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c Fluid Dynamics
The Atmosphere
ri On November 21, 1783, a hot air balloon carrying Marquis d'Arlandes, flew 5 miles across the
L skies of Paris opening up new possibilities in travel and a fresh interest in our atmosphere. It
wasn't however, until heavier-than-air flight became a reality that a detailed understanding of
the medium enveloping our globe became essential.

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases which we call air. Dry air is composed of approximately
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% carbon dioxide. These percentages remain fairly constant
as We ascend in altitude. However, the density of air decreases. This drop in density with
altitude has great significance in aviation as it not only places limits on the attainable altitudes,
but also the powerplant performance of an aircraft.

The mapping out of our atmosphere, that is, determining its density, pressure, and temperature
at different altitudes, required the effort of many individuals working over many years. The fruit
of this labour is a vast quantity of data which has led to the definition of a standard atmosphere.
The standard atmosphere, a term coined by Willis Ray Gregg in 1922, is a compilation of mean
annual atmospheric properties. Since our atmosphere undergoes seasonal variations in
properties such as temperature, a mean or average value is used. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 are two
tables of values for the standard atmosphere. The first table (table 2.6) gives values in English
o units and the second (table 2.7) in metric units. It must be kept in mind that the numbers in
these tables are annual averages which can be useful for reference purposes but do not

o indicate the actual atmospheric conditions existing at any particular moment.

EXAMPLE:

o Using the Gas Law and the temperature and pressure at an altitude of 12,000 meters listed in
the Standard Atmosphere Table (table 2.5), verify that the density of air at this altitude is 0.312
kg/m 3 .
We will use the equation
P
p=-
RT

19.4 kPa

u p = (287 Pa m 3 /kg K)(217 K)

=0.312 kg/m 3
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Cabin Altitude
Cabin altitude is a term used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above n
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sea level. For example, a cabin altitude of 6,000 feet means that the pressure inside the aircraft
cabin is the same as the atmospheric pressure at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Looking at the
Standard Atmosphere Table (table 2.6), the pressure is found to be 1,696 Ibs/ft2 which upon
division by 144 gives the pressure in Iblin 2 to be 11.78 Ibslin2

At a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet, the passengers and crew can ride in relative comfort without
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any special oxygen supply. Planes which fly at much higher altitudes than 8,000 feet must be
furnished with a special atmosphere control system. It is highly advantageous to fly at high
altitudes both for economy of fuel consumption, and the smooth air high above the level of
turbulent weather systems. At these high altitudes, the pressure outside the plane can be
significantly lower than the cabin pressure. n,
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At 8,000 ft., the Standard Atmosphere Table tells us that the air pressure is 1,572 Ibs/W or
10.921bs/in2 This is the pressure that is normally maintained in the cabin even though the plane
is flying at a higher altitude. n
Suppose the plane is flying at an altitude of 40,000 ft. At this altitude the pressure (from the II
table 5-1) is 393 Ibs/ft2 or 2.73 Ibslin2 This means that for a cabin altitude of 8,000 ft. for a plane !J
flying at 40,000 ft., there is a net outward pressure of 8.19 Ibs/in 2 This number was obtained by
subtracting 2.73 Ibs/in2 from 10.92. For a Learjet with a pressurized area of 45,000 in 2, we are
dealing with a bursting force of over 368,000 Ibs. (8.19 x 45 thousand). in addition to being able
to withstand this much force, a safety factor of 1.33 is generally used by design engineers.
Therefore, the pressurized portion of the fuselage must be constructed to have an ultimate
strength of over 460 thousand pounds or about 230 tons. The challenge of finding lightweight
materials which can withstand these large forces is great.
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In the description of an aircraft's air conditioning and pressurization system, a differential
pressure is given. The differential pressure is the maximum difference between cabin pressure
and atmospheric pressure which the pressurization system can sustain. For example, the air-
cycle air-conditioning system of a Boeing 747 can maintain a pressure differential of 8.9 Ibs/in2
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This means that the system can maintain a cabin pressure 8.9 Ibs/in2 greater than the
atmospheric pressure surrounding the plane. This also means that there is an upper limit
imposed by the pressurization system on the altitude at which the plane can fly.
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[J Standard Atmosphere - English Units

