1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. Applications of phonetics.

2. Aspects of the sound matter of language.

4. English is a non-phonetic language. International Phonetic Alphabet.
6. British and American pronunciation models. Most distinctive features
of BBC English and Network English.
7. The articulatory classification of English vowels.
8. The articulatory classification of English consonants.
9. Phoneme as many-sided dialectic unity of language. Types of allophones.
Distinctive and irrelevant features of the phoneme.
10. The System of Vowel Phonemes in English. Problem of diphthongs.
11. The system on consonant phonemes in English. Problem of affricates.
12. Modifications of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation.
Elision.
13. Modifications of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation.
Accomodation.
14. Modifications of vowels in connected speech. Reduction. Accomodation.
15. Linking patterns.
18. Word stress in English. Its nature and function.
19. The degrees and position of word stress.
20. Intonation and prosody: definition, functions, components, spheres of
application.
21. Intonation and prosody: intonation patterns.
22. The framework for intonation.
24. Phonostylistics. Types and styles of pronunciation in English.
1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. Applications of phonetics.
Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. Phonetics studies the outer
form of language; its sound matter – so, the sound system of the language, that is segmental phonemes, word
stress, syllabic structure and intonation. Phonetics occupies itself with the study of the ways in which the
sounds are organized into a system of units and the variation of the units in all types and styles of spoken
language.
Phonetics is a basic branch of linguistics. Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic practice can do without
phonetics.
Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches: articulatory, acoustic, auditory, functional /phonological
Articulatory Phonetics : the study of how speech sounds are made or articulated
Acoustic Phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech sounds such as sound waves in the air
Auditory Phonetics deals with the perception of speech sounds via the ear
Functional Phonetics presupposes investigating the distinctive function of speech sounds.
Applications of phonetics
Phonetics is naturally connected with other linguistic disciplines, such as grammar, lexicology, stylistics,
dialectology and sociolinguistic. Also, phonetics is related to a number of non-linguistic sciences which
study the processes of speech production and speech perception.

2. Aspects of the sound matter of language.

Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. Speech chain

The formation of the concept takes place in the brain of a speaker-psychological. The message formed
within the brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore, we may say that
the human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in producing a particular
pattern of speech sounds-physiological. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus
producing sound waves-physical or acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as well as a
speaker. So the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's hearing physiological
apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message through the nervous system to the brain and the linguistic
interpretation of the information conveyed. The sound phenomena have different aspects:
(a) the articulatory aspect; studies sound waves.
(b) the acoustic aspect; The human ear transforms mechanical vibrations of the air into nervous and
transmits them to brain.
(c) the auditory (perceptive) aspect; Phonemes, syllables, stress, and intonation are linguistic phenomena.

4. English is a non-phonetic language. International Phonetic Alphabet.

A phonetic language means that the written words have same pronounciation. But it is not in the case of
English. It is not a Phonetic language. It has no relation in spellings and pronouncation of the word. For
example, in the word knife “k” is not pronounced.
Some words can have the same spelling but different pronunciation, for example:
· I like to read [ri:d].
· I have read [red] that book.
Some words have different spelling but the same pronunciation, for example:
· I have read [red] that book.
· My favourite colour is red [red].
The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the
Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of
the sounds of oral language.
Transcription in English was established to assist in the reading of words (as many words are read and often
are pronounced not as written. The emphasis in English is celebrated in British dictionaries in the
transcription. Thus it is necessary to bear in mind that the correct application of accent may change the
meaning of the word.
content ['kɔntent] содержание, суть [kən'tent] удовлетворённость, довольство.

6. British and American pronunciation models. Most distinctive features of BBC English and Network
English.
Nowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-speaking world: British English and
American English.
In the first edition of English Pronouncing Dictionary (1917), Daniel Jones defined the type of pronunciation
recorded as "Public School Pronunciation" (PSP). He had by 1926, however, abandoned the term PSP in
favour of "Received Pronunciation" (RP). The type of speech he had in mind was not restricted to London
and the Home Counties, however being characteristic by the nineteenth century of upper-class speech
throughout the country. A more broadly-based and accessible model accent for British English is
represented in the 15th (1997) and the 16th (2003) editions – ВВС English. This is the pronunciation of
professional speakers employed by the BBC as newsreaders and announcers. One finds differences between
such speakers - they have their own personal characteristics, and an increasing number of broadcasters with
Scottish, Welsh and Irish accents are employed.

