Sustainability 12 08840

sustainability
Article
Soil and Water as Resources: How Landscape
Architecture Reclaims Hydric Contaminated Soil for
Public Uses in Urban Settlements
Isotta Cortesi 1 , Laura Valeria Ferretti 2, * and Federica Morgia 2
1 DiARC, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 80130 Napoli, Italy; isotta.cortesi@unina.it
2 DiAP, Sapienza Università di Roma, 00185 Roma, Italy; federica.morgia@uniroma1.it
* Correspondence: lauravaleria.ferretti@uniroma1.it

Received: 3 September 2020; Accepted: 5 October 2020; Published: 24 October 2020
Abstract: Soil is one of the fundamental components for life on Earth, but today, as a consequence of
humans’ unsustainable actions, soil is polluted, distressed and spoiled. In contemporary practice
design, we recognize the importance of the soil quality to structure new discourses in landscape
practice. The central role in this process is undoubtedly played by the value a healthy soil has for the
community and for the environment. The strategic design of wet and hydric landscapes is certainly an
essential aspect for the regular and exceptional management of the effects produced by pollution and
climate change. The research develops the soil as a key subject in the landscape design, specifically in
hydric environments where water represents an important factor. The essay is divided into three
parts: resources and opportunities of disturbed wet soil, successfully built public space where soil
remediation transformed heavy polluted industrial urban sites in fertile public ecosystems within the
dense urban structures, and soil design as a domain of urban resilience. The landscape project as an
integrated project has spread the seeds of a new approach to the consideration of the contemporary
city in an ecological manner.
Keywords: soil; water; contamination; public places; waste; landscape architecture; water sensitive
cities; overflow and flood; remediation; unstable urban landscapes
1. Introduction
In contemporary practice, we recognize the importance of the soil quality to structure new
discourses on the city. In fact, after several decades where soil has been systematically exploited and
polluted as if it were an interminable resource, now we face an important change in paradigm on
which we build our discussion [1]. Particularly, in this essay, we focus on how landscape architecture
responds in relation to the soil quality to design open spaces.
Soil is one of the fundamental components for life on Earth, but today, as a consequence of
humans’ unsustainable actions, soil is polluted, distressed and spoiled. Moreover, soil has the capacity
to improve the climate or poison the atmosphere. For this reason, it should be at the center of future
environmental and urban policies. The central role in this process is undoubtedly played by the value
a healthy soil has for the community and for the environment.
Climate change, exceptional floods, atmospheric precipitation and sea level rise have profound
effects on soil quality: erosion, pollution—due to the impact of overflow water management
systems—soil contamination—due to flooding—and soil damage—due to soil sealing [2].
An important FAO research [3] affirms that soil plays a key role in water supply and is resilient in
floods and in droughts. It captures and stores water, making it available for crops, minimizes surface
evaporation while maximizing water use efficiency in agriculture [4], and it interacts with the climate,
Sustainability 2020, 12, 8840; doi:10.3390/su12218840 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 8840 2 of 25
mitigating the effects of heating in cities. Its ability to retain water is important both in periods of
drought and in the increasingly frequent periods of heavy rains [5], because it slows down the outflow.
The strategic design of wet and hydric landscapes is certainly an essential aspect for the regular
and exceptional management of the effects produced by climate change.
Since the late 1960s, there has been a growing interest in environmental issues: the habitability of
the planet and the sustainability of resources in relation to the population. Every year, since 22 April 1970,
we celebrate Earth Day, renewing the principles expressed by Barry Commoner [6], who was the main
proponent of the four laws of Ecology:
1. Everything is connected to everything else. There is a single ecosphere in which all living organisms
survive and the effects on one of them have consequences for all the others;
2. Everything must go somewhere. There is no waste in nature because everything is part of a chain
that connects matter and energy;
3. Nature knows best. Every change caused by man can produce damage to the natural system;
4. There is no such thing as a free lunch. In ecology, there is no profit that can be achieved without a
corresponding cost.
In this global scenario, architecture and landscape projects are necessary means for the Care of
the physical world; while defending it, they understand and revise the causes of the transformation’s
phenomena. Architecture re-affirms a new ethical value and becomes responsible for a new relationship
of stewardship between humans’ actions and nature [7].
The architect is, according to Ian McHarg, an ecological planner since he leads the discipline
“into a board multidisciplinary tool of resource management and land use planning” [8].
2. Materials and Methods