[l Altitude Temperature Pressure Density

I I
u (ft.) (OR) (Ib./Fe) (Slug/Fe)

[1u 0 519 2,116 0.002377

500 517 2,078 0.002342
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U 1,000 515 2,041 0.002308
2,000 512 1,968 0.002241
II
U 3,000 508 1,897 0.002175
4,000 504 1,828 0.002111
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U 5,000 501 1,761 0.002048
6,000 497 1,696 0.001987
U 7,000 494 1,633 0.001927
8,000 490 1,572 0.001869
0 9,000 487 1,513 0.001811
10,000 484 1,456 0.001756
0 15,000 465 1,195 0.001496
20,000 447 973 0.001267
0 25,000 430
\
786 0.001066
30,000 412 630 0.000891
D 35,000 394 499 0.000738
40,000 390 393 0.000585
C 45,000 390 309 0.000462
50,000 390 244 0.000364
rl
U 55,000 390 192 0.000287
60,000 390 151 0.000226
C 65,000 390 119 0.000178
- .

0 Table 2.6: Quantities within the Standard Atmosphere (English Units)

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Standard Atmosphere - Metric Units n

Altitude
(M)
Temperature
(K)
Pressure
(kPa)
Density
(kg/m 3 ) n
0
100
288
288
101.3
100.1
1.225
1.213
n
200
300
400
287
286
286
98.9
97.8
96.6
1.202
1.190
1.179
n
500
600
285
284
95.5
94.3
1.167
1.156
n
700
800
900
284
283
282
93.2
92.1
91.0
1.145
1.134
1.123
n
1,000
1,500
282
278
89.9
84.6
1.112
1.058
n
2,000 275 79.5 1.007
2,500
3,000
272
269
74.7
70.1
0.957
0.909
J
3,500
4,000
265
262
65.8
61.7
0.863
0.819
n
4,500
5,000
5,500
259
256
252
57.8
54.0
50.5
0.777
0.736
0.697
n
6,000
6,500
249
246
47.2
44.1
0.660
0.624
0
7,000
7,500
8,000
243
239
236
41.1
38.3
35.7
0.590
0.557
0.526
n
8,500
9,000
233
230
33.2
30.8
0.496
0.467 n
9,500 227 28.6 0.439 n
10,000 223 26.5 0.414 ; J
12,000 217 19.4 0.312
14,000
16,000
217
217
14.2
10.4
0.228
0.166 0
18,000 217 7.57 0.122 '"l
20,000 217 5.53 0.0889 [I
22,000 217 4.04 0.0650
Table 2.7: Quantities within the Standard Atmosphere (Metric Units) n
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Humidity
o Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere.
It is the condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain,

o snow, dew, frost and fog. There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this
limit varies with temperature. When the air contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for
a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated. Warm air can hold more vapour than
cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the possible water
vapour.

o The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a
packet of air is usually denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that
the water vapour exerts. This is the absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured
by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the mass of vapour in saturated air at the
e
same temperature. For example, air at 10 0 contains 9.4 g/m 3 (grams per cubic metre) of water
vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m 3 of water vapour, then
the relative humidity is 50%.

When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a

o temperature at which it is saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to
condensation of the excess water vapour. The temperature at which condensation sets in is
called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity can be calculated from
lJ readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry bulb or standard
air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an
ordinary thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an
o absorbent wick dipped into water. Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature
of the thermometer. The difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate

o the various measures of humidity.

Definitions

Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water
vapour in a given parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter
,1
u Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel.
Water in a gaseous state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air.

o Vapour pressure is also measured in Millibars.

Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atmosphere, the change of water

o vapour to liquid water.

Dewpoint: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The

o dewpoint temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air.

o Use and/or disclosure is

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Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below.

Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice.

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Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour.

Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water.

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Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the
parcel (not including water vapour).

Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of
o
water vapour the air can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and can be
computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide the actual vapour pressure by the saturation
n
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vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent.

Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the
maximum possible at the existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sUblimation will
n
begin if the temperature falls or water vapour is added to the air.

Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules
o
would exert if the air were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour
pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. n
Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the total mass of the air in
the parcel (including water vapour). n
Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the
change of ice directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the
vapour to solid phase change as "deposition."

Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into
o
the air at constant pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the
bulb of a mercury thermometer and then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates.
Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will cool to a lower temperature than a
n
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thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures can be used
along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity. o
n
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2-178 Module 2.2 Mechanics

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o 1. Verify, that using the Gas Law (p = P/RT) and the temperature and pressure from the
Standard Atmosphere Table, at an altitude of 65,000 ft., the density of air is 0.000178
flu slug/ft. 3

o 2. A pressurized Cessna Centurion II has a cabin pressurization system which can maintain
a pressure differential of 3.45 Ibs/in2 What is the maximum altitude at which the plane
can fly and still maintain a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet?

o (Hint: convert the of 3.45 Ibs/in2 to Ibs/ft2 and compare with the Standard Atmosphere
table)
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cabin altitude of 6,000 ft?

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Answers
o 2. About 18,000 ft

o 3. About 14,000 ft

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Density and Specific Gravity

Density
The density of a material is defined as the mass of a sample of the material divided by the
volume of the same sample. The symbol used for density is the Greek letter rho, (p).

o p= -
m
V
o Other algebraic forms of this same equation are:

c m = pV and V=-
m
P
Density is a very important and useful concept. If a body is made of a certain kind of material its
density is known. If the weight of the body is also known, it is possible to determine the volume
of this body. Similarly, if the kind of material and volume are known it is possible to determine
the weight of the body.
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dealing with mass, weight, and volume.

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Densities of Liquids and Solids

Liquids Kg/m 3
Slug/ft3 Metals Kg/m 3
Slug/ft3
n
Water
Sea Water
1000
1030
1.940
2.00
Aluminium
Cast Iron
2700
7200
5.25
14.0
n
Benzine
Alcohol
879
789
1.71
1.53
Copper
Gold
8890
19300
17.3
37.5
n
Gasoline 680 1.32 Lead 11340 22.0 n
. J

Kerosene 800 1.55 Nickel 8850 17.2 ,..,

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Sulphuric Acid 1831 3.55 Silver 10500 20.4 ·~.l

Mercury 13600 26.3 Steel 7800 15.1

Non-Metals
Tungsten
Zinc
19000
7140
37.0
13.9
n
Ice (32°F, OOC)
Concrete 2300
922 1.79
4.48
Brass 8700 16.9 n
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Glass 2,600 4.97 Woods •. .1

Granite 2700 5.25 Balsa 130 0.25

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Pine 480 0.93
Maple 640 1.24 IL j
Oak 720 1.4
Ebony 1200
,...,
2.33
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Table 2.8: Comparison of densities - Liquids and solids
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; EXAMPLE:
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An order has been placed for 120 gal. of lubricating oil. How much will this oil weigh?

1ft3
V=120galx =16.0ft3
o 7.481 gal

p=1.75 sl~g
ft

The density of the lubricating oil has been obtained from table 2-1.

m = pV

W 150lbs
m=- = = 4.69 slug
g 32 Ibs/slug

W = mg = (28 slugs) 32 IbS) = 896 Ibs

( slug

EXAMPLE:

An order has been placed for 150 Ibs. of turpentine. How many gallons of turpentine will be
delivered?

o W
m=- =
g
150lbs
32 Ibs/slug
= 4.69 slug

u 4.69 slug = 2 78 ft3

1.69 slug/ft 3 .

v = 2.78 ft3 x 7.481 gal = 20.8 gal

1ft

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Specific Gravity
The term "specific gravity" is closely related to the idea of density. The definition is as follows:

·f· G ·t density of the substance

Speci IC ravi y =
density of water

The calculation will give the same result (for a given substance) no matter what units are used.
The example below will calculate the specific gravity of sulphuric acid (see table 2.8).

