Multiphase Flow Fundamentals 1

1.3.1. Liquid–liquid flows

Compared to gas–liquid flows, less research has been carried out on the
liquid–liquid system. The flow patterns are more complex as is illustrated
by Figures 1.5 and 1.6. A general discussion of liquid–liquid flows is given by
Govier and Aziz (1972). For the oil–water case, the oil and water will have
different densities. The flow patterns are strongly affected by the density
2 Types of Multiphase Flows, Flow Patterns and Flow-Pattern Maps

Flow direction
P Q R S

10
Superficial water velocity, VSL, ft./sec.

H I J K L M N O

1.0

A B C D E F G

0.1

0.01 0.10 1.0 10.0

Superficial oil velocity, VSO, ft./sec.

Figure 1.5 Flow patterns in vertical oil–water flow (Govier and Aziz, 1972).

difference as is illustrated by the extreme case in Figure 1.7. In general, the

regimes have somewhat the same characteristic forms for those for gas–liquid
flow with dispersion increasing as the velocities increase. Oil–water flows
in inclined pipes have been studied by Vigneaux et al. (1988). Other studies
of liquid–liquid flow include those of Hasan and Kabir (1988) and Martinez
et al. (1988).

1.3.2. Gas–liquid–liquid flows

Information on three-phase gas–liquid–liquid flows is even sparser than that
for liquid–liquid flows. Limited laboratory studies using vertical, small
 Multiphase Flow Fundamentals 3

5.0
M N O
Superficial water velocity, VSL, ft./sec.

H J L
I K
1.0 Flow direction

0.5
C E G
D F

A B
0.1

0.05
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Superficial oil velocity, VSO, ft./sec.

Figure 1.6 Flow patterns in horizontal oil–water flow with an oil–water density
ratio of 0.83 (Govier and Aziz, 1972).

5.0
K M
Superficial water velocity, VSL, ft./sec.

L N

F H J
1.0
G I
0.5
Flow direction

A C E

0.1 B D

.05
0.01 0.05 0.1 .05 1.0 2 5 10
Superficial oil velocity, VSO, ft./sec.

Figure 1.7 Flow patterns in horizontal oil–water flow with near equal densities for
the oil and water (Govier and Aziz, 1972).

diameter tubes have been carried out (Shean, 1978) along with
measurements on horizontal pipelines with varying water cut (WC)
(Guzhove et al., 1974), which reported an interesting feature is that, with
increasing WC, the pressure gradient along the pipeline passes through a
4 Types of Multiphase Flows, Flow Patterns and Flow-Pattern Maps

maximum. This phenomenon was claimed to be due to an increase in

viscosity resulting from the emulsification of the oil–water mixture. Other
research on gas–oil–water mixtures also reported an observed increase in
pressure gradient in cases where emulsions were formed (Duns and Ros,
1963). One may conclude that, with significant WC, the chance of
emulsification is even greater in three-phase flows than in the case of
liquid–liquid flows. Such emulsification increases the pressure gradient
along the pipe and makes the liquid phases more difficult to separate.

1.3.3. Solid–liquid–liquid–gas flows

The presence of a solid phase increases the complexity of the flow for a
variety of reasons. For instance, the solid particles may collect at the bottom
of the pipe in horizontal flows and this may have a significant effect on
pressure drop and flow pattern. Furthermore, the solids may agglomerate into
larger lumps, particularly if they are preferentially wetted by the oil phase.
Little information exists on four-phase flows of this type, though there have
been some studies on horizontal pipeline transport of gas–slurry mixtures
(Heywood and Richardson, 1978, 1980). In these experiments, the presence
of air gave a lower pressure gradient than that which would have occurred
for the flow of the slurry itself. However, it is not certain whether this effect
would also occur in four-phase flows. In a normal well stream, significant
solid (sand) content is unlikely because wells producing sand are normally
treated or managed to minimise the sand entering the production stream.

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF FLOW STRUCTURE AND

DEVELOPMENT in MFM
It is perhaps not unexpected that flow regimes (as illustrated in Figures
1.1–1.7) have a significant effect on instrument response. The reasons for
this include the following:

(a) In many instrumentation systems, the flow structure has a direct

influence on the accuracy of the measurement. For instance (see
Chapter 4), the response of gamma-ray densitometers will depend on
the orientation of the fluids within the pipe and the output from
impedance meters is strongly affected by the flow regime (in particular
with reference to which phase is dispersed in the other).
(b) Equilibrium flow patterns are not generated instantaneously. An
example of this would be the case of bubbly flow, which might exist in
a transient sense at high void fractions, with the transition to slug flow
being delayed.
14 Modelling of Multiphase Flow

(c) Within any given flow pattern, flow development may take many
hundreds of pipe diameters. An example here is annular flow, where
very long pipe lengths are required to reach equilibrium between
entrainment and deposition of droplets.
It is the existence of flow patterns, the problems of their development
and the change of the flows within any given flow pattern, which makes
MFM so difficult. Unless the flow pattern is rearranged (as in the case of
homogenisation), then many instruments could never be expected to
perform satisfactorily. This is one of the main factors governing the
selection of instrumentation schemes.
More recently, visual observations of multiphase flow regimes have been
combined with modelling efforts, as will be discussed in the next paragraph.

