Frequency distribution by:

Number of particle of size x

1. Number fraction, 𝑓𝑁 𝑥 ∆𝑥 =
Total number of particle
Where ∆x = differential range above and below size, x that the
number count represents.
2. By surface area
Area of all particles of size x
𝑓𝑠 𝑥 ∆𝑥 =
Total number of all particles
For fractional amount,
∞
0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 for all particle sizes or
𝑥
𝐹 𝑥 = cumulative fraction = 0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 for only the range
from zero to some size, x = area under the curve from 0 to x.
𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥

1
Typical f(x) and F(x) curves

2
3
4
There are several equations that are typically fitted to the distribution. The most widely
used function is called the log-normal distribution. It is a two-parameter function that
gives a curve, which is skewed (biased) to the left compared to the familiar bell curve.
This function is normally used because in most cases there are many more measured
fine particles than larger particles.
The lognormal function is best described first by considering the normal distribution of
the Gaussian (bell shaped) curve shown in Figure a:

5
6
The last equation can be written as:
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑥
= 𝑎𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏𝑙𝑛 where:
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑎
1
1 𝑏 2 −1
𝑎= 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑥𝑚 𝜋 4𝑏
1
𝑏=
2𝑙𝑛2 𝜍𝑔
To simplify the equation

7
 Example
A sample of peanuts are weighed as listed below.
2.06, 2.18, 2.18, 2.21, 2.22, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.4,
2.42, 2.47, 2.49, 2.53, 2.57, 2.58, 2.59, 2.63, 2.71,
2.94, 2.99, 3.01

Using an average density of 1.23 grams per cubic

centimeter for the peanut, plot:

i. The frequency distribution and

ii. The cumulative frequency distribution of the
average diameter of the candies

8
 Solution
1. Obtain the average diameter from the measured mass and given
density.
2. Arrange data on average diameter in ascending order.
3. Determine the range of values from the maximum and minimum
values.
4. Calculate the number of classes from
Number of classes = 1 + 3.322logN
5. Calculate the Class interval size = Range/No. of classes
6. Use the interval to group data into the obtained number of
classes.
7. Calculate class average: (max limit + min limit)/2
8. Calculate fdx = number fraction = frequency/Total number of
samples
9. Calculate f = fdx/class interval
10. Calculate F = cumulative summing of the values of fdx.
Form the Table as shown below:

9
10
Class Ave. freq., f No fraction, fdx f=fdx/interval F

1.475 1.000 0.048 0.952 0.048

1.525 7.000 0.333 6.667 0.381

1.575 9.000 0.429 8.571 0.810

1.625 1.000 0.048 0.952 0.858

1.675 2.000 0.095 1.905 0.953

1.725 1.000 0.048 0.952 1.001

11
 Frequency Distribution Plot
10.000
Frequency Distribution of peanut
9.000

8.000

7.000
Frequency Distribution

6.000

5.000

f=fdx/interval
4.000
F

3.000

2.000

1.000

0.000
1.450 1.500 1.550 1.600 1.650 1.700 1.750
Diameter, cm

12
 Using an interval of 0.033
12.000

Class Class Ave. Frequency f F

10.000
1.473 -
1.506 1.4895 3 4.329 0.143

8.000
1.506 -
1.539 1.5225 2 2.886 0.238

6.000 f
1.539 -
1.572 1.5555 7 10.101 0.572 F

4.000
1.572 -
1.605 1.5885 5 7.215 0.810

2.000
1.605 -
1.638 1.6215 1 1.443 0.857

1.638 - 0.000
1.671 1.6545 3 4.329 1.000 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7

TOTAL, N 21.000

13
 CHOICE OF PARTICLE MEAN
The mean represents the particle size distribution by
some property which is vital to the application or process
under study. If two size distributions have the same mean
(as measured using the same methods) then the behavior
of the two materials are likely to behave in the process in
the same way.
It is the application therefore which governs the selection
of the most appropriate mean. Usually enough is known
about a process to identify some fundamentals, which
can be used as a starting point. The fundamental relations
may be overly simple to describe the process fully, but it
is better than randomly selecting mean definition.

14
 MEAN PARTICLE SIZE

Values of g(x) and their Comparison of size

mean representation distribution.

15
 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES GIVE
DIFFERENT MEANS
S TECHNIQUE/INS MEASURED REPRESENTAT MEAN Each technique, therefore,
N TRUMENT DATA ION GENERATE
D generates a different
Electron Diameter D[1,0] Number- mean diameter as well as
microscope Length
2 Image analysis Surface area D[2,0] measuring different
3 Electronzone Volume of D[3,0] properties of the particle.
sensing each particle
Therefore, in PSD, there
4 Laser diffraction Equivalent D[4,0] Weight are many right answers.
volume equivalent
mean with
known
density.

16
 EXAMPLE 2: Comparison of mass
versus number count.
Consider measuring the size distribution by sieving. The results of a
sieve analysis may give the size distribution as shown in the table
below, with calculations already made to generate other data.