If we use the metric units (kg/m 3) we obtain:

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S peci·f·IC G ravi·ty = --'---
1,831 1.83 I J
1,000

If we use the English units (slug/fe) we obtain:

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Specific Gravity = 3.55 = 1.83

1.94 :I
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The specific gravity number (1.83) is unitless. It tells us that, for sulphuric acid, the density is
1.83 times as dense as water.
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1. What is the specific gravity of kerosene?
LJ 2. What is the specific gravity of aluminium?

3. What is the specific gravity of ice?

4. What is the specific gravity of glass?

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5. What is the weight of 85 gallons of kerosene?

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Answers
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1. 0.8
2. 2.7

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3. 0.922
4. 2.6
5. 544 Ibs. or 3029 N (Hint: Calculate weight of water, 1 litre = 1kg, or 1 pint = 1 Ib, then
convert to kerosene by multiplying by its specific gravity of 0.8)
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Compressibility in Fluids
Fluids are defined as any substance which flows readily. Gases and liquids are such
substances

Gases
,co')
I '. A gas is relatively easy to compress, and the effects of which have already been discussed in
,r .• the chapter on Pressure and Force.
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Liquids
Many people think that a liquid is incompressible. However, liquids are, like any material, to a
certain amount compressible. In calculations, the amount of compressibility of liquid is
considered to be 1 volume-% per 100 bar. This means that for example when there is liquid
supplied to a 200 litre oil drum which already is completely filled with liquid, the pressure
increases with 100 bar for each 2 litre of extra supplied liquid. When we supply 3 litre of extra oil
the pressure increases with 150 bar. The compressibility of liquid plays a key role in for example
fast hydraulic systems like servo-systems of a flight simulator. To obtain a maximum dynamic
performance, the compressibility should be as little as possible. This is achieved by mounting
the control valves directly on the hydraulic motor or cylinder. In that case the amount of liquid
between the control valve and the motor/cylinder is minimised.

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In some situations, the compressibility of liquids is made use of in design. A 'liquid spring' for
l..J example, is the principle of a particular type of landing gear leg, which uses no gas. The leg is
completely filled with oil. The oil is compressed under the extremely large forces encountered
on landing, and the shock of the landing is absorbed by the compressibility of the liquid.

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Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to being deformed by either shear stress or
extensional stress. It is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow. Viscosity
describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick" having a
higher viscosity. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid
which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

o The study of viscosity is known as rheology.

Viscosity coefficients
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When looking at a value for viscosity, the number that one most often sees is the coefficient of
viscosity. There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on the nature of applied
stress and nature of the fluid.
(I
I ;
I~'
• Dynamic viscosity determines the dynamics of an incompressible fluid;
• Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density;
• Volume viscosity determines the dynamics of a compressible fluid;
• Bulk viscosity is the same as volume viscosity
fi Shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity are much better known than the others. That is why they
\J
are often referred to as simply viscosity. Simply put, this quantity is the ratio between the
pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in
velocity of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is what is referred to as a velocity
gradient). For example, at "room temperature", water has a nominal viscosity of 1.0 x 10-3 Pa's
and motor oil has a nominal apparent viscosity of 250 x 10-3 Pa·s.

Viscosity Measurement
n
I I
'-'
Dynamic viscosity is measured with various types of viscometer. Close temperature control of
the fluid is essential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose
viscosity can double with a change of only 5°C. For some fluids, it is a constant over a wide
range of shear rates. These are Newtonian fluids.

The fluids without a constant viscosity are called Non-Newtonian fluids. Their viscosity cannot
f1 be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations
I'-' ! between shear stress and shear rate.

One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary
viscometer.

11 In paint industries, viscosity is commonly measured with a Zahn cup, in which the efflux time is
LJ determined and given to customers. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic
viscosities (cSt) through the conversion equations.

Also used in paint, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine
viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer
viscometers.
ru 1

u Use andfor disclosure is

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 u
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Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. These models use vibration rather
than rotation to measure viscosity. n
Units of Measure

Viscosity (dynamic/absolute viscosity)

n
Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The symbol for viscosity is the Greek
symbol eta (f]), and dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to using the Greek symbol mu
(J.l). The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa's), which is identical to
n
1 kg'/(m s) (kilogram per metre-second). If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pa·s is placed between
two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one pascal, it moves a
distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one second.

