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Personal Computer
I INTRODUCTION

Personal Computers at Home

Personal computers (PCs) have changed the way families track finances, write reports, and play games. PCs also help students
enhance math, spelling, and reading skills.
Comstock Images/age fotostock

Personal Computer (PC), computer in the form of a desktop or laptop device designed for use by a single person. PCs
function using a display monitor and a keyboard. Since their introduction in the 1980s, PCs have become powerful and
extremely versatile tools that have revolutionized how people work, learn, communicate, and find entertainment. Many
households in the United States now have PCs, thanks to affordable prices and software that has made PCs easy to use
without special computer expertise. Personal computers are also a crucial component of information technology (IT)
and play a key role in modern economies worldwide.

The usefulness and capabilities of personal computers can be greatly enhanced by connection to the Internet and World
Wide Web, as well as to smaller networks that link to local computers or databases. Personal computers can also be
used to access content stored on compact discs (CDs) or digital versatile discs (DVDs), and to transfer files to personal
media devices and video players.

Personal computers are sometimes called microcomputers or micros. Powerful PCs designed for professional or
technical use are known as work stations. Other names that reflect different roles for PCs include home computers and
small-business computers. Laptops are compact and portable personal computers that have many of the same
capabilities as desktop computers but with reduced data storage capacity. Netbooks are small, very lightweight laptop
computers that rely on an Internet connection to perform most applications rather than on stored software. The PC is
generally larger and more powerful than handheld computers, including personal digital assistants (PDAs) and gaming
devices.

II PARTS OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER

The different types of equipment that make a computer function are known as hardware; the coded instructions that
make a computer work are known as software.

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A Types of Hardware

Personal Computer Components

A typical personal computer has components to display and print information (monitor and laser printer); input commands and data
(keyboard and mouse); retrieve and store information (CD-ROM and disk drives); and communicate with other computers (modem).
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

PCs consist of electronic circuitry called a microprocessor, such as the central processing unit (CPU), that directs
logical and arithmetical functions and executes computer programs. The CPU is located on a motherboard with other
chips. A PC also has electronic memory known as random access memory (RAM) to temporarily store programs and
data. A basic component of most PCs is a disk drive, commonly in the form of a hard disk or hard drive. A hard disk is
a magnetic storage device in the form of a disk or disks that rotate. The magnetically stored information is read or
modified using a drive head that scans the surface of the disk.

Removable storage devices—such as floppy drives, compact disc (CD-ROM) and digital versatile disc (DVD) drives,
and additional hard drives—can be used to permanently store as well as access programs and data. PCs may have CD
or DVD “burners” that allow users to write or rewrite data onto recordable discs. Other external devices to transfer and
store files include memory sticks and flash drives, small solid-state devices that do not have internal moving parts.

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Computer Docking Station

A computer docking station enables a notebook, or laptop, computer to operate the hard drive and peripheral devices of a desktop
computer. When removed from the docking station, the smaller computer is portable and functions as a notebook.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Cards are printed circuit boards that can be plugged into a PC to provide additional functions such as recording or
playing video or audio, or enhancing graphics (see Graphics Card).

A PC user enters information and commands with a keyboard or with a pointing device such as a mouse. A joystick
may be used for computer games or other tasks. Information from the PC is displayed on a video monitor or on a liquid
crystal display (LCD) video screen. Accessories such as speakers or headphones allow audio to be listened to. Files,
photographs, or documents can be printed on laser, dot-matrix, or inkjet printers. The various components of the
computer system are physically attached to the PC through the bus. Some PCs have wireless systems that use infrared
or radio waves to link to the mouse, the keyboard, or other components.

PC connections to the Internet or local networks may be through a cable attachment or a phone line and a modem (a
device that permits transmission of digital signals). Wireless links to the Internet and networks operate through a radio
modem. Modems also are used to link other devices to communication systems.

B Types of Software

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Computer Software
Arithmetic and logic form the basis of all computer software—the instructions that
tell computers what to do. Shown on this computer screen are programs running on the Windows XP operating system, the software
that allows a computer’s other software to run.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
PCs are run by software called the operating system. Widely used operating systems include
Microsoft’s Windows, Apple’s Mac OS, and Linux. Other types of software called applications
allow the user to perform a wide variety of tasks such as word processing; using spreadsheets;
manipulating or accessing data; or editing video, photographs, or audio files. Software for
different applications is generally installed on a PC’s hard drive. However, a connection to the
Internet means that application software, as well as document and data storage, can also be
accessed online as needed from a powerful system of computers, reducing the need to store
large amounts of software and data on a single PC.

