Concept Building:

What You Need to Know

Course Outcomes
Defined statistics and other statistical terms.
Discussed the History and Application of Statistics
Discussed the Fields of Statistics
Differentiated Qualitative and Quantitative
Used the rules of Summation notation
Applied Sampling Techniques appropriately
Know the Sources of data
Know how to Collect data
Know the Methods of presentation
Set up the Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)

Lesson 1- Overview of Statistics

Data
Data are the numbers resulting from counting or measurements or experiments.

Statistics
Statistics is a field of study concerned with the collection, organization,
summarization, and analysis of data (Descriptive Statistics). It is the drawing of
inferences about a body of data when only part of the data is observed. (Inferential
Statistics)

Population vs Sample
The population (N) includes all objects of interest whereas the sample (n) is
only a portion of the population. Parameters are associated with populations and
statistics with samples. Parameters are usually denoted using Greek letters (μ-mu,
σsigma) while statistics are usually denoted using Roman letters (x-̅ mean, s-standard
deviation).
We compute statistics, and use them to estimate parameters. The
computation is the first part of the statistics course (Descriptive Statistics) and the
estimation is the second part (Inferential Statistics)

History and Applications of Statistics

Historical records show that since the beginning of civilization simple forms of
statistics had already been used. This is manifested by pictorial representations and
other symbols used to record numbers of people, animals and inanimate objects on
skins, slabs, sticks of wood, or the walls of caves. Records show that even before
3000 B.C., Babylonians used small clay tablets to record tabulations of agricultural
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harvests and of commodities bartered or sold. The Egyptians analyzed the
population aryl material of their country before they begun building the pyramid in
the 31st century B.C. Even the biblical books of Numbers and 1 Chronicles show
statistical works. Numbers contained two separate censuses of the Israelites while 1
Chronicles described the material wealth of various Jewish tribes. In China, similar
numerical records existed before 2000 B.C. As early as 594 B.C., the ancient Greeks
held censuses used as bases for taxation
Records also show that the Roman Empire was the first government to gather
extensive data about the population, area, and wealth of the territories that it
controlled. In Europe, few comprehensive censuses were made during the Middle
Ages in the early 16th century, registration of deaths and births begun in England.
Then in 1662 the first noteworthy statistical study of population was made. In 1691,
a similar study of mortality made in Breslau, Germany was used by the English
astronomer Edmond Halley as a basis for the earliest mortality table. In the I9th
century, investigators recognized the need to reduce information to numerical
values to avoid the ambiguity of verbal description.
At present, statistics is a reliable means of describing accurately the values of
economic, political, social, psychological biolog ical, and physical data. Statistics
serves as a tool to correlate and analyze collected data. It is no longer confined to
gathering and tabulating data. Now, it is also a process of interpreting the
information serves as a basis for plans.
Statistics aids in decision making by providing comparisons of data, explaining
action that has taken place, justifying claim or assertion, predicting future outcome,
estimating unknown quantities thru given data. It also summarizes data for public
use like results of survey and polls.
Statistical methods are indispensable tools in many researchers in education,
psychology, medicine, business, agriculture, and other disciplines.

Applications of Statistics
Government Agencies. The government uses statistics to make decisions about
populations, health, education, etc. using a census.
Biological and Medical Science. The medical field would be far less effective without
research to see which medicines or interventions work best and how the human
bodies react to treatment. Medical professionals also perform studies by race, age,
or nationality to see the effect of these characteristics on health.
Psychology/Social sciences. Although this is attached to both the science and
medical field, success in psychology would be impossible without the systematic
study of human behavior, often analyzing results statistically.
Social sciences. Statistics guide researchers and help them support theories and
models that cannot stand on rationale alone.
Education. Teachers are encouraged to be researchers in their classrooms, to see
what teaching methods work on which students and understand why. They also
should evaluate test items to determine if students are performing in a statistically
expected way. At all levels of education and testing there are statistical reports
about student performance.

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Large Companies. Every large company employs its own statistical research divisions
or firms to research issues related to products, employees, customer service, etc.
Business success relies on knowing what is working and what isn't.
Business. A company can use statistics to forecast sales, design products and to
produce goods more efficiently.
Engineering. It can be used to test properties of various materials.