Kinematic viscosity
n,
,
t .. J

In many situations, we are concerned with the ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force, the
latter characterised by the fluid density p. This ratio is characterised by the kinematic viscosity
(v), defined as follows:
n
"
j.t
1/ = -
P.

where J.l is the (dynamic) viscosity, and p is the density. n

:I
L_

Kinematic viscosity (Greek symbol: v) has SI units (m 2 ./ s). The cgs physical unit for kinematic
viscosity is the stokes (abbreviated S or St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is
sometimes expressed in terms of centistokes (cS or cSt). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes
used as the singular form.

1 stokes = 100 centistokes = 1 cm 2 /s = 0.0001 m2/s.

=
1 centistokes 1 mm 2/s

Viscosity of air
n
h
The viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. At 15.0 °C, the viscosity of air is
; I'
1.78 x 10-5 kg/(m·s). '.,

Viscosity of water
The viscosity of water is 8.90 x 10-4 Pa·s at about 25°C.

n
J
n
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o Drag and Streamlining

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a
solid object through a fluid (a liquid or gas). Drag is made up of friction forces, which act in a
direction parallel to the object's surface (primarily along its sides, as friction forces at the front
and back cancel themselves out), plus pressure forces, which act in a direction perpendicular to
the object's surface. For a solid object moving through a fluid or gas, the drag is the sum of all
the aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces in the direction of the external fluid flow. (Forces
perpendicular to this direction are considered lift). It therefore acts to oppose the motion of the
object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust.

Types of drag are generally divided into three categories: profile drag (called 'parasitic' drag in
USA), lift-induced drag (also known as vortex drag or induced drag), and wave drag. Profile
drag includes form drag, skin friction, and interference drag. Lift-induced drag is only relevant
when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed only in the aviation
perspective of drag. Wave drag occurs when a solid object is moving through a fluid at or near
the speed of sound in that fluid. The overall drag of an object is characterized by a
dimensionless number called the drag coefficient, and is calculated using the drag equation.
,1 '
1 Assuming a constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity. Thus, the
L; resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity. The standard
equation for drag is one half the coefficient of drag multiplied by the fluid density, the cross
i" I sectional area of the specified item, and the square of the velocity.
LJ
Wind resistance or air resistance is a layman's term used to describe drag. Its use is often
f!
vague, and is usually used in a relative sense (e.g., A badminton shuttlecock has more wind
lJ resistance than a squash ball).

Stokes's Drag
The equation for viscous resistance or linear drag is appropriate for small objects or particles
moving through a fluid at relatively slow speeds where there is no turbulence. In this case, the
n
u
force of drag is approximately proportional to velocity, but opposite in direction. The equation for
viscous resistance is:

Viscous resistance =- bv
r-I
LJ where:
b is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of
the object, and
v is the velocity of the object.

For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid, George
Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the drag constant,

B =6n r] r
where:
r is the Stokes radius of the particle, and r] is the fluid viscosity.

n
u Use andfor disclosure is
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.
For example, consider a small sphere with radius r = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 IJm)
moving through water at a velocity v of 10 IJm/s. Using 10-3 Pa's as the dynamic viscosity of
water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.28 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium
experiences as it swims through water.

Drag Coefficient
The drag coefficient (Cd) is a dimensionless quantity that describes a characteristic amount of
aerodynamic drag caused by fluid flow, used in the drag equation. Two objects of the same
frontal area moving at the same speed through a fluid will experience a drag force proportional
to their Cd numbers. Coefficients for rough unstreamlined objects can be 1 or more, for smooth
objects much less.