Drivers are special software programs that operate specific devices that can be either crucial or optional to the
functioning of the computer. Drivers help operate keyboards, printers, and DVD drives, for example.

Most PCs use software to run a screen display called a graphical user interface (GUI). A GUI allows a user to open and
move files, work with applications, and perform other tasks by clicking on graphic icons with a mouse or other pointing
device.

In addition to text files, PCs can store digital multimedia files such as photographs, audio recordings, and video. These
media files are usually in compressed digital formats such as JPEG for photographs, MP3 for audio, and MPEG for
video.

III USES FOR PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Personal Computer
A personal computer (PC) enables people to carry out an array of tasks, such as word processing and slide presentations. With a
connection to the Internet, users can tap into a vast amount of information on the World Wide Web, send e-mail, and download music
and videos. As a family tool, the PC may be used for school, research, communication, record keeping, work, and entertainment.
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Corbis

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The wide variety of tasks that PCs can perform in conjunction with the PC’s role as a portal to the Internet and World
Wide Web have had profound effects on how people conduct their lives and work, and pursue education.

In the home, PCs can help with balancing the family checkbook, keeping track of finances and investments, and filing
taxes, as well as preserving family documents for easy access or indexing recipes. PCs are also a recreational device for
playing computer games, watching videos with webcasting, downloading music, saving photographs, or cataloging
records and books. Together with the Internet, PCs are a link to social contacts through electronic mail (e-mail), text-
messaging, personal Web pages, blogs, and chat groups. PCs can also allow quick and convenient access to news and
sports information on the World Wide Web, as well as consumer information. Shopping from home over the Internet
with a PC generates billions of dollars in the economy.

Computers in Schools
Students work on their classroom computers as a teacher supervises. Nearly every school in the United States has desktop computers
that can be used by students. Computers aid education by providing students with access to learning tools and research information.
LWA-JDC/Corbis

PCs can greatly improve productivity in the workplace, allowing people to collaborate on tasks from different locations
and easily share documents and information. Many people with a PC at home are able to telecommute, working from
home over the Internet. Laptop PCs with wireless connections to the Internet allow people to work in virtually any
environment when away from the office. PCs can help people to be self-employed. Special software can make running
a small business from home much easier. PCs can also assist artists, writers, and musicians with their creative work, or
allow anyone to make their own musical mixes at home. Medical care has been improved and costs have been reduced
by transferring medical records into electronic form that can be accessed through PC terminals.

PCs have become an essential tool in education at all levels, from grammar school to university. Many school children
are given laptop computers to help with schoolwork and homework. Classrooms of all kinds commonly use PCs. Many
public libraries make PCs available to members of the public. The Internet and World Wide Web provide access to
enormous amounts of information, some of it free and some of it available through subscription or fee. Online

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education as a form of distance education or correspondence education is a growing service, allowing people to take
classes and work on degrees at their convenience using PCs and the Internet.

PCs can also be adapted to help people with disabilities, using special devices and software. Special keyboards, cursors
that translate head movements, or accessories such as foot mice can allow people with limited physical movement to
use a PC. PCs can also allow people with speech or auditory disabilities to understand or generate speech. Visual
disabilities can be aided by speech-recognition software that allows spoken commands to work a PC or for e-mail and
text to be read aloud. Text display can also be magnified for individuals with low vision.

IV EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Apple Macintosh Computer

The Apple Macintosh, released in 1984, was among the first personal computers to use a graphical user interface. A graphical user
interface enables computer users to easily execute commands by clicking on pictures, words, or icons with a pointing device called a
mouse.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

The first true modern computers were developed during World War II (1939-1945) and used vacuum tubes. These early
computers were the size of houses and as expensive as battleships, but they had none of the computational power or
ease of use that are common in modern PCs. More powerful mainframe computers were developed in the 1950s and
1960s, but needed entire rooms and large amounts of electrical power to operate.