Network English, in its most colourless form, can be described as a relatively homogeneous dialect that
reflects the ongoing development of progressive American dialects. This "dialect" itself contains some
variant forms. The variants involve vowels before [r], possible differences in words like cot and caught and
some vowels before [l]. It is fully rhotic. These differences largely pass unnoticed by the audiences for
Network English, and are also reflective of age differences. What are thought to be the more progressive
(used by educated, socially mobile, and younger speakers) variants are considered as first variants. J.C.
Wells prefers the term General American. This is what is spoken by the majority of Americans, namely
those who do not have a noticeable eastern or southern accent.
1. Normal – a standard pronunciation adopted by native speakers as the right and proper way of speaking. It
comprises the variants of pronunciation which reflect the main tendencies, excising in the language. It is the
pronunciation used by the educated people. It is recorded in pronunciation dictionaries as the best, taught at
schools, on the radio. So its official.
2. RP – is based on the southern way of pronunciation but it has developed new features. They have given it
non regional character. It means there is no area in Great Britain to which it native. It spoken in all the
regions. Only few people speak it.
3. The Northern regional type. It has features that are common for all northern English dialects. The vowel
[a] is more open and retracted back
4. Scottish type – [r] is not only in the end (sister) but also in the middle (burn). All the vowels are short.
5. Cockney – London dialect. It has been used for many centuries. Nasalized vowels (like in French). Slang
language. [G] is always pronounced (morninG).

7. The articulatory classification of English vowels.

- Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no obstruction in the mouth, pharyngeal and
nasal cavities.
- On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes changes:
1. in the stability of articulation
2. in the tongue position
3. in the lip position
4. in their length
5. Tenseness (long – tense, short – lax)
6. Character of vowel end
The stability of articulation
All English vowels are divided into 3 groups: monophthongs, diphthongs, diphthongoids.
Monophthongs are vowels the articulation of which is almost stable. They are – [i e ǽ a: o o: U Λ ə: ə ].
In the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one
syllable. The starting point, the nucleus, is strong and distinct. They are – [ei ai oi au əu iə εə uə]
In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the changing of articulation is fairly weak, the difference between the
starting point and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs. They are – [i: u:]
Tongue Position
The tongue may move forward, backward, up, down, thus changing the quality of vowels.
1. Front. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of the tongue is raised to the
hard palate a front vowel is pronounced. They are – [i: e ǽ]
2. Front-retracted. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted and the part of the
tongue nearer to the centre than to front is raised, a front-retracted vowel is pronounced. It is – [i].
3. Central. When the front of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate the vowel is called
central. They are – [Λ ə: ə].
4. Back. When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate
a back vowel is pronounced. They are – [a: o o: u:].
5. Back-advanced. When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but is slightly advanced and the central
part of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back-advanced vowel is pronounced. It is – [U].
Moving up and down in the mouth the tongue may be raised to different height towards the roof of the
mouth.
1. High or close. When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high towards the palate the vowel is
called close (or high). They are – [ i: I u u:].
2. Low or open. When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth open vowels are
pronounced. They are – [ǽ a: o o:].
3. Mid or mid-open. When the highest part of the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the
close and the open one mid vowels are pronounced. They are – [e Λ ə: ə].
Lip Position
When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded. They are – [i: i e ǽ a: Λ ə: ə].
When the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round the vowel is called
rounded. They are – [o o: u u:].
Vowel Length
All English vowels are divided into long and short vowels.
Long vowels are – [i: a: o: u: ə:]
Short vowels are – [i e o u Λ ə]