Solution steps;
Sieve analysis of a sample of particles. Mass, number, and area
fractions are calculated from:
• Particle volume = sample mass/sample density
• Mass fraction = sieve mass/total mass
• No. of particles = sample volume/single particle volume
• Total surface area = surface area of a single particle x number of
particles
• Number fraction = sample number/total number
• Area fraction = sample area/total area

17
Results obtained
18
fig. A: Comparison of the fractional distributions of the particle size distributions.

Interpretation of plot with respect to:

- Turbidity (larger fines increase turbidity)
- Filtration process (sensitive to drag flow)

19
 MODULE 3
FORCES & BULK PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES
The most important force acting on a particle in fluid id
the Drag force and it is divided into:
i. Skin drag – due to exchanges with the boundary layer
ii. Form drag – is the summation of the effect on the
body of acceleration and deceleration in the
streamlines as a fluid flows past a body.

Flow regions:

- Laminar flow characterised by gentle flow. Here, Drag

force can be determined
- Turbulent flow characterized by fast moving flow. Drag
force can only be determined empirically in this region.
20
 TERMINAL VELOCITY
Initially, when a particle falls through a
Free body diagram on fluid the particle velocity accelerates. After
particle of diameter, R a short distance the particle reaches its
terminal velocity and its acceleration goes
to zero. This means that the force of
acceleration, Fa is zero. It is also referred to
as the final constant velocity of a falling
object.
Hence, at terminal velocity the kinetic
force acting on the particle is given by:
4
𝐹𝑘 = 𝐹𝑠 + 𝐹𝑏 = 𝜋𝑅3 𝑔
𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌 .(3.1)
3
Therefore, we define the Drag coefficient
by:
𝐹𝑘 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐾𝐸 …(3.2)
Where A = projected area normal to the
flow and KE = characteristic kinetic energy.
8 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝑔 …(3.3)
3 𝜌𝑢2

21
The relation between Drag force and velocity is best
described by two dimensionless groups, viz:
1. Particle Reynolds number
2. The Friction factor which is a ratio of 2 forces,
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜆
𝑓= = 2
𝐾. 𝐸 𝜌𝑢
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
CD = shear stress/ K.E. per unit volume
Shear stress = (Drag force, FD/Frontal area, Af)/K. E.
per unit Volume
Shear stress = CD
Therefore, CD = f(NRE, ϕ) (ϕ is the shape factor or
Sphericity).

22
 FORCES ON SPHERICAL AND NON-
SPHERICAL PARTICLES
The most important force acting on particles in fluid-
particle medium is the DRAG FORCE. It has two
components (1.Skin drag, 2. Form drag). The Skin drag is
due to exchanges with the boundary layer ( a Tangential
stress on the body arising from the boundary layer). The
form drag is the summation of the effect on the body of
acceleration and deceleration in the streamlines as a fluid
flows pass a body. Theoretically, the drag force can be
derived for only the simplest of the case i. e, Laminar flow
around a sphere, all other cases are derived empirically.
This is due to the relative motion between the fluid and
the particles.

23
 From a free body diagram,
Figure to the left, we can
write a balance of forces
acting on a spherical particle.
The balance of forces shows
that the accelerating force
acting on the particle is given
by:
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑏 − 𝐹𝑘

Fig.: Free body diagram on

particle of diameter, R.

24
 TERMINAL VELOCITY
The TERMINAL VELOCITY can be
defined as “Final Constant Speed
of a Falling Object”(or The
Terminal velocity of a body is the
velocity attainment at the end of
its acceleration or deceleration) ;
that is, the constant speed that a
falling object reaches when the
downward gravitational force
equals the frictional resistance of
the medium through which it is
falling.
mp is the mass of the particle and
mf is the mass of the displaced
fluid with the same volume as
that of the particle. These masses
are equal to the volume of the
particle times the respective
particle or fluid densities. The
kinetic force becomes:
4 3
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜋𝑅 𝐺 𝜌𝑃 − 𝜌
3
Therefore, the Drag Coefficient,
Cd, is given the expression:
8 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝑔
3 𝜌𝑢2
25
CD behaviour can be divided into Shear stress = CD
four regions for spheres). For Therefore,
other Shapes different from the
sphere, like disc, cylinder are CD = f(NRE, ϕ)
defined as the nearest shape, the Where, ϕ = shape factor or
shape factor for the nearest sphericity
shape has to be used as the Applying the Newton’s law of
shape factor. 𝑑𝑢
viscosity, 𝜆 = 𝜇 ,
The most accepted way to show 𝑑𝑦
the relation between drag force But du/dy = rate of shear or
and velocity is by two velocity gradient for the stress
dimensionless groups. tensor. Substituting this gives:
1. Particle Reynolds number
2. The Friction factor, its 𝐹𝑘 = 6𝜋𝜇𝜈∞ 𝑅 = Stoke’s law and
dimensionless, it’s a ratio of 2 Reynold’s number, NRE, is defined
forces, as:
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜆 𝑢𝐷𝑝 𝜌
𝑓= = 2 𝑁𝑅𝐸 =
𝐾𝐸 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜌𝑢 𝜇

26
A correlation to relate the drag force to the
Reynold's number would allow us to extend our
applications to flow conditions in which the
creeping flow solution (which is the simplest
case to study or investigate) does not apply.

27