The research develops the soil as a key subject in landscape design, specifically in hydric
environments where water represents an important factor. The essay is divided into three parts:
1. First part: The Beauty and the Beast. Resources and opportunities of disturbed wet soil. This part
Identifies interventions in which, starting from former landfills, in environments characterized
by the presence of water, design intervention has managed to overturn the landfills’ conversion
into a new hydric ecosystem. The essay proposes a reclamation of disturbed lands and a
landfill remediation taxonomy, which implements design strategies focusing on two main topics:
the Performance of Nature and the Recovering Landscape, both improving a new Aesthetic of
Ecology [9]. Through design and the ecological landscape’s restoration, contaminated soils assume
new forms and values becoming new landmarks and new contemporary parks, recovering lost
cultural and natural values.
2. In the second part we observe, in the built environment, paradigms where the Aesthetic Experience
in relation to the Environmental Ethics transforms polluted industrial urban sites into fertile
public ecosystems. We discuss European models: successfully built public space where soil
remediation has transformed heavily polluted industrial urban sites into fertile public ecosystems
within the dense urban built environment. These places are now accessible to people, becoming
an active part in the cultural life of cities. This part of the essay develops a possible framework
for the conversion of brownfields into new ecosystems where water plays a fundamental role
in the remediation processes, structuring different design categories for contemporary public
spaces in densely populated cities: Hypernature as Esthetic Experience, Public Nature as City Culture,
Operative Nature as Environmental Ethics.
3. The third part explores soil design as a domain of urban resilience. The landscape project as an
integrated project has spread the seeds of a new approach to the vision of the contemporary city
in an ecological manner. It is a change of direction for which it is not just a matter of greening the
cities, strengthening ecological networks or designing gardens, but it is also a matter of more and
more being done to insert real fragments of nature—efficient ecosystems—into the urban fabric
by reconnecting the city with the its original natural context. Water and the related soil project are
an essential component of context-based projects because they use existing resources that would
otherwise be dispersed and, by introducing a time variable, allow the planning of an incremental
evolution of places, this being the concept behind a new generation of landscape urbanism.
In this part we will therefore see how some interventions, namely the soil projects, manage to
transform floods or overflow phenomena from risk factors to resources by creating new unstable
urban landscapes.
3. First Part: The Beauty and the Beast. Resources and Opportunities of Disturbed Wet Soil
In the culture of contemporary design, open spaces for public use acquire the same importance as
built space. In the 19th century, Frederick Law Olmsted realized new urban public parks as spaces
of urban social, cultural and environmental reform. For a founding father of American landscape
architecture, these kinds of new public spaces “performed in two ways: first, they were environmental
cleaning machines, open spaces of healthy sun light, well-drained soils, and shady groves of trees
reducing temperatures, absorbing carbon dioxide, and releasing oxygen. Landscape architectural
works such as urban parks, promenades and boulevards, public gardens, parkways, and suburban
residential enclaves were cultural products that responded to, and then altered, the processes of
modernization and urbanization” [10] (p. 92).
Due to environmental disasters and a climate change largely caused by human action,
the importance of green spaces has increased further. Paradoxically, waste and pollution, especially in
the case of wet soil, can be a potential resource for the well-being of the environment in which we live.
Nowadays in the context of a “permanent emergency” strategy, to cite Rem Koolhaas, the issue is not
the creation of an ideal environment but the opportunistic exploitation of the unexpected, the accidental
and the imperfect [11]. Gradually and inevitably, we are learning from our mistakes and attempting to
improve upon them with better choices for a more sustainable and resilient design. Nature itself is
teaching us how. We must learn from how natural processes self-regulate and apply these conditions
to the way in which we design and transform our spaces.
Accumulation of waste is a progressive process which involves a level of soil saturation which
the end of the process extends beyond. Soils contaminated by the accumulation of debris from
anthropogenic actions, where the waste has stratified, can be transformed into new landscapes.
Waste disposal sites have been converted into renovated natural areas with new purposes since the
second half of the 20th century [12] (pp. 96–98). It has since then become more popular to work with
so-called waste parks or disturbed sites. For these sites to be considered safe, processes of remediation
are necessary before the grounds can be used. Frequently, these sites are turned into parks by using
water as a fundamental element to trigger this transformation. The remediation project is entrusted
to the ecological and sustainable component able to trigger a virtuous mechanism that allows the
environment to find a new ecological balance over time.
This essay identifies some illustrative examples of new landscapes created from the transformation
of contaminated places strongly characterized by the presence of water. It proposes a taxonomy
of landfills and wastewater remediation, through the conversion of disturbed sites into a new wet
habitat, which implement different design strategies on two main topics: Performance of nature and
Recovering Landscape.
3.1. Performance of Nature. Design Engages Nature’s Intelligence to Reduce Harmful Human Impact
Landscape ecology studies and aims to understand and improve relationships, such as composition,
structure and function, in the ecological process and the landscape system. Ecological restoration is the
process of assisting the recovery of damaged, degraded or destroyed ecosystems. Both are focused on
reversing the biodiversity extinction crisis. They are expansive breadth of ecological theory, in which
nature’s in-built performance solves the problem of environmental pollution, influencing landscape
Sustainability 2020,
architecture [13].12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25
Over 80% of wastewater is discharged into the environment without adequate treatment around
Over 80% of wastewater is discharged into the environment without adequate treatment around
the world. The paradigm of wastewater management has to shift from treatment disposal to reuse,
the world. The paradigm of wastewater management has to shift from treatment disposal to reuse,
recycling, and resource recovery. Meanwhile, an ecologically friendly and cost-effective solution is
recycling, and resource recovery. Meanwhile, an ecologically friendly and cost-effective solution is
needed. Many wastewater treatment processes have been designed to improve water quality. From the
needed. Many wastewater treatment processes have been designed to improve water quality. From
biological characteristics of the aquatic environment, endemic vegetation, such as water hyacinth,
the biological characteristics of the aquatic environment, endemic vegetation, such as water hyacinth,
giant reed, microalgae and duckweed, have shown capability in pollutant removal. Duckweed, a kind
giant reed, microalgae and duckweed, have shown capability in pollutant removal. Duckweed, a
of floating aquatic plant, is widely distributed around the world and comprised of many species and
kind of floating aquatic plant, is widely distributed around the world and comprised of many species
different genera (Figure 1).
and different genera (Figure 1).
Figure1.1.Floating
Figure Floating duckweed.
duckweed. Duckweed
Duckweed belongs
belongs to botanical
to the the botanical family
family of Lemnaceae,
of Lemnaceae, they
they are are
divided
divided
into into four
four genera genera
Lemna, Lemna, Spirodela,
Spirodela, Wolffia,
Wolffia, and andof
Wolffiella Wolffiella
which, toofdate,
which, to than
more date,40
more thanhave
species 40
species
been have been identified.
identified.
Dueto
Due tothis
thisability,
ability,thisthisplant
planthashas already
already been used for the the treatment
treatment of ofdomestic,
domestic,industrial
industrialand and
swinewastewaters.
swine wastewaters.The Themost
most effective
effective result
result is obtained
is obtained through
through the the
use use of different
of different aquatic
aquatic plants
plants at the
at the
same same
time time the
because because the advantages
advantages of various species
of various duckweed duckweed species areRecent
are integrated. integrated. Recent
contemporary
contemporary
theory and practicetheory and practice
of sustainable of sustainable
landscape design havelandscape
a higher design
regardhave a higher
for the regardoffor
performance the
nature
performance of nature in the
in the remediation design process [14]. remediation design process [14].
One of
One of the
the leading
leading exponents
exponents of this line of research research is is Viet
Viet Ngo,
Ngo, aa Vietnamese
Vietnamese student
studentofof
engineering and art in the USA,
engineering and art in the USA, who, from who, from his early works, showed
showed from the outset an interestin
from the outset an interest inthe
the
environment and the land. This interest developed into research that lies between environmentaland
environment and the land. This interest developed into research that lies between environmental and
publicart,
public art,and
andhehe founded
founded a research
a research institute,
institute, Lemna
Lemna Company,
Company, that that promotes
promotes the treatment
the treatment of waterof
water polluted by toxic waste by means of a natural and environmentally-friendly
polluted by toxic waste by means of a natural and environmentally-friendly system, using no electric system, using no
electricorpower
power chemical or chemical
agents. Ngo agents. Ngo became
became increasingly
increasingly interestedinterested in creating
in creating work that work that address
would would
address environmental
environmental issues and issues
merge andhismerge hissensibilities
artistic artistic sensibilities
with problem with problem
solving.solving. In creating
In creating Lemna,
Lemna, he aimed to transform wastewater treatment facilities, which
he aimed to transform wastewater treatment facilities, which are necessary pieces of infrastructure are necessary pieces of
infrastructure usually hidden away or disguised, into parts of the landscape.
usually hidden away or disguised, into parts of the landscape. In 1990 Ngo applied his method of In 1990 Ngo applied his
method
water of water
treatment and treatment and purification
purification to the Molgora to the Molgora
River, River,ofanthe
an affluent affluent
Adda, ofin the
the Adda, in theof
north-west
Italy [15]. This experience was realized after some other previous projects such as the system toas
north-west of Italy [15]. This experience was realized after some other previous projects such the
purify
system to purify the water of Devils Lake, North Dakota, which covers
the water of Devils Lake, North Dakota, which covers an area of 36 ha and filters over 13,000 m3 of an area of 36 ha and filters
over 13,000 cubic meters of water a day. The scheme for the purification of the water supply was
water a day. The scheme for the purification of the water supply was undertaken to improve the
undertaken to improve the quality of the landscape and reduce the level of water pollution by
fertilizers used in agriculture [16]. Ngo considers himself a multi-faceted artist who receives personal
fulfillment through projects that are environmentally responsible and contribute to society. The
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
structures designed by him are systems of water purification but look like art installations and
landmarks that are capable of producing new public spaces and parks [17] (Figure 2).
The reclamation
Sustainability 2020, 12, 8840 process of disturbed lands could represent an opportunity to be both a social 5 of 25
change as well as an environment ecological compensation. Vintondale, Pennsylvania, a long-
neglected 16-hectare site, had hosted both a coal mining operation and an urban landfill. Toxic orange
quality
streamsof andthethe
landscape
absence and reduce
of life withinthe level
their of water
banks attestpollution by fertilizers
to the widespread used in agriculture
environmental problem [16].
of
Ngo considers
devastation himself
wrought a
bymulti-faceted
acid mine artist who
drainage receives
(AMD). personal
Acid fulfillment
mine drainage through
is a projects
mixture of that are
highly
environmentally
polluting heavy metals, responsible
whichand contribute
regularly seepstoout
society. Theabandoned
from the structures mines.
designed by him are
Naturally, systems
passive and
of water
active
structures purification
solutions but
for acid
designed look are
mine
by him like art installations
drainage
systemsareofbuilt and
out
water oflandmarks thatlook
sight, enclosed
purification but are
by capable
alike artofinstallations
chain-link producing new
fence (Figure
and
public
3). spaces and parks [17] (Figure 2).
landmarks that are capable of producing new public spaces and parks [17] (Figure 2).
The reclamation process of disturbed lands could represent an opportunity to be both a social
change as well as an environment ecological compensation. Vintondale, Pennsylvania, a long-
neglected 16-hectare site, had hosted both a coal mining operation and an urban landfill. Toxic orange
streams and the absence of life within their banks attest to the widespread environmental problem of
devastation wrought by acid mine drainage (AMD). Acid mine drainage is a mixture of highly
polluting heavy metals, which regularly seeps out from the abandoned mines. Naturally, passive and
active solutions for acid mine drainage are built out of sight, enclosed by a chain-link fence (Figure
3).
2. Viet Ngo
Figure 2. Ngo applied
applied his
his method,
method, Lemna
Lemna System,
System, of
of water’s
water’s treatment and purification in the
Molgora River that looks like aa land-art
land-art installation,
installation, Adda
Adda affluent,
affluent, in
in north-west
north-westItaly,
Italy,1990.
1990.
The reclamation process of disturbed lands could represent an opportunity to be both a social
change as well as an environment ecological compensation. Vintondale, Pennsylvania, a long-neglected
16-hectare site, had hosted both a coal mining operation and an urban landfill. Toxic orange streams and
the absence of life within their banks attest to the widespread environmental problem of devastation
wrought by acid mine drainage (AMD). Acid mine drainage is a mixture of highly polluting heavy
metals, which regularly seeps out from the abandoned mines. Naturally, passive and active solutions
Figure 2. Viet Ngo applied his method, Lemna System, of water’s treatment and purification in the
for acid mineRiver
Molgora drainage are built
that looks like aout of sight,
land-art enclosedAdda
installation, by aaffluent,
chain-link fence (Figure
in north-west Italy,3).
1990.
Figure 3. AMD&ART. In Appalachia’s territory, unregulated mining prior to 1977 created a huge
environmental problem called Acid Mine Drainage. Inside abandoned mines, ground water reacts
with pyrite and oxygen, creating sulfuric acid, which dissolves metals in the surrounding earth,
mostly iron and aluminum. Vintondale, Pennsylvania, 1995–2004.
The promoter of the initiative, historian Allan Comp, imagined that the process of reclaiming
this territory could be a collective experience that could involve citizens and form a civic, coexistent
solution through the employment of art and the engagement an entire community. In 1995, he created
a team in collaboration
Figure 3. AMD&ART. with landscape architect
In Appalachia’s
Appalachia’s territory,Julie Bargmann
unregulated D.I.R.T.
mining prior Studio,
1977 the
to 1977 environmental
created
Figure 3. AMD&ART. In territory, unregulated mining prior to created aa huge
huge
artistenvironmental
Stacy Levi, and hydrogeologist
problemcalled
calledAcid
Acid Robert
Mine Deason
Drainage. to
Insideenvision
abandoned a treatment
mines, system
ground that would
environmental problem Mine Drainage. Inside abandoned mines, ground waterwater
reactsreacts
with
engage the landscape
with pyrite by creating
and oxygen, a park that celebrated the treatment of water, rather than render
pyrite and oxygen, creatingcreating
sulfuric sulfuric acid,
acid, which which dissolves
dissolves metals
metals in the in the surrounding
surrounding earth, mostlyearth,
iron
that process invisible
mostly iron [18]. TheVintondale,
and aluminum. treatment, Pennsylvania,
named Testing the Waters, is a new method of designing a
1995–2004.
and aluminum. Vintondale, Pennsylvania, 1995–2004.
the initiative,
The promoter of the initiative, historian
historian Allan Comp, imagined that the process of reclaiming
reclaiming
collective experience that could involve citizens and form a civic, coexistent
this territory could be a collective
a team in collaboration with landscape architect Julie Bargmann D.I.R.T. Studio, the environmental
artist Stacy Levi, and hydrogeologist Robert Deason to envision a treatment system that would
engage the landscape by creating a park that celebrated the treatment of water, rather than render
that process invisible [18]. The treatment, named Testing the Waters, is a new method of designing a
a team in collaboration with landscape architect Julie Bargmann D.I.R.T. Studio, the environmental
artist Stacy Levi, and hydrogeologist Robert Deason to envision a treatment system that would engage
the landscape by creating a park that celebrated the treatment of water, rather than render that process
invisible [18]. The
passive water treatment,
treatment named
solution forTesting the Waters,
acid mine drainage is a19.
newRather
methodthan of designing a passive
an engineering water
solution,
treatment
this project solution for acid
both treats the mine
waterdrainage
and shows [19].the
Rather thanThe
process. an Litmus
engineering solution,
Gardens, this project
hedgerows both
of native
treats the water and shows the process. The Litmus Gardens, hedgerows
trees and shrubs vivify the process of the water treatment, reflecting the color of the water as it of native trees and shrubs
vivify the process
progresses of the water
throughout treatment, reflecting
the treatment’s the colorbasins
communicating of the from
waterorange,
as it progresses
to yellow throughout
and thenthe to
treatment’s
green. The project has achieved a dual objective to give the town of Vintondale a chance toachieved
communicating basins from orange, to yellow and then to green. The project has reclaim
aitsdual
ownobjective
territoryto give
and to the town of
preserve theVintondale a chance
paradox inherent into reclaim
the its ownofterritory
cohabitation natural and to preserve
beauty with the
the paradox
industrial inherent
past and to in the cohabitation
create a living solutionof natural beautythe
that framed with the industrial
incongruities past and
of nature andtoindustrial
create a
living solution that framed the incongruities of nature and industrial
toxins: to treat the water and to show the process. Local communities, horticulture groups toxins: to treat the water andandto
show the process. Local communities, horticulture groups and community
community service groups were some of the members of the community to collaborate on a model service groups were some
of the members initiative
redevelopment of the community to collaborate
for post-coal mining regions on a model
and to redevelopment
involve themselves initiative
throughfor apost-coal
series of
mining regions and to involve themselves through a series of neighborhood
neighborhood meetings and field days, tree planting, and working activities to build site furnishings meetings and field days,
tree
and planting, and working
create wildlife habitats activities
(Figure 4).toThebuild site furnishings
Vintondale and create
pilot project wildlife
tests the waters, habitats
building (Figure 4).
a visible
The Vintondale pilot project tests the waters, building a visible sign for
sign for communities to participate in the dynamic process of applying progressive science and communities to participate in
the dynamic process of applying progressive science and technology,
technology, visionary planning and policy, and celebrate heritage with a renewed landscape visionary planning and policy,
and celebrate
experience heritage
[20]. With awithfocusa renewed
on making landscape experience
remediation [20]. visible
processes With a in focus
a newon public
makingpark,
remediation
the ten-
processes visible in a new public park, the ten-year process which ended
year process which ended in 2004, the didactic forms of passive treatment for acid mine drainage, in 2004, the didactic forms
of passive treatment
demonstrates for acid
the potential mine drainage,
regeneration demonstrates
of neglected the potential
landscapes: resilientregeneration
nature growing of neglected
around a
landscapes: resilient nature
mixed palette of residual pollutants. growing around a mixed palette of residual pollutants.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. AMD&ART.
AMD&ART. Acid Acid Mine
Mine Drainage
Drainage through
through aa passive
passive treatment
treatment system,
system, relying
relying onon natural
natural
processestotoraise
processes raisethe
thepH
pHand
and remove
remove thethe metals.
metals. This
This type
type of system
of system hashas several
several benefits,
benefits, including
including low
low overhead
overhead and maintenance
and maintenance costs. treatment
costs. Passive Passive treatment
systems also systems
providealso
moreprovide more design
design opportunities,
and can create and
opportunities, newcanopportunities
create new for historical, for
opportunities natural and scientific
historical, understanding.
natural and Vintondale,
scientific understanding.
Pennsylvania, 1995–2004. 1995–2004.
Vintondale, Pennsylvania,
3.2.
3.2. Recovering
Recovering Landscape.
Landscape. NewNew Aesthetics
Aesthetics of
of Ecology
Ecology
The
The topic
topicofoflandscape
landscape restoration means
restoration a form
means of legacy
a form that needs
of legacy that toneeds
be recovered and designed
to be recovered and
for new purposes. A deep awareness of the auxiliary disciplines and
designed for new purposes. A deep awareness of the auxiliary disciplines and techniquestechniques is introduced into
is
the design dimension to give substance to the formal dimension. The prolific
introduced into the design dimension to give substance to the formal dimension. The prolific landscape ecology and
ecological
landscape restoration
ecology and disciplines significantly
ecological restorationinfluence landscape
disciplines architecture.
significantly Forward-thinking
influence landscape
ecological and environmental planning and landscape architectural practices, however,
architecture. Forward-thinking ecological and environmental planning and landscape architectural can diversify
their scope,
practices, environmental
however, effectiveness
can diversify and enduring
their scope, resilience.
environmental effectiveness and enduring resilience.
In
In the Fresh Kills Park, Staten Island, the landscape project
the Fresh Kills Park, Staten Island, the landscape project produced
produced aa multi-purpose
multi-purpose process,
process,
implementing a wetlands system in order to recover the landfill site. In 2001, to take
implementing a wetlands system in order to recover the landfill site. In 2001, to take advantage of the advantage of
potential for the adaptive end use of the Fresh Kills Landfill, the City of New York, in association
with others institutions, conducted an International Design Competition to foster the development
of a master plan for transforming the landfill in the Park. The goal was to attract the best talent