character of vowel end

The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by the following
consonant of the same syllable.If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong voiceless consonant, it is cut off
by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong, and the vowel is called checked. Such vowels are heard in
stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant, e.g. better, cart.
If a vowel is followed by a weak voiced consonant or by no consonant at all, the end of it is very weak, and
the vowel is called free. Such vowels are heard in closed syllables ending in a voiced consonant or in an
open syllable, e.g. before, money, begger, bead.
8. The articulatory classification of English consonants.
1. According to the active organ of speech and the lace of articualtion EC are divided into labial, lingual and
glottal.
1.1 Labial may be: bilabial, labio-dental.
a) bilabial consonants are articulated by the two lips: [p], [b], [m], [w]
b) labio-dental is articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth: [f], [v].
1.2. Lingual
!!! apical (forelingual) [θ], [ð], [t], [d], [l], [n], [s], [z]
• inter-dental : [θ], [ð]
• alveolar: the English [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z]
• palato-alveolar : [∫], [ʒ], [t∫], [dʒ]
• post-alveolar (cacuminal): [r].
!!! palatal [j]
!!! velar: k, g, нь
1.3. Glottal are produced in the glottis: [h].
2. According to the type of obstruction and the manner of articulation: occlusive and constrictive.
A) Occlusive consonants are produced with a complete obstruction formed by the articulating organs; the
air-passage in the mouth cavity is blocked. There are also occlusive-constrictive known as affricates.
Occlusive consonants may be:
· noise (шумные)
· sonorants (nasal) (сонатные – звучные)
Noise occlusive consonants may be: plosive (взрывные). In the production of plosive consonants the speech
organs form a complete obstruction which is quickly released with plosion: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], g.
In the production of occlusive sonorants the speech organs form a complete obstruction in the mouth cavity
which is not released, the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal cavity: [m], [n], [η].
B) Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction that is by a narrowing of the air-
passage. Constrictive consonants may be:
· noise (fricatives)
· sonorants.
In the production of noise constrictive consonants the speech organs form an incomplete obstruction: [f], [v],
[θ], [ð], [s], [z], [h], [∫], [ʒ].
In the production of constrictive sonorants the air-passage is wide, so that the air passing through the mouth
doesn't produce audible friction but tone prevails over noise. Constrictive sonorants may be:
a) median (w, r, j)
b) lateral (l).
C) In the production of the affricates the speech organs form a complete obstruction which is then released
so slowly that friction occurs at the point of articulation: [t∫], [dʒ].
3. According to the force of articulation consonants are divided into fortis and lenis.
voiced - lenis: [b],[d],[g],[dʒ],[v],[ð],[z],[ʒ],[m],[n],[ŋ],[w],[l],[r],[j].
voiceless - fortis: [p],[t],[k],[t∫],[f],[θ],[s],[∫],[h].

9. Phoneme as many-sided dialectic unity of language. Types of allophones. Distinctive and irrelevant
features of the phoneme.
The phoneme is the smallest linguistically relevant unit of the sound structure of the given language which
serves to distinguish one word from another in the language.
* Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment
differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like., ban-man. Sometimes the
opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard badly - He
was hurt badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function.
* Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of
speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function
may be called constitutive function.
* Thirdly, the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other
phonetic units facilitates normal recognition for the hearers.

A phoneme is a single "unit" of sound that has meaning in any language. There are 44 phonemes in English
(in the standard British model), each one representing a different sound a person can make. Since there are
only 26 letters in the alphabet, sometimes letter combinations need to be used to make a phoneme. A letter
can also represent different phonemes. Here is a good example: chef = /ʃef/ choir = /kwaɪə/ cheese = /tʃi:z/

Types of allophones and the main features of the phoneme

In a speech phonemes are realized as allophones. All variants of phonemes different from each other,
because they are in different phonetic conditions and different positions.
The articulatory features which serve to distinguish meaning are called relevant or distinctive. This
functionally relevant bundle is called the invariant of the phoneme.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-distinctive, irrelevant or
redundant. For example, it is impossible to oppose an aspirated [ph] to a non-aspirated one in the same
phonetic context to distinguish meaning.

10. The System of Vowel Phonemes in English. Problem of diphthongs.

The following 20 vowel phonemes are distinguished in BBC English (RP): [i:, a:, o:, u:, з:, i, e, æ, σ, υ, л; ə;
ei, ai, oi, аυ, eυ, υə, iə].
Principles of classification provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions:
* 1. Stability of articulation
1.1. monophthongs vs. diphthongs (bit - bait, kit - kite, John - join, debt — doubt)
1.2. diphthongs vs. diphthongoids (bile - bee, boat — boot, raid – rude)
* 2. Position of the tongue
2.1. horizontal movement of the tongue
a) front vs. central (cab — curb, bed — bird)
b) back vs. central (pull – pearl, cart - curl, call – curl)
2.2. vertical movement of the tongue
a) close (high) vs. mid-open (mid) (bid — bird, week – work)
b) open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) (lark - lurk, call — curl, bard-bird)
* 3. Position of the lips rounded vs. unrounded (don — darn, pot – part)
Diphthong – Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous, gliding
motion. The English diphthongs are, like the affricates, the object the disputes of many scientists. One
definition is based on the ability of a vowel to form a syllable. Since in a diphthong only one element serves
as a syllabic nucleus, a diphthong is a single sound.

