Engineering Chemistn

is not suitable for laundry washing, and dyeing

(2) Hard water
undesired stains.
ofclothes. It may cause
boilers used in industry.
(3) Hard water is harmful to steam
It maycause boiler scales. Boiler scales wastage causes offuel
metal. The boiler scales
in boiler and leads to over heating ofboiler
with the over heated metal
may crack and sudden contact of water
may lead to boiler explosion.
4) Itis not suitable for cooking, because it may cause unpleasent

taste for tea, coffee etc.,

5) Hard water is not suitable for drinking. Because the dissolved
calcium salts may lead to the deposits of calcium oxalate crystals in
urinary track and stones in.kidney.

Hard water Soft water

Hard water does not produce lather readily with soap Soft water produces lather readily with soap

Hard water contains dissolved impurities such as Soft water does not contain dissolved impuries
bicarbonates, chlorides or sulphates of calcium and such as bicarbonates, chlorides or sulphates of
magnesumn. calcium and magnesium.

Hard water leads to wastage of soap No wastage of soap with soft water

Hard water cause undesired stains in clothes hence It does not cause undesired stains in clothes.
not suitable for textile industry. Suitable for textile industry.
It is not suitable for cooking, because it may cause It is suitable for cooking purpose .
unpleasent taste for tea, coffee etc., No bad taste to cooked items.

Hard water is harmful to steam boilers used in Itis not harmful to steam boilers used in industry.
industry. It forms boiler scales No boiler scales.

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 Engineering Chemistry

3.2. TYPES OF HARDNESS

There are two types ofhardness

(a) Temporary hardness (b) Permanent Hardness.

TEMPORARY HARDNESS AND ITS REMOVAL
Hardness caused by the dissolved bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium is calledtemporaryhardness. It can be removed by a)
magi
Clark's process.
boiling the water b)
A) BOILING

When boiled, the dissolved bicarbonates, decompose to

insoluble carbonates and CO, gas.

The precipited carbonates are removed by filtration

Ca(HCO,), CaCO, +H,0+CO, t

Mg (HCO,) MgcO, +H,O+CO,t
B) CLARK'S PROCESS
In the Clark's process, sufficient amount oflime [Ca(OH,] is
added to the hard water. Lime reacts with the bicarbonates and converts
t into insoluble carbonates which are removed by filtration.

Ca(HCO,),+Ca(OH), 2CaCO, +2H,0

Mg(HCO,), + Ca(OH), MgCO, +CaCO, +2H,0O

( 69
 Engineering Chemist,
REMOVAL.
PERMANENT HARDNESS AND ITS

Hardness caused by the dissolved

chlorides or sulphates.of
called Pemanent Hardness.
Calcium and Magnesium in water is
the water.
It cannot be removed by boiling
method.
It can be removed by ion exchange

lon exchangers are functionalized polymers containing

acid

groups [carboxylic acid group(-COOH) or sulphonic acid

(-SO,H)group] or hydroxyl groups(-OH). lon exchangers containing
acid groups are called cation exchangers and those containing hydroxy
groups are called anion exchangers.

1ONEXCHANGE METHOD
I n this method the hard water is first allowed to pass through a
tank packed with cation exchange resin,then itis passed through
a tank packed with anion exchange resin.

cation exchangers (E-H)are capable ofremoving all positive

ions (cations such as Ca* and Mg*)in water by exchange with
H ions from the acid groups in it.

a) 2 E-H+Ca> E,-Ca +2H

b) 2 E-H+ Mg*> EMg + 2H

Now the water becomes acidic due to the presence of H" ions

This acidic water coming out of cation exchanger is then passed

through a secondtank containing an anion exchanger (E-OH)
to removeall anions (Cl and SO, present in it.

a) E-OH+C1 » E-Cl+OH,
b) 2 E-H+S0, E,-SO, + 20H

70
 Engineering Chemistry
The OH ions neutralize the H' ions. Thus all the dissolved
cations and anions responsible for hardness are removed from
hardwater by this method.
This method is known as demineralisation, because metal salts
are also known as minerals.

Hard water

Fig-Demineralisation ofwater

REGENERATION OF ION EXCHANGER.

The cation exchanger is regenerated by using an acid, and the

anion exchanger is regenerated by using an alkali solution.