worldwide, to generate ideas and innovative park designs that would meet the needs of the city’s
communities and respond to the natural and constructed history of the site. The Fresh Kills was a
1955, it became the largest landfill in the world, and it remained so until its closure in 2001. At the
peak of its operation, in 1986, Fresh Kills received 29,000 tons of residential waste per day (Figure 5).
Field 2020,
Sustainability Operations,
12, 8840 founded in 1999 by James Corner and Stan Allen, won the competition.7 of The
25
office aims to propose solutions for new public spaces based on the collaboration between new
ecologies of creativity and the specific disciplines of architecture, landscape architecture, city
the potential for the adaptive end use of the Fresh Kills Landfill, the City of New York, in association
planning, ecology and infrastructural and transport system planning [21]. The practice of ecology is
with others institutions, conducted an International Design Competition to foster the development of a
understood in its broadest sense through sustainable and flexible projects that are amenable to change
master plan for transforming the landfill in the Park. The goal was to attract the best talent worldwide,
and to increase the amount of public space through formulation of an open matrix on which to
to generate ideas and innovative park designs that would meet the needs of the city’s communities
construct alternative scenarios for the occupation and identity of the place, actively incorporating
and respond to the natural and constructed history of the site. The Fresh Kills was a landfill covering
sustainable energy infrastructure. The project envisaged the transformation of the area, over 75% of
890 ha in Staten Island. The landfill opened in 1948 as a temporary landfill, but by 1955, it became the
which was occupied by disused industrial structures, into a large natural reserve within the urban
largest landfill in the world, and it remained so until its closure in 2001. At the peak of its operation,
fabric of New York, enriched by the inclusion of a variety of ecosystems.
in 1986, Fresh Kills received 29,000 tons of residential waste per day (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Fresh
FreshKills
Killsopened
openedinin1948
1948 asas a temporary
a temporary landfill
landfill andand it remained
it remained so until
so until its closure
its closure in
in 2001.
2001.
At theAt theofpeak
peak of its operation,
its operation, in 1986,init1986, it received
received 29,000
29,000 tons of tons of residential
residential waste
waste per day.per day.picture
In the In the
picture
is is the in
the landfill landfill
1974. in 1974.
Field Operations, founded in 1999 by James Corner and Stan Allen, won the competition. The office
aims to propose solutions for new public spaces based on the collaboration between new ecologies of
creativity and the specific disciplines of architecture, landscape architecture, city planning, ecology and
infrastructural and transport system planning [21]. The practice of ecology is understood in its broadest
sense through sustainable and flexible projects that are amenable to change and to increase the amount
of public space through formulation of an open matrix on which to construct alternative scenarios
for the occupation and identity of the place, actively incorporating sustainable energy infrastructure.
The project envisaged the transformation of the area, over 75% of which was occupied by disused
industrial structures, into a large natural reserve within the urban fabric of New York, enriched by the
inclusion of a variety of ecosystems.
The constitution of a nature reserve was split into four phases named seeding, infrastructure,
programming and adaptation, to be implemented over a span of thirty years. In each of the four phases,
Figure 6. J. Corner Field Operations, Freshkills Park, Renowned Landscape Architecture firm. James
the process
Corner Field place
took in four
Operations wondifferent
the 2001ways: circulation,
competition surfaces,
to design ecology,
the park and its and program.
vast areas Thenext
over the aims of
the first phase was to recover the landscape, the original natural environment on which infrastructures
thirty years, actively incorporating sustainable energy infrastructure. Realization: 2010–2040 Staten
and facilities,
Island, Newrequired
York. for the different functions, which have been designed to carry out in a dynamic
way, the successive second and third phases. The fourth phase conceived an extension of the third
phaseTheandconstitution
consisted of ofthe space’sreserve
a nature adaptation of variations
was split into four in the programs
phases and theinfrastructure,
named seeding, utilization of
park development.
programming The projectto
and adaptation, envisaged a recovering
be implemented over landscape process,
a span of thirty capable
years. of introducing
In each of the four
three
phases, the process took place in four different ways: circulation, surfaces, ecology, and program.on
different varieties of ecosystems [22]. The first ecosystem, named threads, was based Thea
network
aims of the of water distribution
first phase was toand nutrient
recover thesubstances
landscape,for theplant development;
original the second ecosystem,
natural environment on which
named islands, and
infrastructures wasfacilities,
realized required
by areas for
in which to create
the different protected
functions, habitats
which havefor special
been cultivations;
designed to carry
the
out in a dynamic way, the successive second and third phases. The fourth phase conceived the
third one, named mats, was a system of permeable surfaces, that regulated the erosion and an
transformation of the wet disturbed soil (Figure 6).
Figure 5. Fresh Kills opened in 1948 as a temporary landfill and it remained so until its closure in
2001. At
Sustainability the12,peak
2020, 8840of its operation, in 1986, it received 29,000 tons of residential waste per day. In the8 of 25
picture is the landfill in 1974.
extension of the third phase and consisted of the space’s adaptation of variations in the programs and
the utilization of park development. The project envisaged a recovering landscape process, capable
Figure 6.
Figure 6. J. J.Corner
of introducing three
Corner Field Operations,
different
Field varietiesFreshkills
Operations, Park,Park,
ofFreshkills
ecosystems Renowned
[22]. TheLandscape
Renowned Architecture
first Landscape
ecosystem, named firm. James
threads,
Architecture firm. was
basedCorner Field
on aCorner
James network Operations won
of Operations
Field the 2001
water distribution competition to
and nutrient
won the 2001 design
competition the
substancespark
to designfor and its
theplant vast areas over
development;
park and the
its vast areasthenext
second
over
thirty
ecosystem, years,
the next named actively
thirty years, incorporating
actively
islands, sustainable
wasincorporating energy
realized bysustainable infrastructure.
energy to
areas in which Realization:
infrastructure. 2010–2040
Realization:
create protected Staten
2010–2040
habitats for special
Island,Island,
Staten
cultivations;NewtheYork.
New
thirdYork.
one, named mats, was a system of permeable surfaces, that regulated the
erosion and the transformation of the wet disturbed soil (Figure 6).
A
Thepioneer of “Water
constitution of Urbanism”,
a nature reserveKongjian
wasYu, Turenscape
split into four Team
phasesLeader,
named is not only one
seeding, of the most
infrastructure,
A pioneer of “Water Urbanism”, Kongjian Yu, Turenscape Team Leader, is not only one of the
important
programming living andlandscape architects,
adaptation, but also a keen
to be implemented observer
over a spanofofthe present.
thirty His
years. Indesign
each ofproposals
the four
most important living landscape architects, but also a keen observer of the present. His design
and reflections on urban planning in China are a practical–conceptual reference
phases, the process took place in four different ways: circulation, surfaces, ecology, and program. with which to attempt
The
proposals and reflections on urban planning in China are a practical–conceptual reference with which
to unravel
aims of theemerging
first phase questions
was toofrecover
a planetthe
threatened
landscape,by environmental catastrophes,
the original natural hydrogeological
environment on which
to attempt to unravel emerging questions of a planet threatened by environmental catastrophes,
risks and waterand
infrastructures crises. In 2005,
facilities, in response
required to calls from
for the different residents
functions, which tohave
improve
been adesigned
22-ha area in a
to carry
hydrogeological risks and water crises. In 2005, in response to calls from residents to improve a 22-
deserted shooting range used as an illegal and extremely polluted dumping
out in a dynamic way, the successive second and third phases. The fourth phase conceived an ground, the government
ha area in a deserted shooting range used as an illegal and extremely polluted dumping ground, the
contracted landscape architecture firm Turenscape to create Qiaoyuan Wetland Park. The site was
government contracted landscape architecture firm Turenscape to create Qiaoyuan Wetland Park.
located in downtown Tianjin where the surrounding community reaches a population of nearly 300,000
The site was located in downtown Tianjin where the surrounding community reaches a population
inhabitants. Two original conditions of the site, the shooting area and the earth dyke on the north side,
of nearly 300,000 inhabitants. Two original conditions of the site, the shooting area and the earth dyke
came to be an opportunity for the landscape architect (Figure 7).
on the north side, came to be an opportunity for the landscape architect (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Kongjian
Kongjian Yu-
Yu- Turenscape,
Turenscape,Qiaoyuan
QiaoyuanWetland
WetlandPark.
Park.(a)
(a)Existing
Existinggeneral
general masterplan,
masterplan, (b)
(b) the
the
existingcondition
existing conditionofofthe
thesite:
site:a aformer
formershooting
shooting range,
range, shown
shown as as a garbage
a garbage dump
dump andand drainage
drainage sinksink
for
for urban storm water, heavy polluted with saline-alkali soil, littered, deserted and surrounded
urban storm water, heavy polluted with saline-alkali soil, littered, deserted and surrounded with slums with
slums
and and rickety
rickety temporary
temporary Tianjin,Tianjin,
structures,
structures, 2005. 2005.
In an
In an innovative
innovative way,
way, the
the park
park isis characterized
characterized by
by aa micro
micro topography
topography through
through aa naturalized
naturalized
landscapeof
landscape ofponds,
ponds,which
whichallallvary
varyinin size
size and
and depth,
depth, where
where nature
nature doesdoes all work
all the the work by collecting
by collecting acid
acid rainwater, neutralizing the alkaline soil, repairing the barren urban areas and finally
reintroducing the structure of the native wetland that is predominant in the area. The main concepts
of the QiaoYuan Park design are starting a natural process restoring the ecosystem and enabling the
park to provide diversified ecosystem services to the city, realizing an ecological park with high
performance and low maintenance costs [23]. Kongjian Yu uses basic elements derived from Tianjin’s
rainwater, neutralizing the alkaline soil, repairing the barren urban areas and finally reintroducing the
structure of the native wetland that is predominant in the area. The main concepts of the QiaoYuan
Park design are starting a natural process restoring the ecosystem and enabling the park to provide
diversified ecosystem services to the city, realizing an ecological park with high performance and low
maintenance costs [23]. Kongjian Yu uses basic elements derived from Tianjin’s regional natural and
cultural landscape features (Figure 8). These components range from plant materials to industrial
constituents, and realize different landscapes in different seasons, making the park a complete and
successful example of a design approach to reestablish natural functions and let the dynamic
rich landscape experience in different moments of the year. Seasonal changes in plant species occur
processes of adaptation and succession occur. Key steps in the design process included: careful
and integrate, successfully balancing the constraints of the urban landscape and thousands of visitors
planning and plant selection, experimentation with species, monitoring of progress during the
to the park each year, while preserving the integrity of the delicate native vegetation and wetland
construction phase as plants became established, and adjusting the design accordingly to achieve the
habitat by using elevated platforms extended over the habitat. This is a successful example of a design
best performance.
approach to reestablish natural functions and let the dynamic processes of adaptation and succession
Taking as a model the founding geometries of rural landscapes, Kongjian Yu proposes works of
occur. Key steps in the design process included: careful planning and plant selection, experimentation
water infrastructure with very low technology that, through adaptive behavior, recompose
with species, monitoring of progress during the construction phase as plants became established,
intermediate landscapes between cities and nature, concrete representations of the association
and adjusting the design accordingly to achieve the best performance.
between man and the element that more than any other generates and preserves life, water [24].
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Shallow
Shallow and
and seasonal
seasonal water
water ponds
ponds occupied
occupied by
by diverse
diverse native
native communities.
communities. The
The design
design
concept let
concept let nature
nature work
work isisinspired
inspiredby
byregional
regionalChinese
Chineselandscapes
landscapeswith
withpatchy
patchy habitats
habitats sensitive
sensitive to
to
subtle changes of water and PH PH values, Tianjin,2005.
values, Tianjin, 2005.
TakingPart:
4. Second as a model the founding
Aesthetic Experiencegeometries of rural landscapes,
and Environmental Kongjian YuPolluted
Ethics Transform proposesIndustrial
works of
water
Urbaninfrastructure with very
Sites into Fertile low
Public technology that, through adaptive behavior, recompose intermediate
Ecosystems
landscapes between cities and nature, concrete representations of the association between man and the
Soil Quality is the persistent capacity of soil to function as a living ecosystem that sustains plants,
element that more than any other generates and preserves life, water [24].
animals, and humans. This reveals the importance of managing soils in order to maintain their quality
forSecond
4. future Part:
generations.
AestheticIn Experience
the design practice the consideration
and Environmental EthicsofTransform
it as a living ecosystem
Polluted reflects a
Industrial
fundamental
Urban shiftFertile
Sites into in the Public
way weEcosystems
conceive the design of public urban space; soil is an ecosystem that
provides nutrients for plant growth, absorbs and holds rainwater, filters pollutants, serves for
Soil Quality is the persistent capacity of soil to function as a living ecosystem that sustains plants,
agricultural production of better food, and provides habitat for microbes to nourish the diversify that
animals, and humans. This reveals the importance of managing soils in order to maintain their quality
is a necessity for ecosystem cycles.
for future generations. In the design practice the consideration of it as a living ecosystem reflects
In order to return places to their communities, soil remediation becomes pivotal in these
a fundamental shift in the way we conceive the design of public urban space; soil is an ecosystem
“disturbed sites” [10], (pp. 59–86), polluted and contaminated landscapes previously used for
that provides nutrients for plant growth, absorbs and holds rainwater, filters pollutants, serves for
industrial activities. Two paradigms stand, in the recent landscape and city history, as references for
agricultural production of better food, and provides habitat for microbes to nourish the diversify that
the sustainable, ecological and site-specific decisions in the biological remediation strategies of the
is a necessity for ecosystem cycles.
site.
In order to return places to their communities, soil remediation becomes pivotal in these “disturbed
Richard Haag with the Gas Works Park in 1970 built an extraordinary contemporary paradigm
sites” [10], (pp. 59–86), polluted and contaminated landscapes previously used for industrial activities.
where heavily polluted dirt remained in situ and through active biological processes and the passing
of time became cleansed. “Haag embraced a method of soil remediation which involved the
excavation of the contaminated topsoil (approximately 20,000–30,000 cubic yards) and subsequent
“burial” in the mound (along with the concrete foundations, slabs, pits, supports, and miscellaneous
structures) (Figure 9). Soil from the grading of the site and parking lot were spread over the site, and
subsequently mixed with bio-degradable elements such as sawdust and leaves to allow air to
Two paradigms stand, in the recent landscape and city history, as references for the sustainable,
ecological and site-specific decisions in the biological remediation strategies of the site.
Richard Haag with the Gas Works Park in 1970 built an extraordinary contemporary paradigm
where heavily polluted dirt remained in situ and through active biological processes and the passing of
time became cleansed. “Haag embraced a method of soil remediation which involved the excavation
of the contaminated topsoil (approximately 20,000–30,000 cubic yards) and subsequent “burial” in
the mound (along with the concrete foundations, slabs, pits, supports, and miscellaneous structures)
(Figure 9). Soil from the grading of the site and parking lot were spread over the site, and subsequently
mixed with bio-degradable elements such as sawdust and leaves to allow air to circulate in the soil.
On top of this material, treated sewage sludge, complete with oil-degrading enzymes, was placed and
plowed into the soil. The increased air circulation and the sewage sludge enhanced the bacterial action
within the soil, bacteria which would break down the harmful chemicals in the soil. This alternative
was weighed against that of removing entirely the contaminated soil but this was cost-prohibitive.
chemicals in the soil. This alternative was weighed against that of removing entirely the contaminated
In 1997, funding became available to address the remaining contamination issues at Gas Works Park.
soil but this was cost-prohibitive. In 1997, funding became available to address the remaining
Field studies determined that carcinogenic polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), arsenic benzene
contamination issues at Gas Works Park. Field studies determined that carcinogenic polynuclear
and toluene as well as non-carcinogenic PAHs in the groundwater exceeded the acceptable levels.
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), arsenic benzene and toluene as well as non-carcinogenic PAHs in
In addition, the field studies identified two areas within the park which had tar residue near the surface,
the groundwater exceeded the acceptable levels. In addition, the field studies identified two areas
and this tar and adjacent contaminated soil was removed and remediated using high temperature
within the park which had tar residue near the surface, and this tar and adjacent contaminated soil
heating system.
was removed and remediated using high temperature heating system.
Figure9.9. Richard
Figure Richard Haag,
Haag, Gas
Gas Work
WorkPark.
Park. Soil
Soil treatment
treatment on
on the
the former
former Gas
Gas Plant.
Plant. Work
Work on
on site
site was
was
experimental, for the first time involving bioremediation and biodegradation of dissolved organisms
experimental, for the first time involving bioremediation and biodegradation of dissolved organisms
presentin
present inthe
thesoil.
soil. Seattle,
Seattle, 1970–1975.
1970–1975.
The cleanup plan consisted of: a protective vegetated soil cover over unpaved open areas and
an air sparging and soil vapor extraction system was installed. This system consists of pumping
compressed air into the saturated soil as the air moves to the surface it both oxygenates the groundwater
and strips volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as benzene, from the soil. This oxygenation of the
groundwater stimulates the biodegradation of dissolved hydrocarbons by native organisms present in
the soil” [25]. At present, the park is completely integrated in the urban structure and is the place for
open air healthy activities, sports and entertainment for citizens (Figure 10).
Figure 9. Richard Haag, Gas Work Park. Soil treatment on the former Gas Plant. Work on site was
experimental,
Sustainability for the first time involving bioremediation and biodegradation of dissolved organisms
2020, 12, 8840 11 of 25
present in the soil. Seattle, 1970–1975.
Figure 10.
organisms
Figure 10. Richard
present Haag,
in the
Richard Haag, Gas [25].
soil”
Gas WorkAt
Work Park. The
The successful
present,
Park. the parkengagement
successful is completely
engagement of
of people with the
integrated
people with the former
in former
the urban
industrial
structure and is
industrial site
site happens
the place for
happens currently.
open air
currently. Seattle, 1970–1975.
healthy
Seattle, activities, sports and entertainment for citizens (Figure
1970–1975.
10).
The cleanup
Peter
Peter Latz’s plan
Latz’sstrategy consisted
strategy in in
Duisburgof: aNord
Duisburg protective vegetated
sincesince
Nord 1991 focusedsoil
oncover
1991 focused onover
remediation unpaved
throughopen
remediation eitherareas
through and
isolating
either
an
the air sparging
contaminated
isolating and soil vapor
dirt in bunkers
the contaminated extraction
dirt in on site oron
bunkers system
leaving was installed.
site oritleaving
in place; This
allowing
it in system consists
it to improve
place; allowing of pumping
quality through
it to improve quality
compressed air
phytoremediation, into
wherethe saturated
Plants are soil
used as
to the air
contain, moves
degrade toandthe surface
eliminate
through phytoremediation, where Plants are used to contain, degrade and eliminate contaminants it both oxygenates
contaminants the
in the soil
in
groundwater
through their and
roots, strips
leaves volatile
and life organic
cycles compounds
(Figure 11). In (VOC),
addition,such
the as benzene,
Emscher water
the soil through their roots, leaves and life cycles (Figure 11). In addition, the Emscher water stream from
streamthe soil. This
improved
oxygenation
through
improved of the
a series
through agroundwater
of marshes,
series ofponds stimulates
marshes,andponds
water the biodegradation
aeration.
and water aeration. of dissolved hydrocarbons by native
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Latz
Latz und
und Partner,
Partner, Landschaft
Landschaft Park.
Park. Peter
Peter Latz’s
Latz’s strategy
strategy focused
focused onon remediation
remediation through
through
either isolating
either isolating the
the contaminated
contaminated dirt in bunkers
dirt in bunkers on site or
on site or leaving
leaving it
it in
in place,
place, allowing
allowing it
it to
to improve
improve
in quality
in quality through
through phytoremediation,
phytoremediation, where
where plants are used
plants are used to
to contain,
contain, degrade
degrade and
and eliminate
eliminate
contaminants in the soil through their roots. Duisburg Nord 1991–1998.
contaminants in the soil through their roots. Duisburg Nord 1991–1998.
Through case studies in Europe focused on soil remediation, this part of the essay invites
discussion about possible future scenarios, relevant theories and project responses in landscape
environmental design.
design. The
Theessay
essaydevelops a possible
develops framework,
a possible framework,starting from
starting successful
from reality,
successful for
reality,
the the
for conversion of brownfields
conversion into
of brownfields new
into ecosystems
new ecosystems where
wherewater
waterplays
playsaafundamental
fundamentalrole
role in
in the
different design
ground remediation processes, structuring different design strategies
strategies for contemporary public spaces
in densely populated cities:
4.1. Hypernature as Aesthetic Experience