11. The system on consonant phonemes in English. Problem of affricates.

The phonological analysis of English consonant sounds helps to distinguish 24 phonemes: [p, b, t, d, k, g, f,
v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, d∫, h, t∫, dж, m, n, ŋ, w, r, 1, j]. Principles of classification suggested by Russian phoneticians
provide the basis for establishing of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of English
consonants.
1. Degree of noise (bake - make, veal – wheel)
2. Place of articulation
a. labial vs. lingual (pain — cane)
b. lingual vs. glottal (foam — home, care — hair, Tim – him)
3. Manner of articulation
3.1 occlusive vs. constrictive (pine -fine, bat - that, bee – thee)
3.2 constrictive vs. affricates (fare — chair, fail –jail)
3.3 constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral (same – shame)
4. Work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation
4.1 voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis (pen — Ben, ten - den, coat – goal)

5. Position of the soft palate

5.1 oral vs. nasal (pit — pin, seek — seen)
The problem of affricates is a point of considerable controversy among phoneticians. According to Russian
specialists in English phonetics, there are two affricates in English: [t∫, dж]. D. Jones points out there are six
of them: [t∫, dж], [ts, dz], and [tr, dr]. A.C. Gimson increases their number adding two more affricates: [tθ,
tð].

12. Modifications of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation. Elision.

There are the following types of modification: assimilation, accommodation, reduction, elision.
The adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in a speech chain is assimilation.
Elision is a complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants.
! Assimilation
1.1. Place of articulation
• t, d > dental before [ð, θ]: eighth, at the, said that
• t, d > post-alveolar before [r]: tree, true, dream, the third room
• s, z > post-alveolar before [∫]: this shop, does she
• t, d > affricates before [j]: graduate, could you
• m > labio-dental before [f]: symphony
• n > dental before [θ]: seventh
• n > velar before [k]: thank
1.2. Manner of articulation
• loss of plosion: glad to see you, great trouble
• nasal plosion: sudden, at night, let me see
• lateral plosion: settle, at last
1.3. Work of the vocal cords
• voiced > voiceless: newspaper, gooseberry (and in grammatical …)
has, is, does > [s]; of, have > [f]
Notice: In English typical assimilation is voiced > voiceless; voiceless > voiced is not typical.
1.4. Degree of noise
• sonorants > are partially devoiced after [p, t, k, s].

Assimilation can act in the following directions:

· Progressive – the following sound is changed under the influence of the preceding one (grandmother,
sandwich – [d] under the influence of preceding [n] changes into [n] and then disappears);
· Regressive – the following sound changes the preceding one (width – alveolar [d] becomes dental before
interdental [Ө]);
· Double – complex influence of adjacent sounds (tree – the sonorant [r] is partly devoiced under the
influence of the voiceless [t] and the alveolar [t] becomes post-alveolar before the post-alveolar [r]).