Fields of Statistics
1. Statistical Methods / Applied Statistics. It refers to procedures and techniques
used in the collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.
1.1 Descriptive Statistics. Comprise those methods concerned with collecting
describing and analyzing a set of data without drawing conclusions or inferences
about a large group; conclusions are only applicable to data on hand.
1.2 Inferential Statistics. Comprise those methods concerned with the analysis of a
subset of data leading to predictions or inferences about the entire set of data; one
does not merely describe but actually predicts and make decisions based on the
information gathered; conclusions are applicable not only on the data on hand but
even to a larger set of data of which the data on hand is only a subset.
2. Statistical Theory or Mathematical Theory. It deals with the development and
exposition of theories that serves as the bases of statistical methods.

List of fields of application of statistics

1. Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical
methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries.
2. Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the
understanding of astronomical data.
3. Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and
observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics.
4. Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical
methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of
business performance & opportunities
5. Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a chemical
system or process to the state of the system via application of mathematical or
statistical methods.
6. Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general
science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that
changes over time or space.
7. Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods to the
empirical study of economic theories and relationships.
8. Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods to environmental
science. Weather, climate, air and water quality are included, as are studies of plant
and animal populations.
9. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations,
and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public
health and preventive medicine.
10. Forensic statistics is the application of probability models and statistical
techniques to scientific evidence, such as DNA evidence, and the law. In contrast to
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"everyday" statistics, to not engender bias or unduly draw conclusions, forensic
statisticians report likelihoods as likelihood ratios (LR).
11. Geostatistics is a branch of geography that deals with the analysis of data from
disciplines such as petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology,
oceanography, geochemistry, geography.
12. Jurimetrics is the application of probability and statistics to law.
13. Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that formulates algorithms
in order to make predictions from data.
14. Operations research (or operational research) is an interdisciplinary branch of
applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods such as mathematical
modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near optimal solutions to
complex problems.
15. Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of
species
populations and how these populations interact with the environment.
16. Psychometrics is the theory and technique of educational and psychological
measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.
17. Quality control reviews the factors involved in manufacturing and production; it
can make use of statistical sampling of product items to aid decisions in process
control or in accepting deliveries.
18. Quantitative psychology is the science of statistically explaining and changing
mental processes and behaviors in humans.
19. Reliability engineering is the study of the ability of a system or component to
perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time
20. Statistical finance, an area of econophysics, is an empirical attempt to shift
finance from its normative roots to a positivist framework using exemplars from
statistical physics with an emphasis on emergent or collective properties of financial
markets.
21. Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes
mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics,
which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a
force.
22. Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and uses
methods of probability theory in solving physical problems.
23. Statistical signal processing utilizes the statistical properties of signals to perform
signal processing tasks.
24. Statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of
thermodynamic systems using probability theory and provides a molecular level
interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy, and
entropy.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

One of the things which a researcher usually does in initial stages of a statistical
inquiry is to define the variables relevant to his problem. Data can be categorized as
quantitative data or qualitative data.

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Quantitative data is a variable that takes on numerical value that can be measured
like weight, height, volume, temperature and all the things that are measurable.
Quantitative data can be discrete (whole numbers) or continuous (decimals).
Qualitative data is a variable that takes on value that refer to kind rather than
amount like sex, kind of clothing, type of school, and religion.

Four Levels of Measurement

Nominal level/Classification Scale. It is the lowest level of measurement where
numbers/symbols are used simply for categorizing or naming subjects into different
groups like sex, marital status, religion, courses, and nationality.
Ordinal Level/Ranking Scale. Are numbers assigned to categories of any variable
that can be ranked or ordered in some low-to-high manner, for example ratings of
teachers, year level, grades (A, B, C, D).
Interval level. It must have a common and constant unit of measurement like IQ,
temperature, weight, height, etc.
Ratio level. It contains all properties of the interval level and has true zero point
or the absolute zero like number of correct answers in a quiz and number of votes
cast.

Discrete and Continuous variables

Discrete variables. Are finite or countable numbers.
Continuous variables. Are measurable entities, in decimal form.