Aerodynamic drag =Cd % P V2 A

Where
=
Cd drag coefficient (dimensionless)
p = fluid density (slug/fe or kg/m 3 )
V = Velocity of object (ft/s or m/s)
A = projected frontal area (ft2 or m2) n
u
The drag equation is essentially a statement that, under certain conditions, the drag force on
any object is approximately proportional to the square of its velocity through the fluid. n
l J

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
o Ps •
PRESSURE

n
i I
:. J

.... 'l
iJ
'-._-

·
· • l
. ·
. l J

.• ..
'
o Ps
PRESSURE
Ii
(I
l . .J

Figure 2.67: Effect of airflow on a flat plate

2-196
n
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n
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A Cd equal to 1 would be obtained in a case where all of the fluid'approaching the object is
brought to rest, building up stagnation pressure over the whole front surface. Figure 2.67 (top)
shows a flat plate with the fluid coming from the right and stopping at the plate. The graph to the
left of it shows equal pressure across the surface. In a real flat plate the fluid must turn around
the sides, and full stagnation pressure is found only at the centre, dropping off toward the edges
as in the lower figure and graph. The Cd of a real flat plate would be less than 1, except that
there will be a negative pressure (relative to ambient) on the back surface.

Some examples of Cd
Object Cd
fi A smooth brick 2.1
I r
U A bicycle plus rider 0.9
A rough sphere 0.4
r) A smooth sphere 0.1
L.J A flat plate parallel to the flow 0.001
A bullet 0.295
A man (upright position) 1.0-1.3
A flat plate perpendicular to flow 1.28
A skier 1.0-1.1
Wires and cables 1.0-1.3

r1 Drag coefficients of some complete aircraft

U Aircraft type Cd

o Cessna 172/182
Cessna 310
Learjet 24
Boeing 747
0.027
0.027
0.022
n 0.031
U X-15 0.95

Streamlining
C Streamlining is the shaping of an object, such asan aircraft body or wing, to reduce the amount
of drag or resistance to motion through a stream of air. A curved shape allows air to flow
r
I f
smoothly around it. A flat shape fights air flow and causes more drag or resistance. Streamlining
I
~
!
reduces the amount of resistance and increases lift.

o To produce less resistance, the front of the object should be well rounded and the body should
gradually curve back from the midsection to a tapered rear section.

Figure 2.68 shows how the drag of a flat plate can be reduced if its shape is changed to a
sphere, and more still if it is streamlined with fairings.

(I
I i
~
Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-197
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n
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Integrated Training System
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n
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.~

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Figure 2.68: Streamlining of an object reduces its drag

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2-198 Module 2.2 Mechanics

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Bernoulli's Principle

n Basic Definitions
I i
U Before we begin our discussion of the lift and drag on an aircraft wing, the following definitions
must be understood.
r"!
,, : ,

U The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures a fluid velocity by converting the
kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at the stagnation
.r!, point, located at the Pitot tube entrance (Figure 2.69). A pressure higher than the free-stream
U (i.e. dynamic pressure) results from this conversion.

This static pressure is measured at the static taps (known as static ports or vents). The static
pressure is not affected by the speed of the aircraft, but is dependant upon the surrounding
atmospheric static pressure.

Pitot Pressure is the sum of static and dynamic pressures, thus:

Pitot Pressure =Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

(i
u Streamlines Static taps ."
_ ...._ _ _ _~_ .. (several, equally
_ ...: _ _ _ _ _:::.:===~~~:~~~,~~~~mferenCe)

Cl
I -
w
~
o Stagnation point f. iF
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~ .

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~ ". . 1 "
_ 1J
("",
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:' 1i Differential
L-J
: ) linometer
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\LJ' ii ot
_ / /\

'<,~~
Figure 2.69: A combined Pitot tube and static taps

Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-199

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Bernoulli's Principle applies the ideas of work and energy and the conservation of energy to a
mass of fluid (liquid or gas). Since it is not as easy to think of a mass of fluid as it is to think of a
discrete body, the derivation of this principle requires some thought and effort.

It is worth the thought and effort, however, since this principle is the basic principle of the flight
of heavier-than-air aircraft.