Nasal plosion
When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [m] or [n] it has no release of its own, the nasal plosion is
produced (garden, kitten, mitten, happen, shipmate).
Lateral plosion
When a plosive is followed by [l] the closure produced for the plosive is released together with the sound [l]
(little, cattle, please, candle).
Aspiration
The noise voiceless consonants [p, t, k] are pronounced with aspiration. It is an additional noise created at
the moment of moving from a consonant to a vowel. The strongest aspiration is produced before a stressed
long vowel or before a diphthong [pi:z, paund, ti:]. It is weaker before a short vowel or before unstressed
vowel [pit, ka:pit]. Aspiration is absent when [p, t, k] are preceded by [s] or followed by a consonant [spi:k,
pli:z, trein, stei, skoti∫].
Elision. 1.The initial [w,k,g] may be dropped (write, know, gnat)
2.The medial [t] or [d] are dropped in a cluster of three consonants (listen, soften, Wednesday). In the
clusters [st], [ft], [ʃt], [nd], [ld], [zd], [ðd], [vd] in final position when followed by a word with an initial
consonant are often reduced in rapid speech (last time, mashed potatoes, next day, old man).
Word final clusters of plosives or affricates + [t] or [d] [pt, kt, tʃt, bd, gd, dʒ] may lose the final alveolar
plosive when the following word begins with a consonant (kept quiet, lagged behind).
The alveolar [t] of the negative –n’t is often reduced before a consonant (you mustn’t do it)
When [t] or [d] occur between two other plosives they are never heard (locked gate, strict teacher)
3. The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb] (lamb, dumb)

13. Modifications of English consonants in connected speech. Assimilation. Accomodation.

MODIFICATIONS OF CONSONANTS
1. Assimilation
1.1. Place of articulation
• t, d > dental before [ð, θ]: eighth, at the, said that
• t, d > post-alveolar before [r]: tree, true, dream, the third room
• s, z > post-alveolar before [∫]: this shop, does she
• t, d > affricates before [j]: graduate, could you
• m > labio-dental before [f]: symphony
• n > dental before [θ]: seventh
• n > velar before [k]: thank
1.2. Manner of articulation
• loss of plosion: glad to see you, great trouble
• nasal plosion: sudden, at night, let me see
• lateral plosion: settle, at last
1.3. Work of the vocal cords
• voiced > voiceless: newspaper, gooseberry (and in grammatical …)
has, is, does > [s]; of, have > [f]
Notice: In English typical assimilation is voiced > voiceless; voiceless > voiced is not typical.
1.4. Degree of noise
• sonorants > are partially devoiced after [p, t, k, s]
2. Accommodation
2.1. Lip position
• consonant + back vowel: pool, rude, who (rounded)
• consonant + front vowel: tea, sit, keep (spread)

14. Modifications of vowels in connected speech. Reduction. Accomodation.

Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel in unstressed
positions.
* The neutral sound [ə] represents any vowel or diphthong in the unstressed position. e.g. combine
[kəmbain] – combine [kombain]
* The sounds [i] and also [u] in the suffix –ful are very frequent realizations of the unstressed positions
(possibility, beautiful)
* There is also a tendency to retain the quality of the unstressed vowel sound (retreat, programme, situate)
* Non-reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in compound words (blackboard, oilfield); borrowings
(bourgeoisie, kolkhoz)
* Reduction is closely connected not only with word stress but also with rhythm and sentence stress.
* In unstressed syllables within words (demonstrative)
* In unstressed form-words, auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns within intonation
groups and phrases (what d’you think you can do)
Three different types of reduction are noticed in English:
1. Quantitative – shortening of a vowel sound in the unstressed position. e.g. he [hi:]. When does he come?
[wen dəs hi kΛm].
2. Qualitative – obscuration of vowels towards [ə, i, u], affects both long and short vowels, e.g. can [lǽn].
You can easily do it. [ju: kən i:zli du: it]
3. elision of vowels in the unstressed positions (I’m up already)
The term accommodation is often used by linguists to denote the interchanges of " vowel+ consonant type"
or " consonant + vowel type", for instance, some slight degree of nasalization of vowels preceded or
followed by nasal sonorants: never, men; or labialization of consonants preceding the vowel [o] and [y] in
Russian : больно, конь, думать, лучше.

15. Linking patterns.

In English there are two principal ways of linking two adjacent speech sounds: I. Merging of stages. II.
Interpenetration of stages.
(a) a consonant to a following vowel (C + V), as in the word [mi:] me;
(b) a vowel to a following consonant (V + C), as in the word [σn] on;
(c) two consonants (C + C), as in the word [bləυ] blow:
(d) two vowels (V + V), as in the word [riæləti] reality.
Merging of stages, as compared with interpenetration of stages, is a simpler and looser way of joining
sounds together. It usually takes place if two adjacent sounds of a different nature are joined together. In
other words, the end of the first sound and the beginning of the second are articulated almost
simultaneously. Interpenetration of stages usually takes place when consonants of a similar or identical
nature are joined. In this case the end of the first sound penetrates not only into the beginning but also into
the middle part of the second sound, as in [ækt] act, [begd] begged.