Sampling Techniques
1. Probability sampling. It is a sampling procedure that gives every element of the
population a nonzero chance of being selected in the sample.
Note. Whenever possible, probability sampling is used because there is no objective
way of assessing the reliability of inferences under non-probability sampling.
1.1. Simple Random Sampling. It is a method of selecting n sample units out of the N
units in the population in such a way that every distinct sample of the size n has an
equal chance of being drawn. The process of selecting the sample must give an equal
chance of selection to any one of the remaining elements in the population at any
one of the n draws.
Random sampling may be with replacement (SRSWR) or without replacement
(SRSWOR). In SRSWR, a chosen element is always replaced before the next selection
is made, so that an element may be chosen more than once.
Sample Selection Procedure/steps
1. Make a list of the sampling units and number them from 1 to N.
2. Select n numbers from 1 to N using some random process.
E.g. lottery method, table of random numbers, calculator - press (R) x N.
3. The sample consists of the units corresponding to the selected random
numbers.
1.2 Stratified Random Sampling. It is a process where the population of N units is
first divided into sub-populations called strata. Then a simple random sampling is
drawn from each stratum, the selection being made independently in different
strata.
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 Sample Selection Procedure/steps
1. Divide the population into strata. Ideally, each stratum must consist of
more or less homogeneous units.
2. After the population has been stratified, a simple random sample is
selected from each stratum.
1.3 Systematic Sampling. It is a process with a “random start”, this sampling
procedure is a method of selecting a sample by taking every kth unit from an ordered
population, the first unit being selected at random. Here k is called the sampling
interval; the reciprocal 1/k is the sampling fraction.
Sample Selection Procedure/steps
Method A (N/n is whole number)
1. Number the units of the population consecutively from 1 to N.
2. Determine the k, the sampling interval using the formula k = N / n
3. Select the random start r, where 1 ≤ r ≤ k. The unit corresponding to r is
the first unit of the sample.
4. The other units of the sample corresponds to r+k, r+2k, r+3k,…,r+(n - 1)k.
Method B (N/n is real number)/steps
1. Number the units of the population consecutively from 1 to N.
2. Let k be the nearest integer to N / n.
3. Select the random start r, where 1 ≤ r ≤ N. The unit corresponding to r is
the first unit of the sample.
4. Consider the list of units of the population as a circular list, in effect, the
last unit in the list followed by the first. The other units in the sample are the
units corresponding to r+k, r+2k, r+3k,…, r+(n - 1)k.
1.4 Cluster Sampling. It is a method of sampling where a sample of distinct groups,
or clusters, or elements is selected and then a census of every element in the
selected cluster is taken. Similar to strata in stratified sampling, cluster are non-
overlapping sub populations that together or a city block might also be considered as
a cluster. Unlike strata, however, clusters are preferably formed with
heterogeneous, rather than a homogeneous element so that each cluster will be
typical of the population.
Clusters may be of equal or unequal size. When all of the clusters are of the same
size, the number of elements in a cluster will be denoted by M while N will denote
the number of clusters in the population.
Sample Selection Procedure/steps
1. Divide the population into clusters. Number the clusters from 1 to N.
2. Select n numbers from 1 to N at random. The clusters corresponding to the
selected numbers will form the sample of clusters.
3. Observe all the elements in the sample of clusters.
1.5 Multi-Stage Sampling. It is a process where the population is divided into a
hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the different sampling stages. In the
first stage of sampling, the population is divided into primary stage units (PSU) then
a sample of PSU’s is drawn. In the second stage of sampling, each PSU is subdivided
into second-stage units (SSU) then a sample of SSU’s is drawn. The process of sub-
sampling ca be carried to a third stage, fourth stage and so on, by sampling the sub-
units instead of enumerating them completely at each stage.