We review that the density of a fluid (p) is related to the mass and volume of the sample of fluid
n
u
by the relation:

m=pV

V - AL
n
l J

,,
,
/
I
I
n
I. L .. I
Figure 2.70: A volume of fluid
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<..-1

'""
• I
,J

Figure 2.71: Fluid flowing through a tube of increasing cross sectional area
'""l
· ,
The fluid flows from a region where the cross-sectional area is less (labelled with 1's in the di- LJ
agram) to a region where the cross-sectional area is greater (labelled with 2's in the diagram).
We assume that the volume of fluid in the left cylindrical shape of fluid (labelled with 1's) is ·1
equal to the volume of fluid in the right cylindrical shape of fluid (labelled with 2's). ·.
·.
• 0

Hence, the volume flow rate in any part of the tube is constant, regardless of the tube diameter. 1l
• I
And, since the density of the fluid is constant (and air flowing at subsonic speed is considered I J
incompressible) than the mass flow rate is also constant, regardless of the diameter of the tube.
If
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\ , . .1
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The Venturi Tube

r1
I, A venturi tube is a tube constructed in such a way that the cross sectional area of the tube
w
changes from a larger area to a smaller area and finally back to the same larger area. As a fluid
flows through this tube the velocity of the fluid changes from a lower velocity to a higher velocity
I; and finally back to the same lower velocity. We note that, if the rate (volume per second) of fluid
Ll
flow is to remain constant, the fluid must flow faster when it is flowing through the smaller area.

A diagram of a venturi tube is shown in figure 2.72.

LOWER
PRESSURE

~1

I '
I I
'--'

(i
. ,
o
Figure 2.72: A venturi tube
'--'
The height of the fluid column in the vertical tubes at the three places shown in the diagram, is
an indication of the fluid pressure. As we expect from Bernoulli's Principle, the pressure is
greater where the velocity is lower and vice versa.

Venturi tubes in different shapes and sizes are often used in aircraft systems.

If we consider the types of energy involved in the flowing fluid, we find that there are three types
ilw - potential (gravitational), pressure and kinetic energies.

Now if we consider only two positions in the venturi - the wide part (marked '1 ') and the narrow
c: part (the throat, marked '2'), and consider the conservation of energy principle, we have:
U
ri
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Potential Energy at 1
+
Potential Energy at 2
+
Pressure Energy at 1 = Pressure Energy at 2
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+ +
U Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2

r"
. r
The above is assumed since the total energy in the fluid cannot change, only transferred from
LJ
one form to another. This then, is the basis for Bernoulli's Formula.

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il 2-201
u Use and/or disclosure is
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n
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Since the venturi in this case is horizontal, there in no change in potential energy, and so the :-;
potential energies can be cancelled from the formula thus: , I
u
Pressure Energy at 1 Pressure Energy at 2 ,I!
I

+ = + U
Kinetic energy at 1 Kinetic energy at 2

Since Kinetic Energy is 1 V 2 where m = mass of fluid, and V = velocity of fluid

-m
2
P
and Pressure energy is m-
p
where P = pressure, p = density of the fluid
n
Thus: rj
, I
, J
P 1 V
m-' + -m 2
= + ~mV 2
p 2 ' 2 2
n
,:.....\
Note that the mass, m, has no suffix, since the mass flow rate is constant regardless of the area
of the flow. The density, p, is also a constant since the fluid is considered incompressible (even
air, providing its velocity is subsonic).

Cancelling the mass, m, from each equation, and multiplying each term by the density, p, gives 1
: !
c •
us

=
I, I
L)

This is the standard mathematical form of the Bernoulli's Equation. It can be rearranged to give
the pressure difference (for example between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing) thus: 1I J

Factorising gives:

!"J(L, __

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o Application of Bernoulli's Principle to Aerofoil Sections
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u The relative wind direction is the direction of the

airflow with respect to the wing and is opposite to
I'
I ! the path of flight (figure 2.73).
Lf

The chord line of a wing is a straight line con-

necting the leading edge of a wing to its trailing
edge (figure 2.74).
Figure 2.73: Relative wind

rCHORD LINE
A___ J[_~
fi
L.i
. ---8

Figure 2.74: Chord line

Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord line

of a wing and the relative wind direction (figure 2.75).