18. Word stress in English. Its nature and function.

Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress.
English word stress is mainly dynamic.
The word stress in English is free. The occurrence of the word stress is not limited to a particular syllable
in a polysyllabic word.
The word stress in English is shifting. It performs the semantic function of differentiating lexical units,
parts of speech, grammatical forms.
In English word stress is used as a means of word-building. Usually (although there are some
exceptions), the stress of a verb is on the last syllable, and that of a noun is on the first syllable.
The tempo of speech influences the accentual pattern of words.
In English loudness, pitch, length, sound quality may render a syllable more prominent than the others.
Vowels of unstressed syllables are definitely not so long (they are shorter) and tend to be reduced.
There are two major functions of word stress:
− Constitutive – organizing the syllables into a language unit (a word) having a definite accentual pattern.
− Distinctive – differentiating the meaning of words and their forms, In English word stress can
differentiate:
a) Verbs and nouns: an accent – to ac'cent,
b) Lexical meaning of words: be'low – 'billow,
c) Complex nouns and free word combinations: a 'bluebottle – a 'blue 'bottle,
d) Complex nouns and phrasal verbs: a 'walkout – to 'walk 'out).

19. The degrees and position of word stress.

Languages are also differentiated according to the place of word stress. The traditional classification of
languages concerning place of stress in a word is into those with a fixed stress and those with a free stress. In
languages with a fixed stress the occurrence of the word stress is limited to a particular syllable in a
polysyllabic word.
The word stress in English as well as in Russian is not only free but it may also be shifting, performing the
semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech, grammatical forms. In English word stress
is used as a means of word-building.
There are actually as many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables. The opinions of phoneticians
differ as to how many degrees of stress are linguistically relevant in a word. The British linguists usually
distinguish three degrees of stress in the word.

20. Intonation and prosody: definition, functions, components, spheres of application.

Intonation is a language universal. In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations in the
direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in
English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise. Two more pitch parameters are pitch
ranges and pitch levels. Three pitch ranges are generally distinguished: normal, wide, and narrow. Pitch
levels may be high, medium, and low.
Loudness is used in a variety of ways. Gross differences of meaning (such as anger, menace, and
excitement) can be conveyed by using an overall loudness level.
The tempo of speech is the third component of intonation. The term tempo implies the rate of the utterance
and pausation. The rate of speech can be normal, slow and fast.
D. Crystal distinguishes the following functions of intonation.
• Emotional function's most obvious role is to express attitudinal meaning -sarcasm, surprise, reserve,
impatience, delight, shock, anger, interest.
• Grammatical function helps to identify grammatical structure in speech, performing a role similar to
punctuation.
• Informational function helps draw attention to what meaning is given and what is new in an utterance.
• Textual function helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere.
• Psychological function helps us to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize.
• Indexical function, along with other prosodic features, is an important marker of personal or social
identity.

21. Intonation and prosody: intonation patterns.

Three kinds of pauses:
1. Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase. .
2. Longer pauses which normally manifest the end of the phrase.
3. Very long pauses, which are approximately twice as long as the first type, are used to separate phonetic
wholes.
Functionally, there may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.
Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. The syntagm is a group of words which is
semantically and syntactically complete. In phonetics actualized syntagms are called intonation groups
(sense-groups, tone-groups). Each intonation group may consist of one or more potential syntagms. In oral
speech it is normally actualized as one intonation group.

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of intonation
Failing Intonation. Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase
or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions: Where is the nearest
supermarket? What time does the film finish?
We also use falling intonation when we say something with sure or when we want to be very clear about
something: I think we are completely lost.
Rising Intonation. Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation
is common in yes-no questions: Is it the new shop? Are you ok?
Fall-rise intonation. Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise
intonation at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to
add: It was raining every day in the first week. (but things improved after that). We use fall-rise intonation
with questions, especially when we request information or invite somebody to do or to have something. The
intonation pattern makes the questions sound more polite: Is this your camera? Would you like another
coffee?