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2. Non-probability sampling. Is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random
selection. It is a less stringent method. This sampling method depends heavily on the
expertise of the researchers.
2.1 Purposive sampling. Sets out to make a sample agree with the profile of
the population based on some pre-selected characteristics. E.g. bank
executives - just choose of the top 5 banks.
2.2 Quota sampling. Selects a specified number (quota) of sampling units
possessing certain characteristics.
2.3 Judgment sampling. Selects sample in accordance with an expert’s
judgment.
2.4 Convenience sampling. (also known as grab sampling, accidental
sampling, or opportunity sampling) It involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population that is close to hand. This type of sampling is most
useful for pilot testing.
2.5 Selection sampling. It involves active selection of members of the
population that are considered to be most representative of the objectives
outlined in the inventory or monitoring program.
2.6 Snowball sampling. It is a chain-referral sampling
Types of Snowball Sampling
2.6.1 Linear Snowball Sampling: The formation of a sample group
starts with one individual subject providing information about just
one other subject and then the chain continues with only one referral
from one subject. This pattern is continued until enough number of
subjects are available for the sample.
2.6.2 Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this
type, the first subject is recruited and then he/she provides multiple
referrals. Each new referral then provides with more data for referral
and so on, until there is enough number of subjects for the sample.
2.6.3 Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this
technique, each subject gives multiple referrals, however, only one
subject is recruited from each referral. The choice of a new subject
depends on the nature of the research study.
.
Data Collection Methods
1. Survey Method. Questions are asked to obtain information, either through self-
administered questionnaire of personal interview.
2. Self-administered Questionnaire. Obtained information is limited to subjects
written answers to pre-arranged questions and lower response rate. It can be
administered to a large number of people simultaneously. Respondents may feel
freer to express views and are less pressured to answer immediately. It is more
appropriate for obtaining objective type of information.
3. Personal Interview. Missing information and vague responses are minimized with
the proper probing of the interviewer. Higher response through callbacks. It is
administered to a person or group one at a time. Respondent may feel more
cautious particularly in answering sensitive questions for fear of disapproval. It is

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more appropriate for obtaining about complex emotionally laden topics or probing
sentiments underlying an expressed opinion.
4. Observation Method. Makes possible the recording of behavior but only at the
time of occurrence (e.g., observing reactions to a particular stimulus, traffic count)
4.1 Advantages of Observation Method over Survey Method:
1. Does not rely on the respondent’s willingness to provide the desired data
2. Certain type of data can be collected only by observing (e.g. behavior
patterns of which subject is not aware of or is ashamed to admit.)
3. The potential bias caused by the interviewing process is reduced or
eliminated.
4.2 Disadvantages of Observation Method over Survey Method:
1. Things such as awareness, beliefs feeling and preferences cannot be
Observed.
2. The observed behavior patterns can be rare or too unpredictable thus
increasing the data collection costs and time requirements.
5. Experimental Method. A method designed for collecting data under controlled
conditions. An experiment is an operation where there is actual human interface
with the conditions that can affect the variable under study. This is an excellent
method of collecting data for casual studies. If properly designed and executed,
experiments will reveal with a good deal of accuracy, the effect of change in one
variable another variable.
6. Use of Existing Studies. Census, health statistics, and weather bureau reports.
6.1 Sources of existing Studies:
1. Documentary sources. Published or written reports, periodical,
unpublished documents, etc.
2. Field sources. Researchers who have done studies on the area of interest
are asked personally or directly for information needed.
7. Registered Method. Car registration, student registration, and hospital admission,
birth and death registry.
8. Census or complete enumeration is the process of gathering information from
every unit in the population. Not always possible to get timely, accurate and
economical. Costly, if the number of units in the population is too large.

