fro m liquid air
(b) Red blood cell from plasma
(<-) P etro l and k ro sen e fr om crude oil
(d) C o ffee 91c1i11s fro m co ff e e solu ti o n
(e) Pieces o f st<'cl from engine oil
(0 Amin o acids from fruit juice so lll li on
(g) Ethanol and c)th er
Explanation
(a) O xyg en from liquid air = Fraction;;1l dlsti ll alin n
(b) Red blood cell from plasm a = Cenl ril u Jali on
(c) Petrol and l<c rosene from crude oil = Fracti onal distillation
(d) Coff e e grain from cof fee solu tion = Fillr ali on
(e) Pieces of st eel f ram engin e oil = Magnetic separation
(0 Amino acids from fniit juice soluti on = Chromatography
(g) Ethanol and ether = Fractional distillation

, Ill (1) Nor m:a l it y (NN )

Some Additional-- 'To p- i c s
:.....:_,:_::
,,
_:.:_ --

Normality of a solution may be defined as the number of gram equivalent of solut e present per h. tre of ti \,, ·- '
•;:, solution. It is denoted by N, . ·- - - - - . · 1..

M ath ematically, ,.,

The unit of normality is equivalent lif 1 .
Gram equivalents of solute
N=-----'--------
Volume of the solution in litres 36
N= Weight of solut e in g
Eq. wt.of solute xVolume of solution in litre

Str en g t h of so lu t ion in
N = - g /litr
- =e - -Equivalent
-- - - weight
- - of
- :.. . ::.
solute
 'I '

"':::;::: = ( 3rc1m eqw I

va em mass of the s olute ca n be dete nn ine d by su in g t he from u al
Gi am equivalent mass= Molar mass
Chem istr y

-
where z· h
z
isa w O e number and re p resen.ts
(i) the number of H' · f ·h d b .
.. . lClns umise y a n acid m o lecule in so lutio n i.e. , basi cityo f an ac i d. u( )
the n umber of OH- · f ·h d b ,
... ions um 1s e ya mole c ule of base in so lutio n i.ea. c i d i tyo f ba se ·.
(Ill) the n umbe r of I ct · I d · - ·
e e rans m vo ve m ox ida t io n of a reduc i ng agent or reductio no f an ox i d si in g agent
Som e co mmon r epr ese nta tio ns of the no rmality of soluoti n ares ho wn beol w.
N = No rmal so lution
N
2 = 0 .5 N = Se mino nn a l
N
5 = 0 . 2 N = Pentan onnal
N
10 = 0 . l N = Decinormal
l 0 N = Decano nn al

a m+ @ i'iJ M!! i,a: mttJI

Ca l culate the no rmality of NaOH soluti o n co ntaining 50.0 gm NaOH in.5 0li tr e solution.
_
Explanation

E . M.W.oof fNaOH
qu1vale nt weight NaO H= -40
- - - - - = -- = 40
A cidity of bcise l

N o . o f equ1.val ents in 50 . 0 g Na O H = 50
4 0= 1.25

Eq uivalents of so l uie 1.25

Normality of NaOH solut io n = V I f . ti · t·t = - - = 0.25 N
o ume o 1sou on m 1 re s 5
(2) Molarity (M)
M olarity of a solutio n is de fi ned as the number of mo le s of t he so lute per litre of so lutio n. For exa mple , a
molar (1 M) s olu tio n of sugar me an s a solutio n conta ining 1 mole of sugar (i. e . , 342 g) per litre of the s oluti
on.
T hus ma thematically ,
Numbe r o f moles of so lute Mass of th e solut e
M= Vo I ume o f so1ut·io.n m [ No. of mole s = f I l
Molar mass o so ute
1·Itres
Wt.of solute in gms
or M= Mole c ular wt. of solute x Volume of s o lution in litr e s
Th erefo re, unit of molarity is moles lir 1 . It is the most common way of re presenting the concentratio n of the solution .
Relationship between normality and molarity of a solution

No rma lity = Mo larity x M-- f B .

a- l.w. or No rm a lity = Molarity x Acidity o B ase or as1 c 1·ty acd1.
t of
Eq.wt.
where a cidity of base= No . of re p lacea ble OH- ion
and basicity of acid = No . o f rep la c eable H+ io n .
Eq.wt.
Molarity = Normality xMa l.w. t

.. '" ··
 (',.' JIii'