22. The framework for intonation.

The nuclear tone is the most important part of the intonation pattern without which the latter cannot exist at
all. On the other hand an intonation pattern may consist of one syllable which is its nucleus. The tone of a
nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the intonation pattern following it which is called the tail. Thus
after a falling tone, the rest of the intonation pattern is at a low pitch. After a rising tone the rest of the
intonation pattern moves in an upward pitch direction:
No, Mary — Well, Mary.
The nucleus and the tail form what is called terminal tone. The two other sections of the intonation pattern
are the head and the pre-head which form the pre-nuclear part of the intonation pattern and, like the tail, they
may be looked upon as optional elements:
àLake District is one of the loveliest 'parts of, Britain.
The pre-nuclear part can take a variety of pitch patterns. Variation within the prе-nucleus does not usually
affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance, though it often conveys meanings associated with attitude
or phonetic styles. There are three common types of prе-nucleus: a descending type in which the pitch
gradually descends (often in "steps") to the nucleus; an ascending type in which the syllables form an
ascending sequence and a level type when all the syllables stay more or less on the same level.
24. Phonostylistics. Types and styles of pronunciation in English.
Phonostylistic is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and process from the stylistic point of
view. One of the objectives of phonostylistic is the study of intonation functional styles.
Phonetic functional styles
1. Informational (formal); it is characterised by the predominant use of intellectual intonation patterns. The
characteristic feature of informational style is the use of Law Pre-Head + Falling Head + Law Fall (Law
Rise), normal or slow speed of utterance and regular rhythm. This intonation style is used, for instance, by
radio and television announcers when reading weather forecasts, news, etc. or in various official
situations. It is considered to be stylistically neutral.
2. Scientific (academic); Basic intonation patterns are as follows: Law Pre-Head + Stepping Head (High
Level Head) + Law Fall (High Fall, Law Rise). The speaker's purpose here is not only to prove a hypothesis,
to create new concepts, to disclose relations between different phenomena, etc., but also to direct the
listener's attention to the message carried in the semantic component. Scientific intonation style is
frequently used, for example, by university lecturers, schoolteachers, or by scientists in formal and
informal discussions.
3. Declamatory; In the pre-nuclear part, the Law Pre-Head may be combined with the Stepping Head, the
Broken Stepping Head. The nuclear tone in final intonation groups is generally the Law Fall or, less
frequently, the High Fall. When reading aloud a dialogic text, representing the speech of the characters in
drama, novel or story, it should be borne in mind that it is different in the matter of intonation from a
descriptive text, representing the author’s speech (monologue). Declamatory style is generally acquired by
special training and it is used, for instance, in stage speech, classroom recitation, and verse speaking
or in reading aloud fiction.
4. Publicistic; The intonation adequate for political speeches is characterized by Law Pre-Head + Stepping
(Falling) Head. Publicistic style is made resort to by political speech-makers, radio and television
commentators, participants of press conferences and interviews, counsel and judges in courts of law.
5. Familiar (conversational). The usage of familiar (conversational) style is typical of the English of
everyday life. It occurs both within a family group and in informal external relationships, namely, in
the speech of intimate friends or well-acquainted people.

Types of English pronunciation

1. The orthoepic norm.
2. Variants of English pronunciation.
3. Received pronunciation.
4. General American. Some differences between RP and GA.
All English speaking nations have their own national variants of pronunciation. They are: British English,
Irish English, Australian English, New Ireland English, American English.
In the British Isles the regional types of English are:
Southern English (Standard English, Received Pronunciation, Public School Pronunciation). Is considered to
be main variant. It has the advantage that it is easily understood in every part where English is spoken and it
is more understood than any other variant. It is mostly heard in every day speech of educated people,
English theatres and radio.
Northern English (NE) is spread between Birmingham and Scotland. The difference between RP and
Northern pronunciation may be illustrated by the /æ/ which is heard in “last”, “part”, “after”.
Scottish Pronunciation. The most striking peculiarity is observed in the manner of utterance of the /r/ which
resembles here as Russian /r/ rolled. Another peculiarity : initial “wh” is pronounced as /hw/. Eg. Which
/hwɪt∫/. ^
American Pronunciation Standard
The following peculiarities are noticeable in the speech of Americans: there may be distinguished 3 types in
the USA of cultivated speech:
· the Eastern type
· the Southern type
· the Western type (General American)