In contemporary design practice, it is fundamental to build convincing aesthetic strategies to
make designed forms evident, direct and capable of standing out from the ordinary. Nevertheless,
definite form recognition allows the remediation process to be better perceived, considered and
valued by the users. This is a fundamental passage for the design success: to go beyond form and
become the base of knowledge as a cultural experience.
4.1. Hypernature as Aesthetic Experience

In contemporary design practice, it is fundamental to build convincing aesthetic strategies to
make designed forms evident, direct and capable of standing out from the ordinary. Nevertheless,
definite form recognition allows the remediation process to be better perceived, considered and valued
by the users. This is a fundamental passage for the design success: to go beyond form and become the
base of knowledge as a cultural experience.
In the London Queen Elisabeth Olympic Park, Hargreaves Associates with a larger group of
specialists found multiple solutions to remediate and restore brownfield land with on-site treatment
including crushing, soil washing, bioremediation, chemical and geotechnical stabilization, restoring
three kilometers of waterways as ecosystems, gaining a biodiverse habitat within the park land
(Figure 12). The 247-acre park served as the central feature for the London 2012 Olympic Games,
which were recognized as the “Greenest Games” in history, with the park declared the “winner of the
Games” by the Mayor of London. The design synthesizes centuries of British park tradition, the reality
of post-industrial brownfields, advances in sustainability and resilience thinking to create a new type
of park for the 21st Century. The landscape design and the remediation action were focused around
the restoration of the water and riparian habitat and ecosystems of the River Lea.
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Hargreaves
Hargreaves Associates,
Associates, Queen
Queen Elisabeth
Elisabeth Olympic
Olympic Park.
Park. The
The heavily polluted soil
heavily polluted soil from
from
industrial and
industrial andchemical
chemicalplants
plantsalso
also provided
provided thethe bioremediation
bioremediation of three
of three kilometers
kilometers of waterways
of waterways with
with biodiverse habitats within the park land. London 2007–2012.
biodiverse habitats within the park land. London 2007–2012.
Nevertheless, the
Nevertheless, thesolutions
solutionswere
were conceived
conceived in strongly
in strongly recognizable
recognizable formsforms for users,
for users, asbeing
as well well
being capable
capable of reducing
of reducing and managing
and managing flood
flood risk, risk, preparing
preparing for a climate
for a changing changing to climate to the
the benefit benefit
of wild life
of wild
and life and
people in thepeople
publicinrealm.
the public realm. Hypernature
Hypernature as a design as a design
concept concept
enhances enhances
the importancethe importance
of reiterate,
of reiterate, and
condensing condensing and exaggerating
exaggerating the connectionthebetween
connectionforms between forms and
and sustainable sustainable
processes processes
(Figure 13).
(Figure 13). should be form-full, evident and palpable, so that it draws the attention of an urban
“Design
“Design
audience, the should be form-full,
users, distracted evident
by daily and palpable,
concerns of workso andthat it draws
family, theover
or the attention of an urban
stimulation of the
audience,
digital world . . . ]. The
the [users, distracted by daily
experience concerns
of beauty, of work
a process and family,
between or the
the senses over
and stimulation
reason, of the
an unfolding
digital
of world […].
awareness, The experience
is restorative. of beauty,the
By extension, a process
aesthetic between the senses
experience and reason,
of constructed an unfolding
hyper-nature is
of awareness, is
transformative [ . .restorative.
. ] aestheticBy extension,
experience canthe aesthetic
result experience of
in the appreciation of constructed
new forms ofhyper-nature
beauty that areis
transformative
discovered, […] aesthetic
because experience
they reveal canunrealized
previously result in the appreciation
relationships of new human
between forms ofandbeauty that are
non-human
discovered,
life because
processes” [9], (p.they
17).reveal previously unrealized relationships between human and non-human
life processes” [9], (p. 17).
digital world […]. The experience of beauty, a process between the senses and reason, an unfolding
of awareness, is restorative. By extension, the aesthetic experience of constructed hyper-nature is
transformative […] aesthetic experience can result in the appreciation of new forms of beauty that are
discovered, because they reveal previously unrealized relationships between human and non-human
life processes”
Sustainability 2020, [9], (p. 17).
12, 8840 13 of 25
Figure 13.
Figure 13.Hargreaves
Hargreaves Associates,
Associates, Queen
Queen Elisabeth
Elisabeth Olympic
Olympic Park.
Park. The The found
design designmultiple
found solutions
multiple
solutions
to to remediate
remediate and
and restore restore brownfield
brownfield land with land with soil
soil on-site on-site treatment
treatment includingincluding
crushing, crushing, soil
soil washing,
washing, bioremediation, chemical and geotechnical stabilization. London
bioremediation, chemical and geotechnical stabilization. London 2007–2012. 2007–2012.
4.2. Public Nature as City Culture