Presentation of Data
1. Textual form. This method uses paragraphs to present data. This is usually used
when the data are purely qualitative or when very few numbers are involved This
involves enumerating the important characteristics, giving emphasis on significant
figures and identifying important features of the data. This is not desirable when too
many figures are involved as the reader may fail to grasp the significance of some
quantitative relationships.
2. Tabular forms are used when more detailed information about the data is to be
presented. This method uses tables to present data. This is particularly useful when
the reader wants to make comparisons and draw relationships. This method is more
convenient and understandable than textual method.
2.1 Statistical Table. It is used when you want to present a data in a
systematic and organized manner so that reading and interpretation will be
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 simpler and easier. When a table is used, the following components must be
present:
Table heading. This shows the table number and title. The table number
serves as the identity of the table while the title briefly explains what is being
presented.
The body. This is the main part of the table which contains the quantitative
information.
Stubs or row classifier. These are the classifications or categories which are
presented as values of the variable and they describe what information are
found in the rows.
Boxheads or column captions or column header. These are the information
that appear above the columns, which describes what are found in each
column.
Footnotes. This may be placed immediately below the main part of the table
to explain details whenever necessary.
Source note. This acknowledges the origin of the data and can be placed
beneath the footnote
2.2 Frequency distribution table. It is an arrangement of the data that shows
the frequency of occurrence of different values of the variables.
Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
1. Find the Range of the data: Range = Highest score – Lowest Score.
2. Determine the number of classes in the data are to be grouped using
the Sturges Formula: k = 1 + 3.322log n, where n is the total number
of observations.
3. Determine the class interval size using the formula i = Range/k.
4. Use the lowest score for the starting point (lower limit), then the
lowest score plus the class size will be the next lower limit of the
second-class interval, continue the process until the highest score will
be covered.
5. To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract one from the lower
limit of the second class. Then continue to add the class size to this
upper limit to find the rest of the upper limits.
6. Find the boundaries by subtracting 0.5 units from the lower limits
and adding 0.5 units from the upper limits.
8. Tally the data.
9. Find the frequencies.
10. The class mark or midpoint is equal to the sum of the lower limit
and the upper limit divided by two.
4. Graphical forms. It uses graphs to present data. Helps facilitate comparison and
interpretation without going through the numerical data. Helps visualize certain
properties and characteristics of the data at a glance.
4.1 Bar Graph - consist of series of rectangular bars where the length of the
bar represents the quantity of frequency for each category if the bars are

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arranged horizontally. If the bars are arranged vertically, the height of the bar
represents the quantity.
Segmented Bar Graph. A segmented Bar chart is one kind of stacked bar
chart, but each bar will show 100% of the discrete value. For example, there
are a total of 40 students in your classroom. Out of them, 25 students like
Basketball, 30 students like Volleyball, and 20 students like Badminton. There
are 25 boys and 15 girls in the class. The data along the vertical side of the
box represents sports while the horizontal represents a certain percentage
for each sport. Each bar will show the preference of each sport according to
the number of boys and girls and the bars will be separated by stacked order,
representing one group for the boys and the other for the girls.

Notice how the bars are separated by the number of boys and girls. They are
also colored in a distinctive manner to recognize each category.
Stacked Bar Chart. The stacked bar chart has become quite popular; it is used
for grouping or categorizing the parts of a whole. The bars in this chart are
categorized into stacking order to represent different values. One axis will
show the discrete values and the other one will provide the variable bars in a
stacking order. Different colors will show distinctive parts of the whole bar.

Whiskers Graph (also called a Box Plot). A boxplot, also called a box and
whisker plot, is a way to show the spread and centers of a data set. Measures
of spread include the interquartile range and the mean of the data set.
Measures of center include the mean or average and median (the middle of a
data set).

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 The box and whiskers chart show how your data is spread out. Five
information are generally included in the chart:
1. The minimum (the smallest number in the data set). The minimum
is shown at the far left of the chart, at the end of the left “whisker.”
2. First quartile, Q1, is the far left of the box (or the far right of the left
whisker).
3. The median is shown as a line in the center of the box.
4. Third quartile, Q3, shown at the far right of the box (at the far left of
the right whisker).
5. The maximum (the largest number in the data set), shown at the
far right of the box
4.2 Histogram. A graph represented by vertical or horizontal rectangles whose bases
are the class marks and whose heights are the frequencies.
1. class marks (or real limits at the end) are placed at the center of the
base of each rectangle.
2. no gaps between bars
3. lengths of the bars represent the magnitude of the quantities being
compared.

4.3 Timeplot - A timeplot (sometimes called a time series graph) displays values
against time. They are similar to x-y graphs, but while an x-y graph can plot a variety
of “x” variables (for example, height, weight, age), timeplots can only display time on
the x-axis. Unlike pie charts and bar charts, these plots do not have categories.
Timeplots are good for showing how data changes over time. For example, this type
of chart would work well if you were sampling data at random times.
Time Series Analysis. The goal of time series analysis is to find patterns in the data
and use the data for predictions. For example, if your data is affected by past data,
one way to model that behavior is through the AR process.