1.5. MODELLING OF MULTIPHASE FLOW

The nature of multiphase flows is highly complex and the development
of multiphase flow models presents a severe challenge. The combination of
empirical observations of multiphase flow patterns with modelling has been
proven to enhance the understanding of multiphase flow.
It is important to be aware of multiphase flow modelling techniques as
these are generally integrated within the hardware of commercial MFM’s,
particularly to model the occurrence of slip between the liquid and the gas
phase. Unfortunately, a detailed description of the models implemented in
commercial MFM’s is not always made readily available by the vendors.
In brief, there exist four different types of multiphase flow models,
which can be categorised as follows.

1.5.1. Empirical
Data for frictional pressure gradient and void fraction are related to system
variables through empirical equations. For the development of a reliable
empirical model, a large number of experiments is required to reproduce a
specific problem. However, this may be expensive and, unless a
dimensional analysis is carried out, the empirical model will only apply
to a limited set of conditions. Empirical models lack the inclusion of
fundamental physical mechanisms, but they do have the advantage of being
relatively simple and fast to run.

1.5.2. Phenomenological
Observations are made of the flow patterns and models constructed with
appropriate closure laws to represent the flow based on the pattern features.
Multiphase Flow Fundamentals 15

1.5.3. Multifluid
Formal governing equations (mass, momentum and energy) are solved with
appropriate closure laws (usually based on empirical data). With the advent of
modern computing technology, the numerical solution of the partial
differential equations characterising multi-dimensional and time-dependent
multiphase flows has become possible. There are many ways to model a
multiphase flow problem using partial differential equations, depending on
the physical phenomena of interest and the nature of the problem. In a multi-
fluid model, equations are solved for each of the fluids taking into account
the interactions between them. Empirical models are still required to close
the system of differential equations and therefore, the success of numerical
modelling depends on the availability and quality of experimental data.

1.5.4. Interface tracking

This technique allows the calculation of the details of the interfacial
structure by various techniques. The interface tracking method uses an
auxiliary function (which is solved separately) to describe the interfaces
between phases (Hewitt and Reeks, 2005). The two main approaches for
the simulation of free surfaces and fluid interfaces are the surface method
and volume method. In the surface method, the interface is tracked
explicitly by marking it with marker points or by attaching it to a mesh that
follows the movement of the interface. In the volume method, the fluid in
the entire computational domain is marked – not just the interface. The
applicability of interface tracking methods is usually limited to simple flow
configurations.
The above approaches can be formulated in different ways, depending on
whether the flow being described is in steady-state, pseudo steady-state or
transient conditions. From a flow metering point of view, all these situations
can be encountered and a meter will respond differently in each situation.
Thus, it is very important to be able to predict the flow conditions that will
be arriving at the meter prior to selecting the most appropriate MFM. In the
next paragraph, a brief explanation of the fundamental differences between
steady-state, pseudo steady-state or transient flow will be provided.

1.6. STEADY-STATE, PSEUDO STEADY-STATE AND

TRANSIENT MULTIPHASE FLOWS
A flow in a conduit of constant cross-sectional area is said to be under
steady-state conditions when its velocity and pressure may vary from point
to point, but do not change with time. If they do vary with time, then the
16 References

SS P
=0
t i

PSS P
= const
t i
Pressure

US P
= f (i,t )
t

for a given location i

Time

Figure 1.8 Difference between steady-state, pseudo steady-state and unsteady-state

(or transient) flow – fluid pressure variation with time at a given location i.

flow is called transient. In multiphase flows, the volumetric fractions of the

participating phases can also change with time under transient conditions.
It must be noted that the concept of steady-state flow is not to be
confused with that of uniform flow, where the velocity at a given instant is
the same in magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid.
Under pseudo steady-state conditions, the velocity, pressure and phase
fractions can change with time, but their variation with regards to time is
constant.
These fundamental concepts are captured in Figure 1.8, where variations
of fluid pressure with time (at a given location i) are depicted for steady-state,
pseudo (or semi) steady-state and transient (or unsteady-state) flow.
Report 62GL130.