Public Nature embeds in the community life the importance of “Nature as a cultural resource for
the City dwellers” whether it is soil, water, vegetation or fauna. Public Nature constitutes the vital core
in contemporary landscape design and even more clearly in future agenda. Open space is potentially
the place of democracy, which possesses the status of a living and fleeting thing. It is therefore an open
source process based on change. It is the place of integration, in its condition between the public and
private sphere. At the same time, it is the dimension in which Nature, in the Open City, flows and
belongs to urban construction, as in ancient times. To put at the heart of any transformation the open,
collective and natural space is giving it a primary role in the act of transformation. It has important
consequences in the outcomes of contemporary life in cities and urban communities.
Peter Latz in the Dora Park in Turin reaffirms the aesthetic of the industrial ruins when transforming
brownfields into a fluid open space system along and across the Dora River (Figure 14). “Our new
conceptions [ . . . ] is a metamorphosis of landscape without destroying existing features, an archetypal
dialogue between the tame and the wild. Specific architecture for specific uses does not need to be built.
The imagination lets the existing ones be re-interpreted and used in new ways. Artefacts can develop
natural processes in derelict surroundings according to ecological rules started and maintained by
technological processes. It is the idea of making time visible”, [26].
The river is given back to the citizens, despite the current and unsolved discussion about
contaminated water with a heavy quantity of hexavalent chromium flowing through the park.
Natural bioremediation processes of contaminated soil are integrated by Latz’s design within urban
life, becoming cultural knowledge for people.
Most recently Latz und Partner have been working on polluted soil remediation from arsenic
contamination of the Spree Park in Berlin, a former D.D.R. amusement park, along the river Spree
in the Plänterwald (timber forest) close to the city center (Figure 15). Latz is a world pioneer in soil
remediation, focusing on simple and effective natural techniques which generate circular effects on the
care of places as well as in the long run on the improvement of human habits with the aim to unite
through design, art, culture and nature.
the place of democracy, which possesses the status of a living and fleeting thing. It is therefore an
open source process based on change. It is the place of integration, in its condition between the public
and private sphere. At the same time, it is the dimension in which Nature, in the Open City, flows
and belongs to urban construction, as in ancient times. To put at the heart of any transformation the
open, collective
Sustainability and
2020, 12, 8840natural space is giving it a primary role in the act of transformation. It has
14 of 25
important consequences in the outcomes of contemporary life in cities and urban communities.
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Latz
LatzundundPartner,
Partner, Dora
Dora River
River Park.
Park. Natural
Naturalbioremediation
bioremediationprocesses
processes of
ofcontaminated
contaminated soil
soil
are integrated
are integrated
Sustainability within
2020, 12, within urban life.
urbanREVIEW
x FOR PEER Turin 2004–2012.
life. Turin 2004–2012. 14 of 25
Peter Latz in the Dora Park in Turin reaffirms the aesthetic of the industrial ruins when
transforming brownfields into a fluid open space system along and across the Dora River (Figure 14).
“Our new conceptions […] is a metamorphosis of landscape without destroying existing features, an
archetypal dialogue between the tame and the wild. Specific architecture for specific uses does not
need to be built. The imagination lets the existing ones be re-interpreted and used in new ways.
Artefacts can develop natural processes in derelict surroundings according to ecological rules started
and maintained by technological processes. It is the idea of making time visible”, [26].
The river is given back to the citizens, despite the current and unsolved discussion about
contaminated water with a heavy quantity of hexavalent chromium flowing through the park.
Natural bioremediation processes of contaminated soil are integrated by Latz’s design within urban
life, becoming cultural knowledge for people.
Most recently Latz und Partner have been working on polluted soil remediation from arsenic
contamination of the Spree Park in Berlin, a former D.D.R. amusement park, along the river Spree
in the Plänterwald (timber forest) close to the city center (Figure 15). Latz is a world pioneer in soil
remediation, focusing on simple and effective natural techniques which generate circular effects on
the care of places
Figure
Figure 15. Latzas
15. Latz und
undwell as inPlänterwald
Partner,
Partner, the long run
Plänterwald in onSpree
in the
the the improvement
Spree Park.
Park. The of human
The polluted
polluted soil habits with
soil remediation
remediation from the aim to
from arsenic
arsenic
unitecontamination
through design,
contamination alongart,
along theculture
the river and nature.
is focused
river is focused on simple and effective natural techniques. On-going in
on simple and effective natural techniques. On-going in Berlin.
Berlin.
4.3. Operative Nature Sustains Environmental Ethics
4.3. Operative Nature Sustains
Nature operates Environmental
as the remedy Ethics sites. Operative Nature stands as an active process,
in soil polluted
responsible
Nature for positive
operates aschanges
the remedyin theinenvironmental quality
soil polluted sites. of the public
Operative space.
Nature Design
stands sustains
as an active
the Ethical
process, approach from
responsible an environmental
for positive changes in and a cultural pointquality
the environmental of view.ofUsers, through
the public the project,
space. Design
become
sustainsmore and more
the Ethical awarefrom
approach of theanenvironmental
environmentalvalues beyond form.
and a cultural Operative
point of Nature
view. Users, in urban
through the
spaces
project, become more and more aware of the environmental values beyond form. Operativeand
values the natural cycles in contemporary forms improving the ecosystems’ quality the
Nature
built space.
in urban spaces values the natural cycles in contemporary forms improving the ecosystems’ quality
The selected
and the built design paradigms of existing fertile public soil ecosystems embed the necessary
space.
conjunction between
The selected the aesthetic
design paradigmsexperience (which
of existing goes public
fertile beyondsoil
the appearance
ecosystems of forms),
embed thenecessary
the scientific
research (ecological)
conjunction betweenand theethical responsibility.
aesthetic experience (which goes beyond the appearance of forms), the
The Cuulturpark
scientific Westgasfabrieck,
research (ecological) and ethicalinresponsibility.
Amsterdam, is a new public park, designed by Kathryn
Gustafson, on the heavily
The Cuulturpark contaminated site
Westgasfabrieck, of an old gasisfactory.
in Amsterdam, a new public park, designed by Kathryn
Gustafson, on the heavily contaminated site of an old gas factory. could only come from an ecological
The soil pollution problem had to be addressed and the solution
perspective.
The soilContaminated soil could
pollution problem hadnotto be
beremoved
addressed andand
transported elsewhere,
the solution could where it would
only come fromhave
an
caused more
ecological damage. Consequently,
perspective. Contaminatedit soilwascould
decided
nottobebalance
removedtheand
excavation and carry-over
transported elsewhere,volumes:
where it
would have caused more damage. Consequently, it was decided to balance the excavation and carry-
over volumes: to bring new soil to replace the polluted soil, to maintain the existing soil levels around
the buildings and to create a new undulating soil with excess material. The placement of the
contaminated soil on-site (with the presence of heavy metals and benzene) was the best
environmentally economical oriented decision (Figure 16).
to bring new soil to replace the polluted soil, to maintain the existing soil levels around the buildings
and to create a new undulating soil with excess material. The placement of the contaminated soil
on-site (with the presence of heavy metals and benzene) was the best environmentally economical
oriented decision (Figure 16).
Figure 16.Gustafson,
Figure 16. Gustafson,Porter
Porter
andand Bowman,
Bowman, Cuulturpark
Cuulturpark Westgasfabrieck.
Westgasfabrieck. A new A newpark
public public park
designed
designed on the
on the heavily heavily contaminated
contaminated gas factorygas
site.factory site. Contaminated
Contaminated soilbecould
soil could not not be
removed removed
and and
transported
transported elsewhere. The placement of the contaminated soil on-site was the best environmentally
elsewhere. The placement of the contaminated soil on-site was the best environmentally economical
economical oriented
oriented decision. decision.
2006 2006 Amsterdam.
Amsterdam.
The remediation process required the presence and the permanence of rainfall infiltration into
the soil to maintain current water level in order to preserve the wooden foundation of the historical
buildings. So, to preserve the existing ground permeability, the capping solution was suitable only
for the impermeable paved areas and the cut and fill process was selected. Moreover as water was
cleaned and protected with a barrier from the polluted soil water table, cleansed water started to
assume different forms with the shaping of the ground plain: canals, streams, small lakes, splashing
fountains and rainwater pools (Figure 17). The water in the park is purified, processed, and stored
while the cleansed ground plane has been designed to enrich the visitors’ sensory experience, inviting
people to engage in water activities and to learn from natural processes about soil remediation and the
temporality of landscape design (Figure 18).
These themes, presented through built contemporary paradigms, arise as a vision of reconciliation,
between the city and exploited soil through natural processes, between the sciences and the arts, in an
action of care and responsibility for the present and the future of our cities. This attitude generates
virtuous evolutions of sociality, respect and care for places and the acquisition of environmental
Figure 17. Gustafson, Porter and Bowman, Cuulturpark Westgasfabrieck. Water was cleaned and
consciousness by the inhabitants. They acquire, through the learning of sustainable landscape design,
protected with a barrier from the polluted soil water table, cleansed water started to assume different
its forms and the manifestation of natural processes, the knowledge of the finiteness of the resources
forms with the shaping of the ground plain: canals, streams, small lakes, splashing fountains and
and the value of Environmental Ethics in the design of forms.
rainwater pools. 2006 Amsterdam.
Landscape architecture has a pivotal role in the coexistence of beauty and environmental issues
in the interventions. Landscape architecture deeply responds to the need of the present time as
These themes, presented through built contemporary paradigms, arise as a vision of
it addresses: ecology, remediation, cleansing, environmental infrastructure, social sustainability,
reconciliation, between the city and exploited soil through natural processes, between the sciences
healthy and productive landscapes.
and the arts, in an action of care and responsibility for the present and the future of our cities. This
attitude generates virtuous evolutions of sociality, respect and care for places and the acquisition of
environmental consciousness by the inhabitants. They acquire, through the learning of sustainable
landscape design, its forms and the manifestation of natural processes, the knowledge of the
finiteness of the resources and the value of Environmental Ethics in the design of forms.
in the interventions. Landscape architecture deeply responds to the need of the present time as it
addresses: ecology, remediation, cleansing, environmental infrastructure, social sustainability,
Figure 16. Gustafson, Porter and Bowman, Cuulturpark Westgasfabrieck. A new public park
designed on the heavily contaminated gas factory site. Contaminated soil could not be removed and
Sustainability 2020, 12,
transported 8840
elsewhere. 16 of 25
The placement of the contaminated soil on-site was the best environmentally
economical oriented decision. 2006 Amsterdam.
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Gustafson,
Gustafson, Porter
Porter and
and Bowman,
Bowman, Cuulturpark
Westgasfabrieck. Water was cleaned
Water was cleaned and
and
protected with a barrier from the polluted soil water table, cleansed water started to assume
protected with a barrier from the polluted soil water table, cleansed water started to assume different different
forms with
forms with the
the shaping
shaping ofof the
the ground
ground plain:
plain: canals,
canals, streams,
streams, small
small lakes,
lakes, splashing
splashing fountains
fountains and
and
rainwater
Sustainability
rainwater pools.
2020, 2006
12, x FOR
pools. Amsterdam.
2006PEER REVIEW
Amsterdam. 16 of 25
These themes, presented through built contemporary paradigms, arise as a vision of