Problem of using hard waterin boilers

Formation of boiler scales : On boiling, hard water deposits
a

hard crust or scale on the inner walls of thesteam generating

boilers and the steam pipes.
of
This scale is hard and heat insulating and it leads to wastage
fuel.
Sometimes the boiler scales crack and the water suddenly
comes in contact withoverheated iron walls
ofthe boiler.Asa
and the
result, large amounts of steam is formed suddenly
boiler explodes due to high pressure

71
 Engineering Chemistry

3.3. POTABLE (DRINKABLE)WATER

of the natural sources such asponds and

Water from most
without some purification
rivers is not suitable for drinking
some dissolved as well as
processes. Because it may contain
bacteria such
suspended impurities. It may also contain pathogenic
as coliforms.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POTABLE WATER OR THE
QUALITIES REQUIRED FOR POTABLE WATER.

i t should notbepolluted. It should be purified by responsible

agencies such as water authority or municipal bodies.

i)It shouldbe free from pathogenic micro organism like bacteria

and germs. (Eg: coliform bacteria)
I t should be clear,odourless and safe to drink. Turbidity should
be less than 10 ppm.
iv) It should not have bad taste.

v)Its pH should be around 7. ie, It should not be highly acidic or

highly basic.

vi) Dissolved salts should be within the limit. For example the
maximum limit-lead:0.1 ppm, copper: 3 ppm, magnesium:
1.5 ppm, iront manganese: 0.3
ppm, chlorides and sulphates
250ppm each. Total dissolved solids should be less than
500 ppm.
vi It should be
reasonably soft.
 Engineering Chemistry
INVOLVED NTHE MAKING OFPOTABLE WATER
STE

Water from natural sources is made drinkable or Potable by

larification and sterilization. The removal of coarse, dispersed

colloidal impurities from water is known as clarification.

and colloid
and
Clarification involves () Screening (i) Sedimentation (ii) Coagulation
and iv) Filtration.
The claritied water is then subjected to sterilization
all pathogenic microorganisms.
to remove

Screening: It is the removal of coarse soils, gravel or slit

or mesh screens.
from the water by using bar screens
Sedimentation : In this process, water is allowed to stand

undisturbed in big tanks for 6 to 12 hours. This is to remove the

suspended particles bysettling down under the force of gravity.
Coagulation: This is to removethe unsettled impurities of
colloidal nature by forcing them to settle down by adding certain
chemicals called coagulants. Alum is the widely used coagulant.

Filtration: By filtration process, insoluble impurities are

removed from water by means offilters.
Filtration Tank is a rectangular tank made ofconcrete. Filtering

medium is a thick top layer of fine sand placed over coarse sand
layer and graded gravel.
lt is provided with an inlet for water and an outlet for clear
tiltered water at the bottom.

73
 Engineering Chemi.
hemistry

Water
inlet

FineFine Sand
Coarse Sand
Fine Gravel
Coarse Gravel
Water Outlet

Filtration Tank

In pressure Filters, the filtering material is

kept in a closed
cylinder and water is forced into the filter under pressure.
This makes the filtration more fast.
(V) STERILIZATION

Water even after the clarification

small percentage of
operations may contain a
pathogenic bacteria.
The process of
destroying the pathogenic bacteria and micro
organisms in the water and making it safe for
sterilization. drinking is called

Chlorination, addition of bleaching

ultraviolet iradiation and ultra sonic powder, ozonization,
used sterilization methods oscillations are the most widely

74
 Engineering Chemistry
TERILIZATION BYCHLORINE
(CHLORINATION)
Chlorination is the most widely used process for
the world. Chlorine gas
sterilization
throughou or chlorine water can be used.
reacts with water to form
Chlorine hypochlorous acid (HOCI). It
dissociates to give nascent oxygen which destroys all germms.

Cl,+H,0> HOCI+HCI
HOCI HCI+ (0)
It also removes colour and bad taste of water.

STERILIZATION BY BLEACHING POWER

Water can be sterilized by mixilig about
lgofbleaching powder
(CaOC1,) to 1000 litre of water. Hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and
nascent oxygen(atomic oxygen) produced are powerful
germicides.
CaOCl,+H,0 Ca(OH), +Cl,
Cl +H,0> HOCI+HCI
HOCI
Hypochlorous acid
HCl+(0)

STERILIZATION BY OZONE
Ozone gas (0,) when passed through water, nascent oxygen is
generated. It kills all the germs and bacteria.