Class IX ALUM -
(3) Molarity (m)
!J
Molality of a solution may be defined as the number of mo les o f the solute d iss o lve d per 1000 g of t he ' so lvent. For
111

examp le , a 0.2 molal (0.2 m) solution of glucose means a so lut io n o btai ned by disso lvin g 0.2 ,. gram mole of
glucose in 1000 g (1 kg) of wate r.
Mathematically, J_
Moles of solute Molality
(m) = -------'--------
Mass or solvent in kilograms
No . of moles of solute
Molality (m) = x 1000
Wt. of solvent in gms
Mass of solute in grams 1000
m= X
Molecular mass of solute Wt. of solvent in gms
It is expr ess ed in units of moles k-g 1 .
The value of normality and molarity varies with temperature as the volume of solution containing equivalents or
moles of the solute increases with rise in temperature. However, molality is temperature independent because
here volume term is not involved.
Following is the relationship between molarity and molality derived from the formulae of molarity and mo la
lity.

Molarity
Mass of solve nt in kg Volume of
Molality
so lutio n in litre
(4) Mole fraction (x)
It is defined us the ratio o f t he number of mo les o f o ne co mpo nen t (solute or solvent) to the total number of
moles of all the co mpo ne nt s (sol ute plus so lve n t) prese nt in the solut io n. It is denoted by 'x'.

Thu s, x Mo le s of solute
=------------
so,Lcc Mo le s of sol ute + Mo le s of o lve nt
For exa mple , in a so l ut io n con ta i ning nI mo les of solu te a nd n 2 mole s of so lvent the mole fraction of so lut e
( xsol\l! ) and mole fractio n of solve1 t (x,. ,,.J are

The sum of the mole fract io ns of a1J compone n ts present i n the solut io n is always o ne and has no unit.

1
=1

►
Mo le fractio n of the com ponents is always te mperature in de pendent .

Thus. in a bina ry so lut io n. if we know th e mole fraction of o ne compo ne nt, the mo le fraction of the other

lit• :ti3; i1iz11 i:ts1!! 3:trll l

component can be calculated .
4 .0 g of NaOH is co ntain e d in one de cilitre of a soluti on. Calculate molality of solution and mole fraction of
NaOH . [At. wt. Na = 23 ; 0 = 16; Density of NaOH solution is 1.038 g/ cm3 ]
Explanation
(a) Calculation of molal ity o f soh.itio n
4
Mo le s o f aOH = 40 = 0.1 mole
Volwne of sol ut io n = 1 Dec11i r re = 100 ml
Weight Of 100 ml so l ut io n of de nsity 1.038 g/ cm3 = V xd = 100 x 1.038 = 103 .8 g
So, the mass of the so lve nt = mass of t he s o lut ion - ma ss of sol ute = 103. 8 - 4 = 99.8 g
Mo les of so lute
: . Mo lality = K g. of th esoI vent
38
 0.1 0. l x l 000 02
99 .8 / 1 000 = 99 .8 = 1. m
(b) Calculatio n of mol·,e fractio n of NaOH.
M ole s o f NaOH = 0.1 mo le
, 99.8 ,
Mo les o f water in 99 .8 g wate r = 18 = 5. 55 mole
X Mo le s of NaOH 01 0 1 7
Na oH = -Me-l-_so_o_f_ N_aO H+ M_elo_s_o_f_w_ a_t-e r= 0. 1 +. 5. 55 = 5. 6 5 = .O O l
(5) Mass fraction
Similar to mo le fract io n , mass fraction is defi ned as the ratio of the mass of one component (solute or
so lvent ) to the total mass of the solution (bo th components ). For a binary so lutio n contai '} g tvJo
compqnents A and B, the mass fractio ns are,
WA
Mass fraction of A = ---'-'
w A + w6

Mass fraction of B = +

C{•) :t33 4i1013=tJ!!3 :trll l l·►

WA Ws
;

Calculate mass fraction and mole fraction of ethyl alcohol and water containing 9 .2 g alcohol in 18 .0 g of
water .
Explanation
Mass of ethyl alcohol = 9 .2 g
Molecular mass of alcohol (C2 H5 0 H) = 46 g mor 1
9.2
Number of mole of alcohol in 9.2 g = 46 = 0 . 2 mo l
Mass of water = 18 g
18
So . number of moles of water= 18 = 1.0 mole