reconciliation, between the city and exploited soil through natural processes, between the sciences
and the arts, in an action of care and responsibility for the present and the future of our cities. This
attitude generates virtuous evolutions of sociality, respect and care for places and the acquisition of
environmental consciousness by the inhabitants. They acquire, through the learning of sustainable
landscape design, its forms and the manifestation of natural processes, the knowledge of the
finiteness of the resources and the value of Environmental Ethics in the design of forms.
in the interventions. Landscape architecture deeply responds to the need of the present time as it
addresses: ecology, remediation, cleansing, environmental infrastructure, social sustainability,
Figure 18.
Figure 18. Gustafson,
Gustafson, Porter
Porter andand Bowman,
Bowman, Cuulturpark
Westgasfabrieck. The
The water
water is purified,
is purified,
processed, and
processed, and stored
stored and
and itit enriches
enriches the
the visitors’
visitors’ sensory
sensory experience,
experience, inviting
inviting people
people to
to engage
engage inin
water activities
water activities and
and to
to learn
learn from
from natural
natural processes
processes about
about soil
soil remediation
remediation and
and the
the history
history of
of the
the site.
site.
2006 Amsterdam.
2006 Amsterdam.
5.
5. Third Part: Soil Design as a Space of
of Resilience
Resilience to
to over
overFlow:
Flow: New
New Unstable
UnstableUrban
UrbanLandscapes
Landscapes
Climate
Climate change
changeand exceptional
and events
exceptional of flooding
events and atmospheric
of flooding precipitation
and atmospheric have profound
precipitation have
effects on soil quality. Erosion, pollution due to clogging of water management systems,
profound effects on soil quality. Erosion, pollution due to clogging of water management systems, contamination
due to flooding,due
contamination damage due to soil
to flooding, sealing,
damage duearetothe most
soil evident
sealing, areeffects of these
the most mutations.
evident effects of these
These phenomena are now increasing in number and intensity and the urban environment
mutations.
is certainly a scenario particularly
These phenomena frail to these
are now increasing events,and
in number and is exposed
intensity and totheproduce risks. From is
urban environment a
European
certainly aEnvironment Agency (EEA)
scenario particularly document:
frail to “A wider
these events, and isliterature
exposedreview suggests
to produce thatFrom
risks. heavya
precipitation events have Agency
European Environment become more
(EEA)intense and more
document: frequent
“A wider in Europe
literature on average,
review suggestsbut there
that are
heavy
important differences across regions, seasons, time periods, heavy precipitation indices
precipitation events have become more intense and more frequent in Europe on average, but there and underlying
datasets. A recent
are important study has
differences shown
across that the
regions, number
seasons, timeof periods,
days with very precipitation
heavy heavy precipitation
indices over
and
Europe has increased on average by about 45% (for the period 1981–2013 compared with
underlying datasets. A recent study has shown that the number of days with very heavy precipitation 1951–1980).
over Europe has increased on average by about 45% (for the period 1981–2013 compared with 1951–
1980). Studies generally agree that heavy precipitation has become more intense in northern and
north-eastern Europe since the 1950s, even though not all changes are statistically significant.
Different studies and indices show diverging trends for south-western and southern Europe” [27] (8).
The technique generally used to deal with these situations was the construction of lamination
Studies generally agree that heavy precipitation has become more intense in northern and north-eastern
Europe since the 1950s, even though not all changes are statistically significant. Different studies and
indices show diverging trends for south-western and southern Europe” [27] (p. 8).
The technique generally used to deal with these situations was the construction of lamination
tanks or expansion tanks that worked to accommodate large quantities of water in order to avoid
the disposal system clogging. The idea was to store rainwater in these buffer areas to postpone their
disposal until the drainage system recovered its seating capacity. This implied the belief that water
was an unlimited resource, while today these systems are surpassed by a design that starts from the
principle of preserving and using rainwater. The prerequisite of this approach is the separation of
white water from waste water which allows the use of rainwater without it being contaminated by
sewage water and prevents the sudden flow of rainwater from surpassing the capacity of the purifiers,
producing uncontrolled spills.
5.1. The New Trends

The turning point, in the context of a changed attitude towards natural resources, is mainly due
to the concept of landscape approach as a method [28] (pp. 9–11), and of integrated design brought
forward in the last decades in American studies on landscape and in the many contributions of different
disciplines. This principle, starting from McHarg [8], continuing with the development of Corner
on Landscape Urbanism [21], and up to Urban Ecological Design [29], spreads the seeds of a new
approach to the design of the contemporary city in an ecological vision. This vision—readily accepted
in northern Europe first, with consolidated Danish and Dutch experiences from Jan Gehl and Aldo Van
Eyck, up to the latest West8 or SLA architectural labs, and after in France by the actors and followers
of the Versailles school: Corajoud [30], Clement e Donadieu [31]—has been elaborated upon within
the European landscape culture, developing an original framework due to the long tradition in urban
planning and public spaces.
In recent decades, therefore, there has been a progressive change of direction [32]. In managing the
relationship between the city and water instead of simply protecting the territory from floods or facing
the sudden rains trying to free the soil of the large amount of rainwater, strategies are experimented to
allocate the presence of this water on the ground surface and then release it in the soil when useful.
Managing the overflow through flow regulation and rainwater conservation, allows their reuse for
climate change effect mitigation and in the treatment of heat islands. The long-standing attention paid
to the presence of plants in the urban landscape and to the care of the public space seem to have had a
favorable evolution today in the contamination with these trends and with the most recent studies for
a sustainable city [33,34].
It is only by introducing and multiplying ecosystem services in the urban fabric that we can
improve the urban condition but, at the same time, it is not only by bringing nature back to the city that
a sustainable city is built: it is above all by reconnecting the city with its natural context, its original
landscape context [35]. It is therefore not just a matter of greening cities, of strengthening ecological
networks or of designing gardens, but action is to be taken to insert real fragments of nature—efficient
ecosystems—into the urban fabric. In this way, while previously limited in parks, nature spreads now
in the urban fabric with green and blue ramifications and nets favorable to the circulation of animal
and vegetable species. When building biological corridors, maintaining areas in hay, reconstructing
wetlands, a strict delimitation between city and nature is no longer applicable at the scale of the city.
A new water management strategy is therefore congruent with this different vision of the
relationship between city and nature. Water and the related soil projects are essential components of
context-based projects because they use existing resources that would otherwise be dispersed and,
by introducing the time variable with the creation of adaptive landscapes, they allow the planning of
an incremental evolution of places. This is the basis for next generation landscape urbanism [30].
The project of wet or water sensitive landscapes is an essential tool for a sustainable city and for
the daily as well as for the exceptional management of events related to overflow; it is a project that
expresses itself through the soil project, proposing adaptive landscapes, which have the ability to retain
and conserve water, to act as a porous substrate, to manage rainwater and flooding, transforming them
from risk factors to resources.
Two domains of a different relationship between city and water:
1. The management of floods with measures to minimize the impacts of rising water on the habitat.
2. The management of rainwater by giving it back the role of a resource.
In each of the two cases it is a question of accepting the issued water and, rather than rejecting it,
keeping and it in place.
5.2. Flood Management to Minimize the Impacts of Rising Water on the Habitat
Flood management adopting measures to minimize the impacts of rising water on the habitat in
new projects implies design choices and the analysis of the acceptability of their degree of risk. As the
Urban Strategy Projects Observation Platform (POPSU) document states: “urbanization of wetlands is
a complex line of thought” which must seek to bring harmony “between risk prevention plans that
are part of an objective of protection of property and people and sustainable urban and landscape
development” [36].
As far as new urban projects are concerned, the main theme is to ensure on site risk management
by designing urban, architectural and landscape systems that, through the soil project, integrate water
into the urban organization. HafenCity in Hamburg [37] is perhaps one of the best-known cases but,
for
but,other aspects,
for other it appears
aspects, a less ainnovative
it appears project.
less innovative The city
project. rises
The cityand defends
rises itself from
and defends itselfthe water;
from the
the new neighborhood that connects the city with its river has been organized
water; the new neighborhood that connects the city with its river has been organized on different on different levels to
ensure at the same time defense from floods and access to the river by building a
levels to ensure at the same time defense from floods and access to the river by building a city with acity with a heightened
urbanity.
heightened Onurbanity.
the riverOn there
the is a series
river thereof is floating
a series ofelements
floatingthat absorbthat
elements theabsorb
daily trend
the dailyof the tides
trend of
which varies about three meters. These floating piers are places for walking and
the tides which varies about three meters. These floating piers are places for walking and for bringingfor bringing boats into
the city;
boats higher
into up is
the city; the level
higher up isofthe
thelevel
old dock
of thewarehouses where today
old dock warehouses there
where are cycle
today therepaths andpaths
are cycle long
pedestrian paths at sea;
and long pedestrian three
paths at meters higher
sea; three metersstill,higher
there are
still,only theare
there entrances
only theto the houses,
entrances thehouses,
to the streets
and the bridges; and finally, even higher up, a system of walkways connecting
the streets and the bridges; and finally, even higher up, a system of walkways connecting the new the new buildings
which mostwhich
buildings of themost
shopsofoverlook
the shops(Figure
overlook 19).(Figure 19).
Figure 19.
Figure 19. Hafencity:
Hafencity: the
the floating
floating piers;
piers; higher
higher up,
up, the
the level
level of
of the
the old
old docks
docks where
where today
today there
there are
are
cycle paths
cycle paths and
and long
long pedestrian
pedestrianpaths
pathsatatsea;
sea;three
threemeters higher
meters higherstill, thethe
still, entrances to the
entrances houses,
to the the
houses,
streets
the andand
streets thethe
bridges; even
bridges; higher
even up,up,
higher a system of walkways
a system of walkwaysconnecting
connecting thethe
new buildings.
new buildings.
Noteworthy but in countertrend is the fact that vegetation has a very marginal or no role at all to
play and therefore the relationship with water is essentially delegated to its mineral parts of the public
space that protect and return excess water to the river. If HafenCity is well known, the Hammarby
district in Stockholm is now a reference point for a sustainable city design. Designed in continuity with
the pre-existing environmental system (woods and lake), the new district recovers the riparian areas,
purifies the waters of the lake with phyto-depuration systems and builds a network of canals and
Figure 19. Hafencity: the floating piers; higher up, the level of the old docks where today there are
green corridors for rainwater that crosses private and public spaces of the neighborhood and connects
cycle paths and long pedestrian paths at sea; three meters higher still, the entrances to the houses, the
both the woods and lake ecosystems (Figure 20).
streets and the bridges; even higher up, a system of walkways connecting the new buildings.
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Hammarby:
Hammarby: the
the new
new district
district recovers
recovers the
the riparian
riparian areas, purifies the
areas, purifies the waters
waters of
of the
the lake
lake with
with
phyto-depurationsystems
phyto-depuration systemsandand builds
builds a network
a network of canals
of canals and green
and green corridors
corridors for rainwater
for rainwater that
that crosses
crosses private and public spaces of the neighborhood and connects both the woods
private and public spaces of the neighborhood and connects both the woods and lake ecosystems. and lake
ecosystems.
In the same trend, is the project to transform the city of Lodz [38] into a Water Sensitive City [39].
Most of Lodz’s urban waterways were transformed into underground canals in the past; this, combined
with the high sealing of the soils, has exposed the city to numerous floods during the recent violent
storms having numerous the consequences for the soil and the water system. As part of the European
program Sustainable Water Management Improves Tomorrows Cities Health (SWITCH), a strategy for
adapting the city to water has been implemented, based on the principle of green and blue networks.
Urban-scale initiatives have been planned to recover the waterways and revitalize the riparian areas,
to create green spaces and corridors to collect and manage rainwater, to condition urban planning to
the system of green and blue networks (Figure 21). Currently, in this context, there is a pilot project
and an integrated approach to design led by a team, where all the actors involved in the management
of water resources and ecosystem services are represented and have been carried out.
The urban project for Vitry gare de Seine by Germe & Jam in France along the Seine is more
radical in building a water-resilient environment. It has as reference the Flood of One Hundred Years
and the issue of flooding risk is at the center of the design of the public space and the urban fabric.
(Figures 22 and 23). In Vitry, an artificial floor consisting of a network of elevated paths connected by
walkways allows the connection of urban services and the entrances of residential buildings in the
event of an extraordinary flood, while public spaces are designed to adjust to ordinary floods and
violent rains.
a strategy for adapting the city to water has been implemented, based on the principle of green and
blue networks. Urban-scale initiatives have been planned to recover the waterways and revitalize the
riparian areas, to create green spaces and corridors to collect and manage rainwater, to condition
urban planning to the system of green and blue networks (Figure 21). Currently, in this context, there
is a pilot project and an integrated approach to design led by a team, where all the actors involved in
the management of water resources and ecosystem services are represented and have been carried
out.
Figure 21. Lodz: urban-scale initiatives have been planned to recover the waterways and revitalize
Lodz:
Figure 21.
Sustainability 2020, 12, xurban-scale initiatives have been planned to recover the waterways and revitalize 20
FOR PEER REVIEW theof 25
the riparian
riparian areas,areas, to create
to create greengreen
spacesspaces and corridors
and corridors to collect
to collect and manage
and manage rainwater,
rainwater, to condition
to condition urban
urban planning to the system of green and blue
planning to the system of green and blue networks. networks.
The urban project for Vitry gare de Seine by Germe & Jam in France along the Seine is more
radical in building a water-resilient environment. It has as reference the Flood of One Hundred Years
and the issue of flooding risk is at the center of the design of the public space and the urban fabric.
(Figures 22 and 23) In Vitry, an artificial floor consisting of a network of elevated paths connected by
walkways allows the connection of urban services and the entrances of residential buildings in the
event of an extraordinary flood, while public spaces are designed to adjust to ordinary floods and
violent rains.
The interesting element of this project is that by allowing the water to expand in the gardens and
under the buildings, Germe & Jam managed to avoid the construction of blind walls at the urban
routes level as happened for instance in Hafencity. The network of elevated paths can also be used
by service vehicles in order to allow, in the event of a flood, an organized and calm removal of the
inhabitants.
FigureFigure 22. Vitry:

22. Vitry: thethe neighborhoodproject
neighborhood project (left)
(left)and
andthe accessibility
the during
accessibility the flood
during (right).
the flood (right).
© Germe&Jam.  Germe&Jam
The interesting element of this project is that by allowing the water to expand in the gardens and
under the buildings, Germe & Jam managed to avoid the construction of blind walls at the urban routes
level as happened for instance in Hafencity. The network of elevated paths can also be used by service
vehicles in order to allow, in the event of a flood, an organized and calm removal of the inhabitants.
Figure 23. Vitry: a network of elevated paths connected by walkways allows the connection of
Sustainability 2020, 12,
Figure 22.8840
Vitry: the neighborhood project (left) and the accessibility during the flood (right). 21 of 25
 Germe&Jam
Figure 23. Vitry: a network of elevated paths connected by walkways allows the connection of
Figure 23. Vitry: a network of elevated paths connected by walkways allows the connection of urban
urban services and entrances of residential buildings in the event of an extraordinary flood, while
services and entrances of residential buildings in the event of an extraordinary flood, while public
public spaces are designed to adjust to ordinary floods and violent rains.  Germe&Jam
spaces are designed to adjust to ordinary floods and violent rains. © Germe&Jam.
5.3.The
5.3. TheManagement
ManagementofofRainwater
RainwaterGiving
GivingThem
ThemBack
Backthe
theRole
RoleofofResource
Resource
There are
There are also
also very
very innovative
innovative interventions
interventions in in the
the domain
domain of of the
the rainwater
rainwater management;
management;
previously considered as something to be disposed of, today rainwater is transformed into aa resource,
previously considered as something to be disposed of, today rainwater is transformed into resource,
bothinin
both “normal”
“normal” andand in exceptional
in exceptional conditions.
conditions. A resource
A resource to beand
to be retained retained andby
organized organized by
capitalizing
capitalizing
upon it, and upon
then it,
to and then in
be used to be used in irrigation,
irrigation, in mitigatingin mitigating
the effectsthe
ofeffects
climateof change,
climate change, and
and in the
in the treatment
treatment of urbanofheat
urban heat [40].
islands islands
The[40]. The number
number of innovative
of innovative projects isprojects is increasing
increasing and the
and the majority
majority
are orientedaretowards
orientedusing
towards theusing
urbanthe urban
soil soilfor
surface surface for the temporary
the temporary collection collection
of water. of The
water. The
water
water collected,
collected, when possible,
when possible, is transformed
is transformed into a temporary
into a temporary leisureleisure
resource resource
and, atand,
the at the time,
same same
time, providing
providing a careful
a careful filteringfiltering capacity
capacity and aand a permeability
permeability of theofsoils,
the soils,
can becanused
be used for watering
for watering or
or slowly
slowly released
released intointo nature.
nature. There
There areare
twotwo types
types ofofprojects:
projects:places
placeswith
withaaprevalence
prevalence of of plants,
plants,
parks or natural areas integrated into the urban fabrics which, in the soil and vegetation arrangement
and in its design and use, integrate temporarily humid landscapes, and small-sized mineral places,
squares, capable of holding rainwater, integrating the overflow with the creation of accessible pools
and fountains. In the first group are the Urbanwater Parc des Docks in Saint Ouen, the Agence Ter’s
Parc Trapeze in Boulogne Billancourt, and the landscape project for the new Rives de la Haute Deûle
district of the atelier de paysage Bruel Delmar.
In the Parc des Docks the rainwater of the surrounding neighborhood is collected and held in
the open by a system of depressions and reservoirs where it is treated by means of a plant filtration
device. In the absence of rain these green spaces have a landscape function, and, in case of rain,
they are animated by the variability of the water, water used to irrigate the park and vegetable
gardens. Moreover, the Trapéze Park in Boulogne Billancourt is at the heart of the district’s rainwater
management system. The permeability of its soils and the storage of water in hollow gardens filters
all rainwater which is then partially recovered in a basin to be reused for irrigation (Figure 24).
This water management system allows for a great diversity of plants and therefore a very differentiated
management of space. The park is a true ecological niche between the river and the green spaces of the
district and is designed to be used even in situations of great overflow (Figure 25).
parks or natural areas integrated into the urban fabrics which, in the soil and vegetation arrangement
and in its design and use, integrate temporarily humid landscapes, and small-sized mineral places,
squares, capable of holding rainwater, integrating the overflow with the creation of accessible pools
and fountains. In the first group are the Urbanwater Parc des Docks in Saint Ouen, the Agence Ter’s
Sustainability
Parc Trapeze in12,
2020, 8840
Boulogne Billancourt, and the landscape project for the new Rives de la Haute 22 of 25
Deûle
district of the atelier de paysage Bruel Delmar.
Figure 24.
Figure 24. Trapéze park in
Trapéze park in Boulogne Billancourt is
Boulogne Billancourt is at
at the
the heart
heart ofof the
the district’s
district’s rainwater management
rainwater management
system. The permeability of its soils and the storage of water in hollow gardens
system. The permeability of its soils and the storage of water in hollow gardens filters all filters all rainwater
rainwater
which is
which is then
then partially
partially recovered
recovered in in aa basin
basin to
to be
be reused
reused for
for irrigation.
irrigation.
In the
The Parc desproject
landscape Docksfor thetherainwater
Rives de of the surrounding
la Haute Deûle district neighborhood is collected
is based on local rainfall.and held in
Its fulcrum
the open by a system of depressions and reservoirs where it is treated by means
is an aquatic garden fed with the rainwater falling on roofs, roads and public spaces. The water flows of a plant filtration
device.
first intoInthe
thesmall
absence of rain
valleys thatthese green
border the spaces haveinto
islets, then a landscape function,
larger canals and, inarrives
and finally case ofpurified
rain, theyin
are aquatic
the animated by the
garden variability
which is sized ofbased
the water, waterbut
on rainfall used to acts
also irrigate
as a the park and
catchment areavegetable
in case of gardens.
floods.
Moreover,
Alwaysthe aimedTrapéze
at thePark in Boulogne
collection Billancourt
and conservation of is at the heart
rainwater, of thegroup
the second district’s rainwater
of realizations
management
are smaller-sized,system. The permeability
punctual interventions of its soils anditthe
where—as storagefor
happens of water
Tåsingein hollow
Square gardens filters
and St. Kiens
all rainwater
square or Hans which
Tavensis then
park partially
of SLA inrecovered in a basin
Copenhagen—the to bespace
public reused is for irrigation
a changing (Figurelandscape.
artificial 24). This
water
In these management
projects, thesystem
shape ofallows for a great
the mineral soil diversity
is deformed of plants
to holdand andtherefore
conservea excess
very differentiated
rainwater in
management
accessible poolsof and
space. The park
fountains is a true
which, ecological
in the absence niche
of rain,between
becomethe partriver andmineral
of the the green spaces
public of
space
the district and is designed to be used even in situations of great overflow (Figure
again, combining the construction of a functionally resilient landscape with the creation of new spaces 25).
The landscape project for the Rives de la Haute Deûle district is based on local rainfall. Its
for leisure.
fulcrum
These is an aquatic
projects aregarden fed withmanifesto
the intelligent the rainwater
of thefalling on roofs,
felicitous roads and
combination public
of good soilspaces.
and waterThe
water flows first into the small valleys that border the islets, then into larger
resource management, the mending of the urban fabric and landscape context, and the quality of the canals and finally arrives
purified
public in the
space. In aquatic garden
this context whichofisoverflow
the theme sized based on rainfall
management butintegral
is an also acts
partasofa the
catchment area in
urban planning
caseorganization,
and of floods. and the urban fabric is able to absorb extreme natural events without being damaged.
These interventions are representative of the various knowledge bases in the field, from which it is clear
that the projects in Northern Europe and the first French projects have treated rainwater with often
multifunctional works mainly aimed at protecting the city from water. This trend—especially in France
thanks to the new water law that imposes a very strict limit on the elimination of rainwater—provides a
lot of space for its storage in the city. Surfaces found in the public space which are, however, returned to
the city in the form of changing wet landscapes. One of the effects of the management of rainwater
on the surface is therefore the slow change of urban landscapes, important from the point of view of
the ecosystem, as something perhaps to be monitored carefully to avoid the wrong homologation of
urban spaces.
Figure 25. Trapéze park: different levels of rainwater and flood.