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Timeplot Example
The following graph shows a physics-related timeplot with the position vs. time for
two spark tapes pulled through a spark timer at different constant speeds.
While a timeplot can resemble a scatter plot, with a series of dots, you will often see
these plots with the dots connected, especially in financial publications like The Wall
Street Journal.

4.4 Frequency polygon – is a line graph whose bases are the class marks and whose
heights are the frequencies.
- additional points in both ends of the graphs are used to close the figure.
- shows relationship between two or more sets of quantities.
- used to compare quantities

4.5 Pie Chart - a circular Graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is
distributed among a group of categories. The “piece of the” represents the portions
of the total that fall into each category.

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 Pie chart showing water consumption. Image courtesy of EPA.
4.6 Ogive. It is a line graph representing the percentage cumulative frequency
distributions. The bases are the real limits and the heights are the pcf< for the less
than ogive and pcf> for the greater than ogive. The less than ogive is constructed by
plotting the pcf< against the upper real limits and which is used to estimate the
number of cases falling below any given value. The greater than ogive is constructed
by plotting the pcf< against the lower real limits and is used to estimate the number
of cases falling above any given value

4.7 The Stem and Leaf Display - The stem-and-leaf display is an alternative method
for describing a set of data. It presence a histogram like picture of data, while
allowing the experimenter to retain the actual values of each data point. Hence, the
stem and-leaf display is party tabular and party graphical in nature.
In creating stem-and-leaf display, we divided each observation into two parts, the
stem and the leaf. For example, we could divide the observation 244 as follows:
Stem Leaf
2 44
Alternative, we could choose the point of division between the units and tens,
whereby
Stem Leaf
24 4
The choice of the stem and leaf coding depends on the nature of the data set.
Steps in Constructing the Stem-And-Leaf Display
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 1. List the stem values, in order, in vertical column.
2. Draw a vertical line to the right of the stem value.
3. For each observation, record the leaf portion of that observation in the
row corresponding to the appropriate stem.
4. Reorder the leaves lowest to highest within each stem row. Maintain
uniform spacing for the leaves so that the stem with the greatest number of
observations has the longest line
5. If the number of leaves appearing in each row is too large, divide the stem
into two groups, the first corresponding to leaves beginning with digits 5
through 9, this subdivision can be increased to five groups if necessary.
6. Provide a key to your stem-and-leaf coding so that the reader can be
create the actual measurements from your display.
Example: Typing speeds (net words per minute) for 20 secretarial applicants

68 72 91 47 46
52 75 63 55 55
65 35 84 45 66
58 61 69 22 71
Stem Leaf (unit = 1)

2 2
3 5
4 5 6 7
5 2 5 5 8
6 1 3 5 6 8 9
7 1 2 5
8 4
9 1
Note: The stem-and-leaf display should include a reminder indicating the units of the
data value Example: unit = 0.1 1|2 represents 1.2
unit = 1 1|2 represents 12
unit = 10 1|2 represents 120

The Summation Process

The study of statistics involves the collection data or measurement. Thus, there
is always a need to add several numbers. The Greek capital letter sigma, is used in
the process. The symbol ∑x, read as the summation of x tells you to add certain
n
numerical values. ∑ Xi = X 1 + X2 + … + Xn
i=1

Summation Rules
Rule 1. The summation of a constant from 1 to n is equal to the product of the
n
constant and n. ∑C = nC, where C is a constant
i=1

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 8
Example. ∑5 = 8x5 =40
i=1

Rule 2. The summation of the sum (difference) of a variable and a constant is equal
to the summation of the variable plus (minus) the product of n and the constant.
n n

∑ ( Xi ± C)= ∑ Xi ± nC
i=1 i=1
5 5
Example. ∑ Xi ±7 = ∑ Xi ± 5(7) = X 1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 ± 35
i=1 i=1

Rule 3. The summation of the products of a variable and a constant is equal to the
product of the constant and the summation of the variable.
n n

∑ CXi = C ∑ Xi
i=1 i=1
10 10
Example. ∑ 3 Xi = 3 ∑ Xi = 3 ( X1 + X2 + … + Xn)
i=1 i=1

Rule 4. Summation is linear in effect

n n n n

∑ (Xi +Yi+ Zi) = ∑ Xi+∑ Yi +∑ Zi

i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

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