A major step toward the modern PC came in the 1960s when a group of researchers at the Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) in California began to explore ways for people to interact more easily with computers. The SRI team developed
the first computer mouse and other innovations that would be refined and improved in the 1970s by researchers at the
Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center, Inc). The PARC team developed an experimental PC design in 1973 called
Alto, which was the first computer to have a graphical user interface (GUI).

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Two crucial hardware developments would help make the SRI vision of computers practical. The miniaturization of
electronic circuitry as microelectronics and the invention of integrated circuits and microprocessors enabled computer
makers to combine the essential elements of a computer onto tiny silicon computer chips, thereby increasing computer
performance and decreasing cost.

The integrated circuit, or IC, was developed in 1959 and permitted the miniaturization of computer-memory circuits.
The microprocessor first appeared in 1971 with the Intel 4004, created by Intel Corporation, and was originally
designed to be the computing and logical processor of calculators and watches. The microprocessor reduced the size of
a computer’s CPU to the size of a single silicon chip.

Because a CPU calculates, performs logical operations, contains operating instructions, and manages data flows, the
potential existed for developing a separate system that could function as a complete microcomputer. The first such
desktop-size system specifically designed for personal use appeared in 1974; it was offered by Micro Instrumentation
Telemetry Systems (MITS). The owners of the system were then encouraged by the editor of Popular Electronics
magazine to create and sell a mail-order computer kit through the magazine.

The Altair 8800 is considered to be the first commercial PC. The Altair was built from a kit and programmed by using
switches. Information from the computer was displayed by light-emitting diodes on the front panel of the machine. The
Altair appeared on the cover of Popular Electronics magazine in January 1975 and inspired many computer enthusiasts
who would later establish companies to produce computer hardware and software. The computer retailed for slightly
less than $400.

Computer Circuit Board

Integrated circuits (ICs) make the microcomputer possible; without them, individual circuits and their components would take up far
too much space for a compact computer design. Also called a chip, the typical IC consists of elements such as resistors, capacitors,
and transistors packed on a single piece of silicon. In smaller, more densely-packed ICs, circuit elements may be only a few atoms in
size, which makes it possible to create sophisticated computers the size of notebooks. A typical computer circuit board features many
integrated circuits connected together.
James Green/Robert Harding Picture Library

The demand for the microcomputer kit was immediate, unexpected, and totally overwhelming. Scores of small
entrepreneurial companies responded to this demand by producing computers for the new market. The first major
electronics firm to manufacture and sell personal computers, Tandy Corporation (Radio Shack), introduced its model in
1977. It quickly dominated the field, because of the combination of two attractive features: a keyboard and a display
terminal using a cathode-ray tube (CRT). It was also popular because it could be programmed and the user was able to
store information by means of cassette tape.

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American computer designers Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak created the Apple II in 1977. The Apple II was one of
the first PCs to incorporate a color video display and a keyboard that made the computer easy to use. Jobs and Wozniak
incorporated Apple Computer Inc. the same year. Some of the new features they introduced into their own
microcomputers were expanded memory, inexpensive disk-drive programs and data storage, and color graphics. Apple
Computer went on to become the fastest-growing company in U.S. business history. Its rapid growth inspired a large
number of similar microcomputer manufacturers to enter the field. Before the end of the decade, the market for
personal computers had become clearly defined.

In 1981 IBM introduced its own microcomputer model, the IBM PC. Although it did not make use of the most recent
computer technology, the IBM PC was a milestone in this burgeoning field. It proved that the PC industry was more
than a current fad, and that the PC was in fact a necessary tool for the business community. The PC’s use of a 16-bit
microprocessor initiated the development of faster and more powerful microcomputers, and its use of an operating
system that was available to all other computer makers led to what was effectively a standardization of the industry.
The design of the IBM PC and its clones soon became the PC standard, and an operating system developed by
Microsoft Corporation became the dominant software running PCs.

A graphical user interface (GUI)—a visually appealing way to represent computer commands and data on the screen—
was first developed in 1983 when Apple introduced the Lisa, but the new user interface did not gain widespread notice
until 1984 with the introduction of the Apple Macintosh. The Macintosh GUI combined icons (pictures that represent
files or programs) with windows (boxes that each contain an open file or program). A pointing device known as a
mouse controlled information on the screen. Inspired by earlier work of computer scientists at Xerox Corporation, the
Macintosh user interface made computers easy and fun to use and eliminated the need to type in complex commands
(see User Interface).