Figure 25. Trapéze park: different levels of rainwater and flood.
6. Discussion
Always aimed at the collection and conservation of rainwater, the second group of realizations
Due to environmental
are smaller-sized, punctual disasters, resources
interventions exploitation,
where—as it happenslossforin Tåsinge
biodiversity
Squareandand
fastSt.climate
Kiens
change, which are largely caused by human action, the importance of healthy
square or Hans Tavens park of SLA in Copenhagen—the public space is a changing artificial natural environments
has increased.
landscape. Paradoxically,
In these waste
projects, the andof
shape pollution,
the mineralespecially in the caseto
soil is deformed ofhold
wet soil,
and can be potential
conserve excess
resources for the well-being of the environment in which we live. The prolific
rainwater in accessible pools and fountains which, in the absence of rain, become part of the minerallandscape ecology
and
publicecological restoration
space again, combining disciplines significantly
the construction influence landscape
of a functionally architecture
resilient landscape withpractice and
the creation
theory. Forward-thinking
of new spaces for leisure. ecological and environmental planning and landscape architectural practices,
however,
Thesecan diversify
projects are their scope, environmental
the intelligent manifesto ofeffectiveness
the felicitousand enduring of
combination resilience.
good soil and water
The selected
resource management,projects
theofmending
this essayofare
theexemplary
urban fabriccases oflandscape
and interventions on degraded—or
context, at risk
and the quality of
of the
degradation—soils that have managed to reinforce the ecosystem services and
public space. In this context the theme of overflow management is an integral part of the urban transform those places
into placesand
planning fororganization,
the community. andInthethree
urban different types
fabric is ableoftoplaces:
absorb former
extremelandfills,
natural industrial sites,
events without
and
beingurban locations
damaged. threatened
These by overflow,
interventions the strategic of
are representative design of wet and
the various hydric landscapes
knowledge bases in the has the
field,
soil as the key subject. This shows how risk can become a resource while the environmental
from which it is clear that the projects in Northern Europe and the first French projects have treated damage can
rainwater with often multifunctional works mainly aimed at protecting the city from water. This
be remedied. Fundamental elements in the design strategies were the integration of different disciplines
and principles in the remediation process built by design: context based projects, fostering Public
Nature, sustaining Environmental Ethics and supporting Hypernature. The intervention techniques
are different from places to place, to cleanse and to prevent pollution caused by floods to preserve
environmental qualities: from soil washing, to the creation of new resilient urban landscapes.
The research in this field arises as a vision of reconciliation, between the cities and the exploited
soils through the activation of natural processes, between the sciences and the arts, in an action of care
and responsibility for the present and the future of our cities and our living environment. As evidenced
by both the continuous evolution of logic and techniques, this discussion is a fertile and complex field
in which we face the necessary conjunction between the aesthetic experience, the scientific research
and ethical responsibility.
Author Contributions: The authors of the essay wrote the entire content of the article together. F.M. wrote
paragraph 3, I.C. paragraph 4 and L.V.F. paragraph 5. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Bot, A.; Benites, J. The Importance of Soil Organic Matter; FAO Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service:
Rome, Italy, 2005.
2. Albrecht, B. Conservare il Futuro. Il Pensiero della Sostenibilità in Architettura, 1st ed.; Il Poligrafo: Padova,
Italy, 2012.
3. MacHarg, I. Design with Nature, 25th ed.; John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA; New York, NY,
USA, 1995.
4. Meyer, E.K. Sustaining Beauty: The Performance of Appearance. J. Landsc. Archit. 2008, 3, 6–23. [CrossRef]
5. Meyer, E.K. Uncertain Parks: Disturbed Sites, Citizens, and Risk Society. In Large Parks; Julia, C., George, H.,
Eds.; Princeton architectural Press: New York, NY, USA, 2007.
6. Koolhaas, R. Mutations. Harvard Project on the City, 1st ed.; ACTAR: Barcelona, Spain, 2002.
7. Morgia, F. Catastrofe istruzioni per l’uso, 1st ed.; Meltemi: Roma, Italy, 2007; pp. 96–98.
8. Zeunert, J. Landscape Architecture and Environmental Sustainability: Creating Positive Change through Design,
1st ed.; Bloomsbury: London, UK, 2016.
9. Ceschin, S.; Sgambato, V.; Ellwood, N.T.W.; Zuccarello, V. Phytoremediation performance of Lemna
communities in a constructed wetland system for wastewater treatment. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2019, 162, 67–71.
[CrossRef]
10. Fare l’ambiente; Lotus Navigator 2002, n. 5; Editoriale Lotus: Milano, Italy, 2002; pp. 64–69.
11. Oakes, B. Sculpting with the Environment; John Wiley & Son: Hoboken, NJ, USA; New York, NY, USA, 1995.
12. AMD&ART. The Project: 1994–2005; AMD&ART Inc.: Vintondale, PA, USA, 2003.
13. Beardsley, J. Earthworks and Beyond: Contemporary Art in the Landscape, 4th ed.; Abbeville Print: New York,
NY, USA, 2006.
14. Corner, J. Recovering Landscape: Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture, 1st ed.; Princeton Architectural
Press: New York, NY, USA, 1999.
15. Miller, F.P.; Vandome, A.F.; McBrewster, J. James Corner, 1st ed.; Alphascript Publishing-AbeBook: New York,
NY, USA, 2010.
16. Kongjian, Y. Tianjin Qiaoyuan Let Nature do its Work: Adaptive Palette. In Urban Environment Design;
Turenscape: Beijing, China, 2013; pp. 120–123.
17. Padoa Schioppa, C. Kongjian Yu. Turenscape 1998–2018; Librìa: Melfi, Italy, 2019.
18. Peter, L. The Idea of Making Time Visible. In Topos Magazine; Georg GmbH & Co. KG: München, Germany,
2000; pp. 94–99.
19. Douglas Wright Develops the Gas Work Park Case Study in. Available online: https://www.webpages.
uidaho.edu/larc301/lectures/remediation2.htm (accessed on 6 October 2020).
20. EEA, Heavy Precipitation in Europe. Available online: www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/

precipitation-extremes-in-europe-3/assessment-1 (accessed on 8 August 2020).
21. Ferretti, L.V. Paesaggio Urbano, Spazio Urbano; FrancoAngeli: Milano, Italy, 2019.
22. Palazzo, D.; Steiner, F. Urban Ecological Design; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
23. Corajoud, M. Esplorare i limiti, oltrepassarli. In Questo è Paesaggio. 48 definizioni; Zagari, F., Ed.; Mancosu:
Roma, Italy, 2006; pp. 176–179.
24. Donadieu, P. Les Paysagistes. Ou les Métamorphoses du Jardinier; Arles/Versailles, Actes sud/École Nationale
Supérieure de Paysage: Versailles, France, 2009; p. 43.
25. Terrin, J.J. A cura di, Villes Inondables. Prévention, Adaptation, Resilience; Editions Parenthèses: Marseille,
France, 2014.
26. Benoit, R. Le Paysagisme: Source et Ressource pour L’urbanisme?” In Projets de Paysage 11/07/2018.
Available online: http://www.projetsdepaysage.fr/fr/le_paysagisme_source_et_ressource_pour_l_urbanisme
(accessed on 8 September 2020).
27. Mariano, C.; Marino, M. Public Space and climate change. Innovative planning approaches for the urban
regeneration of coastal cities. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Changing Cities IV, Chania,
Greece, 24–29 June 2019.
28. Caramaschi, S. Beyond Landscape (and) Urbanism. Una riflessione sull’atteggiamento paesaggistico nella
trasformazione della città contemporanea. In Resilienza, Rigenerazione, Coevoluzione dei Sistemi Urbani, Atti della
Conferenza Nazionale della SIU; Planum Publisher: Milano, Italy, 2019.
29. POPSU—Plate-forme d’Observation des Projets de Strategies Urbaines. Les Zones Inondables dans la
ville: Renouvellement des Approaches urbaInes et des Projets Architecturaux, Actes du colloque; 10 e 11
marzo 2014, Amsterdam et Rotterdam. Available online: http://www.popsu.archi.fr/sites/default/files/nodes/
document/922/files/actes-popsu-2-du-seminaire-de-rotterdam_1.pdf (accessed on 8 September 2020).
30. Fratini, F. HafenCity, Hamburg: An integrated project. In Urbanistica Informazioni; INU Edizioni: Roma,
Italy, 2014.
31. Howe, C.; Mitchell, C. (a cura di), Water Sensitive Cities; IWA Publishing: London, UK; New York, NY,
USA, 2012.
32. Ashok, K.; Sharma Gardner, T.; Begbie, D. Approach to Water Sensitive Urban Design; Elsevier Science &
Technology: Amserdam, The Netherlands, 2018.
33. Urban Adaptation to Climate Change in Europe. Available online: www.eea.europa.eu/publications/urban-
adaptation-to-climate-change (accessed on 8 September 2020).
34. Centro di Ricerca sui Consumi di Suolo. TERRA! Conservare le superfici, tutelare la risorsa: Il suolo, un bene
comune; Maggioli Editore: Santarcangelo di Romagna, Italy, 2012.
35. Commission Européenne. Lignes Directrices Concernant les Meilleures Pratiques Pour Limiter, Atténuer ou
Compenser l’imperméabilisation des Sols; Office des publications de l’Union Européenne: Luxembourg, 2012.
36. Commoner, B. The Closing Circle: Nature, Man and Technology; Knopf: New York, NY, USA, 1971.
37. Sorlini, S.; Riganti, V. (a cura di) Inquinanti Emergenti nelle Acque a uso Umano; Maggioli Editore: Santarcangelo
di Romagna, Italy, 2019.
38. Skousen, J.; Simmons, J.; McDonald, L.M.; Ziemkiewicz, P. Acid-base accounting to predict post-mining
drainage quality on surface mines. J. Environ. Qual. 2002, 31, 2034–2044. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Bodner, G.; Nakhforoosh, A.; Kaul, H.-P. Management of Crop Water under Drought: A Review.
Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015, 35, 401–442. [CrossRef]
40. Trenberth, E.K. The Impact of Climate Change and Variability on Heavy Precipitation, Floods, and Droughts.
In Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences; Anderson, M.G., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2005.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 12 08840

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sustainability 12 08840

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 8840; doi:10.3390/su12218840 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Methods

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25

4.1. Hypernature as Aesthetic Experience

4.1. Hypernature as Aesthetic Experience

4.2. Public Nature as City Culture

These themes, presented through built contemporary paradigms, arise as a vision of

5.1. The New Trends

FigureFigure 22. Vitry:

Figure 25. Trapéze park: different levels of rainwater and flood.

20. EEA, Heavy Precipitation in Europe. Available online: www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/

You might also like