0,0+(0)
Ozonisation is more advantageous than chlorination. Ozone
sterilizes, bleaches and deodorizes water. An excess of ozone causes
ho danger. It causes no irritation. The taste of water is improved with

02one. Ozone can be easily prepared by applying an electric discharge

on
n oxygen or air in an ozoniser. But excess of chlorine may cause bad

aste and iritation. Excess chlorine has to be removed by aeration or

by passing SO,
75
 Engineering Chemistr

RADIATION
STERILIZATION BY
ULTRA VIOLET
lamp immersed in
electric mercury
U.V. radiation coming from
pathogenic bacteria
effectively. UVrays kills all
water can sterilize water
vessels should not be used because jt
This method is expensive. Glass
300 nm is theeffective bactericidal
absorbs alluv radiations. 200 to

region.
SONIC OSCILLATIONS
STERILIZATION WITH ULTRA
and plant cells. Ultra
Ultra sound kills micro organisms, animals
and there by
sound produces minute cavities in water around objects
destruction of bacterial
develop some pressure. This causes mechanical

cells.
FLOW CHART
Production of_potable water for municipal supply

SCREENING

SEDIMENTATION

COAGULATION

FILTRATION

STERILIZATION

POTABLE
WATER

76
 Engineering Chemistry
LINATION OF SEA WATER.
D E S A L

The removal of dissolved salts and minerals from the sea water
making it drinkable is called desalination. Reverse osmosis is one
andn

f'the metho employed for desalination in which pure water is taken

Out
om the impure
sea water bymeans of semi permcable membranes.
A
Asemi permeableemembrane allow the passage of solvent molecules
(A

prevent the passage of solute particles through it.)

only and
REVERSE OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS AND
When a semipemeable membrane is placed between a solution
and pure solvent, there
is a tendency for the solvent molecules to

move through
the membrane to the solution side by the process called
desaline water,
osmosis. Hence ordinary osmosis can not be used to
is in wrong direction. Osmosis can, however,
hecause the movement
a pressure on the solution side, that is, just
be prevented by applying
solution. If the applied pressure
equal to the osmotic pressure ofthe moves out
exceeds the osmotic pressure, solvent molecules(water)
solvent side through the membrane. This
from the solution to the pure
as reverse osmosis. This
method can be employed
process is known
extraction of pure water from salt
water.
for desalination, that is the
used for the reverse
Schematic representation of the set up
Osmosis is shown in the fig.

Semipermeable membrane Ps T P>1T

Fresh water |Saline water

Fresh Saline.wae
Reverse Osmotlc System
.
Normal osmotic system

Reverse osmosis
Nomal osmosis
7
 Engineering C'hemistr
In this method, sea water to be purified and pure waler are
taken in two compartments separated by a semipermeable membrae
(made ofpolystyrene, cellophane, polyvinyl chloride or ethyl cellulose)
Nomallyfresh water tends to movethrough semipemeable membrane
towards the solution side, but by putting a sufficiently large pressure
P) on the compartment containing saline water, the normal osmotic
flow can be reversed and water molecules start coming out from sea

water to the other side through the membrane.

REVERSE OSMOSIS

Consider, a solution separated from the pure solvent by a

semipermeable membrane.

I f the pressure(P) applied on the solution is more than the

osmotic pressure (7 ), the solventwill start flowing from the solution
towards the pure solvent. This phenomenon is known as reverse
Osmosis.

Pressure

Salt
solution Pure water

Semipermeable
Membrane

78
 Engineering Chemistry

semipermeable
Pressure membranne
vessel

Feed
Salt
water solution Pure
water
High
Pressure
pump
Pure water
Brine

molecules from the

Reverse osmosis is the flow of solvent
solution side to the solvent side through semipermeable
osmotic pressure is
membrane when pressure higher than
a

applied on the solution side.

PURIFICATION
APPLICATION: SEA WATER

osmosis is to find membranes

Amajor problem in reverse
and at the
withstand the high pressures required
strong enough to
to the ions in salt water. Synthetic
same time be impermeable
cellulose acetate have now been
membranes made of nylon or

these requirements.
Desalination plants using such
developed to meet

membranes are now producing

millions of gallons of fresh water per
future because energy
ay. This process is promising for the
osmosis is only 30% ofthatof distillation
Tcquirements for reverse

process.
79
 Engineering Chemistry

SAMPLE QUESTIONS.
ASSIGNMENT AND

1. Distinguishbetween
Soft water
a) Hard water and
hardness and Permanent Hardness.
b) Temporary
removed? give two methods?
2. How cantemperory hardness be
formed?
3 What are boiler scales ? how is it
water in industrial and
4 What are the disadvantages of hard
domestic use..?
5. How can hardness ofwater be removed using ion exchange
resins.?
6. Explain the changes taking place when water with temporaryy
hardness is boiled.?
7. Explain the desalination ofsea water by reverse osnmosis.

8. What is potable water? What are its characteristics?

9 Explain the steps involved in the production of potablewater

10. Draw a flow chart for the production of potable water for
municipal supply.
11. Explain the chemicalaction ofbleaching powder.
12. Explain the formation of active species in ozonisation.

13. What are the important sterilization techniques employed in the

production ofpotable water?

80