11 Figure 2.76 shows the cross section of a wing at rest

G and subject to atmospheric pressure which on the
average is 14.7 Ibs'/in. 2
r~

I! ANGLE OF
u Figure 2.75: ATTACK
Angle of attack

A force of 14.7 Ibs. can be imagined as acting perpendicular

rl
\ i
to every square inch of the wing. The resultant of these 14.7
L.; Ibs. force vectors is zero and therefore has no effect on the
dynamics of the plane.
Ii
U Figure 2.76: Pressure forces on
an aerofoil
fi
u
It is the motion of air past the wing that alters the pressure pattern. Whether the wing is in
rl
i ! motion through the air or the air is flowing past a stationary wing the result is the same.
, ,
u
For example, if a plane is moving through stationary air at a speed of 200 MPH, the effect is the
,ri, same (as far as the plane and air are concerned) as if the plane were stationary and the air was
'--' moving with velocity 200 MPH past the plane.
r~
. I
There is a thin layer of air in direct contact with the wing surface, which, due to skin friction, is
U actually stationary (relative to the wing). This is called the boundary layer; In these

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n
, I
i J

discussions we will disregard the boundary layer and assume that the airflow is unaffected by (j
friction.
As air streams past the wing of a plane, the speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing
LJ
is greater than the speed of the air past the lower surface of the wing.
These exact speeds are determined by the shape of the wing and the angle of attack.

For example, if the speed of the relative wind (equal to the speed of the plane) is 200 MPH, the
speed of the air past the upper surface of the wing may be 210 MPH and the speed of air past
n
,~ )
the lower surface of the wing may be 195 MPH. As indicated above, the exact values for a given
case depend on the shape of the wing and the angle of attack.

In this example, we could say that the speed past the upper surface of the wing is [1.05 (200
MPH)] and the speed past the lower surface if the wing is [0.975 (200 MPH)].

In figure 2.77, the following symbols apply: 1

I ,
{J
P1 = pressure on the upper surface of the wing -
YO~~
P1
P2 = pressure on the lower surface of the wing ~ A>8
Vo = relative wind velocity V2 P2
V1 = Wind velocity over upper surface
V2 = Wind velocity over lower surface Figure 2.77: Velocities and pressures
p = density of the air above and below an aerofoil

We apply Bernoulli's principle n

! I
t J

i1
We note that the ones refer to the upper surface and the twos apply to the lower surface of the U
wing.
n
U

When finding the lift on a wing, the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces is
found from the above equation, and, since Force = Pressure x Area, simply multiply the
calculated pressure difference by the area of the wing, thus:
nJ
i
I.

and Lift (or Force) = tlP x Area

Lift =tlP x Area

,'I
, I
(Note: In some questions, the weight of the aircraft will be quoted. Thus, if the aircraft is flying l J
straight and level, the Lift = Weight).

2-204 Module 2.2 Mechanics

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Problems
i'
U 1. An aeroplane having wing area 500 ft2 is moving at 300 ftlsec. The speed of the air
moving past the top surface of the wing is 400 ftlsec. and the speed of the air past the
bottom surface of the wing is 200 ftlsec. The density of the air is 0.0025 sluglft3 . What is
the lift?
r:
u 2. An aeroplane having wing area 400 tt2 is cruising at 230 ftlsec. The speed of the air
moving past the top surface of the wing is 240 ftlsec and the speed of the air past the
n bottom surface of the wing is 230 ftlsec. The density of the air is 0.0025 sluglft3 . What is
!
,...-'
i. the weigffi of the aeroplane?

n 3. An aeroplane is cruising at 310 ftlsec. The speed of the air moving past the top surface
I ,
U of the wing is 340 ftlsec and the speed of the air past the bottom surface of the wing is
300 fUsee. The density of the air is 0.001 slug/ft3 The weight of the aeroplane is 12,800
Ibs. What is the wing area?

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Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-205

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2-206 Module 2_2 Mechanics

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o Answers
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1. 75,000 Ibs.
11 2. 23501bs.
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3. 1000 ft2

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