Beginning in the early 1970s, computing power doubled about every 18 months due to the creation of faster
microprocessors, the incorporation of multiple microprocessor designs, and the development of new storage
technologies. A powerful 32-bit computer capable of running advanced multiuser operating systems at high speeds
appeared in the mid-1980s. This type of PC blurred the distinction between microcomputers and minicomputers,
placing enough computing power on an office desktop to serve all small businesses and most medium-size businesses.

Handheld Computer
The handheld computing device attests to the remarkable
miniaturization of computer hardware. The early computers of
the 1940s were so large that they filled entire rooms.
Techonological innovations, such as the integrated circuit in
1959 and the microprocessor in 1971, shrank computers’ central
processing units to the size of tiny silicon chips. Handheld
computers are sometimes called personal digital assistants
(PDAs).
James Leynse/Corbis

During the 1990s the price of personal computers came

down at the same time that computer chips became more powerful. The most important innovations, however, occurred
with the PC operating system software. Apple’s Macintosh computer had been the first to provide a graphical user
interface, but the computers remained relatively expensive. Microsoft Corporation’s Windows software came

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preinstalled on IBM PCs and clones, which were generally less expensive than Macintosh. Microsoft also designed its
software to allow individual computers to easily communicate and share files through networks in an office
environment. The introduction of the Windows operating systems, which had GUI systems similar to Apple’s, helped
make Microsoft the dominant provider of PC software for business and home use.

PCs in the form of portable notebook computers also emerged in the 1990s. These PCs could be carried in a briefcase
or backpack and could be powered with a battery or plugged in. The first portable computers had been introduced at the
end of the 1980s. The true laptop computers came in the early 1990s with Apple’s Powerbook and IBM’s ThinkPad.

Despite its spectacular success in the software market, Microsoft was initially slow to understand the importance of the
Internet, which had been developed for government and academic use in the 1960s and 1970s, and the World Wide
Web, developed in the late 1980s. The ability to access the Internet and the growing World Wide Web greatly enhanced
the usefulness of the PC, giving it enormous potential educational, commercial, and entertainment value. In 1994
Netscape became the first browser designed to make the Internet and the World Wide Web user friendly, similar to how
a GUI makes using a PC much simpler. The success of Netscape prompted Microsoft to develop its own Web browser
called Internet Explorer, released in 1995. Explorer was then included with the preinstalled Windows software on PCs
sold to consumers. This “bundling” of the Explorer browser was controversial and led to lawsuits against Microsoft for
unfair trade practices.

Connecting PCs to the Internet had unanticipated consequences. PCs were vulnerable to malicious software designed to
damage files or computer hardware. Other types of software programs could force a PC to send out e-mail messages or
store files, or allow access to existing files and software as well as track a user’s keystrokes and Internet activity
without the user's knowledge. Computer viruses and other malicious programs could be easily sent over the Internet
using e-mail or by secretly downloading files from Web pages a user visited. Microsoft’s software was a particular
target and may have been vulnerable in part because its platforms and applications had been developed to allow
computers to easily share files.

Since the late 1990s computer security has become a major concern. PC users can install firewalls to block unwanted
access or downloads over the Internet. They can also subscribe to services that periodically scan personal computers for
viruses and malicious software and remove them. Operating-system software has also been designed to improve
security.

PCs continue to improve in power and versatility. The growing use of 64-bit processors and higher-speed chips in PCs
in combination with broadband access to the Internet greatly enhances media such as motion pictures and video, as well
as games and interactive features. The increasing use of computers to view and access media may be a further step
toward the merger of television and computer technology that has been predicted by some experts since the 1990s.

Low-cost, lightweight laptop computers called netbooks were introduced in 2007. A netbook (short for “Internet
notebook”) provides access to the Internet to perform tasks online instead of using software and data stored on the
device itself. Accessing application software and data storage as needed through the Internet is part of an approach
dubbed “cloud computing.” Many experts and computer technology companies see cloud computing as the future
direction for computer use. Software and data can be stored on extremely powerful, high-capacity systems of
computers rather than on an individual PC. A PC user would perform tasks such as word processing through the

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Internet. Documents, photos, and other data would also be stored on a distant computer and accessed through the
Internet from any computer link convenient to a user.

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