9.2 9 .2
Mass fraction of alcohol= 18+_ 9 2 = _27 2 = 0 .3 38

Mass fraction of water= 1 - 0.338 = 0.672

0.2 0.2
x.thano1= 1.0+0.2 = 1.2 =0. 1 67

Xwater = 1 - 0.167 = 0.833

(6) Formality (F)
The term formality was first of all used by Pauling to express the concentration of a solution. This is defined
as the number of gram formula weight of ionic solute present per litre of the so lutio n .
. Mol es of the ionic solute Mass of the ionic solute in gram per litre
F orma lity, F = - - - - - - - - - -
Volum e of solution in litres Formula mass of solute
For examp le, formality of a solu tio n containing 5.85 grams of common salt per litre of solution is 0.1 or the
solution is 0.1 formal.
(7) Mole percent
Mole percent for a solution may be defined as th e number of moles of a component (solute or solvent ) in
100 moles of solute plus solvent.
Mathematically,
Mole percent = Mole fraction x 100
 _c_la_ss_1x_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __________________________A.LLaM '1
.
For example, mole percent of a so lut io n con ta i ni ng 6 moles o f e th ano l in ] 4 mo le s o[ wate r is calc ula t.e d as (

,i; -
.,
6
Mo le fraction o f..et ha no l , Xc 2H5 o H = 6 + 1 4 = Q .3
The refo re, Mo le p e rce nt (e tha no l) = 0.3 x 100 = 3 0 mo le %
Classification ot'colloids on the basis of i teraction between differ n t phases
Depending upon the nat ure of interaction beh.veen dis persed phase and dispersion medium, coUoi ds are classifi e d as,

(i) Lyophillic colloids: The disp e rsed phase has great affinity for d is p e rsio n me d ium , in such cases the
disp e; s p hase doe s not easily get precipitated and the colloids are quite sta ble . The so lids obtained af ter
evaporation of the medium can be eas ily brought back lo the colloidal state by shaking the so lids with t he
dis pe rsio n medium.
The co lloi ds are thus re versible , For exam ple , gum, gela tin , starch , prote ins and certain polymers in organic
solvents. '
If water is the dispersion medium the n the co lloi d is called hydro ph illic co llo id.
(ii) Lyophobic colloids: The dispersed phase has little affinity for the dispersio n medium. These sols are ,ti-
relati veyl les s sta ble. They can be easily precipitated by addition of small amount of ele ctro l yte . Once they
are preci pitated , th ey cannot be easily brought back to the collo idal sta te .
They are thu s irre ve rsible , For examp le , gold sol and sulp hur sol , e t c . if water is used as the
dispersion med ium. The sol is called hydrolyophobic co lloi d.
Difference between Lyophillic and Lyophobic sols:

S. No. Property Lyophillic Sols Lyophobic Sols

1. Surf ace te nsio n Lowe r tha n tha t of the medium. Same as that of the med ium .
2. Viscosity Mu ch highe r tha n lhat of the Same as that of th e medium.
medi um .
3. Reversibility Re ve rsi ble Irreve rsible
·"···-- - - - · -- · - - -- ·
4. Stability Mor e s table Less sta bl e
-·
.... -- . -
5. Visi bility Par ticles can' t be detected e ven Part icles ca n be dete cte d und e r
under ult ra m.icroscupe ultra micros cope .
6. Mig ra tio n Par ticles ma y migra te in e it he r Part icles migrate e ithe r to wa rds
d ire ction or do not migrate in a n ca thcx:le or anode in an e lec tric
:g
electric fi e ld. field . C.

7. Action of Addition of s ma lle r qua ntity of Coag ula tio n tak es place .
ele ct rol e lectro l vte has li tt le eff ect.
yte
Classification on the basis of the pa rt ic les of the disp e rsed pha se
Sr. Mu)timo)ecular Colloids Macro molecu lar Colloids Associated Colloids
No.

1. The y are molecules of The y are formed by th e

e numbe r of a tom s or mole c ules generally have dia mete
la rgerssize.
less For
thanexample,
1nm. Forpolymers
example,like
solsrubbe
of gold,
r, sulphur.
ag grega tio n of larg e no. of ion in
nylo n, starch , proteins etc.
solut ion. For e xam ple , soap sot I r
/
/

2. Their molecular masses are not ve ry high

The y. have high mo le cula r Their
ma ssemo
s. l du1· r riii ss ·s are ge nera lly high . -jI
Their molecules contain be ;·,·

I
3. They
The ir atoms or mo le c ules are he ld usually have lyophobic character.
together by we a k vander waaJ's '
forces. - . :...l, _.. -

.'
lyophllllc a1lyophob ic g·.. ,;, ·
.I ..
.. . t·,- \' -. • •• . .I