BIOLOGY HAND OUT and the root bends downwards showing positive

CHAPTER 12 geotropism. But there is no bending in the root and

CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN PLANT shoot of the plant fixed on the rotating klinostat. This
is due to the fact that gravitational stimulus is not
unilateral as it affects the sides of the rotating organs
 The movement of higher plants are chiefly in the form equally.
of bending, twisting, and elongation of certain plant
parts or organs.
 Spontaneous movement: There are other plant
movements which take place spontaneously, without
any external stimuli. These movements are described
spontaneous or autonomic movements.
 Induced movement: Some plant movements are
caused in response to certain to certain stimuli and
they are said to be induced or plant movement which
take place spontaneously, without any irritability and
sensitivity of protoplasm. One of example is tropic
movement

1. TROPIC MOVEMENTS :
 Growth movements, which occur in response to
unidirectional external stimuli & result in positioning of
the plant part in the direction of the stimulus, are said
to be tropic movements.
 Depending upon the nature of stimuli, these
movements are of following types:-
 A) Phototropism C. Hydrotropism
 B) Geotropism  Growth movements in response to unilateral stimulus
 C) Hydrotropism of water are known as hydrotropism. 
 D) Chemotropism  Roots are positively hydrotropic as they bend towards
the source of water. 
A. Phototropism: 
 These curvature movements occur when a plant is
provided with artificial or natural light only from one
direction. Stems which generally show a curvature
toeard the source of light are said to be positive
phototropism,. Roots which grow away from the
source of light are called negative phototropism. 

D. Chemotropism
 This is the movement caused by unilateral stimulus of
some chemicals.
 Movement of pollen tube through the style towards
the ovary is an example of chemotropism.
B.  Geotropism
 Growth movements induced by stimulus of gravity are
said to be geotropism. Primary roots always grow
downward in the direction of gravity and thus are
positive geotropism, whereas the main shoots grow
upward away from the gravity and are thus negative
geotropism. 
 The secondary lateral roots and shoots show a
weaker response to gravity and thus take up a
position at an angle to the gravitational stimulus and
are called diageotropic. 
 Demonstration of geotropism:
 Geotropism can be demonstrated in the laboratory
with the instrument known as Klinostat. It can allow a
potted plant fixed on it to rotate at a definite speed. 
2. PLANT HORMONE AND POSITIVE PHOTOTROPISM
 Two klinostats are taken and a potted plant on each is
 Plant growth is controlled by a family of chemicals
fixed on a horizontal position.
called Plant Growth Substances (PGS) – in the past
 One klinostat is rotated and the other is kept
these were sometimes called plant hormones,
stationary. Observations made after sometime will example auxin.
show that the shoot of the plant fixed on the stationary
 Auxin is actually a chemical called Indole Acetic
klinostat bends upwards showing negative geotropism
Acid (IAA).
  Auxin is made in the tip of the growing shoot and
when it diffuses down a millimetre or two to the
growing region, it can stimulate growth in two ways.  
 Auxin causes cells in the shoot to divide by mitosis
and also influences the cell wall of the plant cells
allowing them to elongate.  The net effect of this is to
stimulate growth.
 The detailed mechanism of positive phototropism in
shoots is not well understood but we do know that if
the shoot has brighter light on one side than the other,
auxin will be moved towards the darker side of the
shoot.  This lateral redistribution of auxin allows the
darker side to grow faster, so the shoot bends
towards the light.
 Phototropism in plants is brought about by a chemical
called AUXIN or IAA.
 Auxin is made in the tip of the growing shoot and
diffuses down the stem towards a region of cell
growth.
 If the shoot is growing in unidirectional light, the auxin
will accumulate on the dark side of the shoot.
 Auxin stimulates mitosis in the growing region as well
as causing individual cells to elongate.
 For this reason the darker side of the shoot will grow
faster and so the shoot will bend towards the light.
3. PLANT HORMONES AND GEOTROPISM – A GROWTH
RESPONSE TO GRAVITY
 A growing root will always grow downwards (positive
geotropism) and the shoot upwards (negative
geotropism).  How are these responses brought about?
 This diagram shows auxin moving downwards in a
shoot under the influence of gravity.  The lower side
has a higher concentration of auxin and so grows
faster.  This results in negative geotropism in the
shoot: it will grow in the opposite direction to gravity.
 Although some movement of auxin happen due to the
effect of gravity, it is not enought o explain geotropism
, where other hormones seem to be involved.
(positive geotropism in root)
 This final diagram shows positive geotropism in a
growing root (the root grows in the direction of
gravity)
 If auxin accumulates on the lower side of the growing
shoot and root (and it does) how does this work?
Well it turns out that while auxin stimulates growth in
the shoot, the same chemical inhibits growth in the
root.  So the diagrams above show auxin being
produced at the tip (D) and accumulating on the lower
side of the root (B).  Auxin inhibits the growth of the
root causing less growth on this side, so the root
bends downwards.
4. OTHER PLANT HORMONE
Gibberellins – These hormones are responsible for the
cell growth in the stem, seed germination, and flowering.
Cytokinins – They promote cell division in plants. They
also promote the opening of the stomata and delay
ageing in leaves.
Abscisic acid – This hormone inhibits the growth of the
plant. And therefore, it promotes dormancy in seeds and
buds. The detachment of fruits, flowers, and falling of
leaves etc. are promoted by this hormone.
Ethtylene – This hormone induces ripening of fruits.
Mature fruits also release ethylene. It accelerates
abscission of leaves, stems, flowers and fruits.
 HAND OUT
CHAPTER 13
PLANT REPRODUCTION
BIOLOGY - SEC 4 MARK Z./STEVE JOBS

There are two types of reproduction - sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
 Two parents are needed in sexual reproduction, and the offspring produced are genetically different to the
parents.
 Only one parent is needed in asexual reproduction, and the offspring produced are genetically identical, eg
reproduction in bacteria, production of spores by fungi, and the formation of tubers in potatoes and bulbs in
daffodils.

Sexual reproduction
These are some of the advantages of sexual reproduction:
 introduces variation into a population
 the species can adapt to new environments
 a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population
These are some of the disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
 time and energy are needed to find a mate
 not possible for an isolated individual

Asexual reproduction
The advantages of asexual reproduction include:
 population can increase rapidly
 can exploit a suitable habitat quickly
The disadvantages include:
 does not lead to variation in a population
 the species may only be suited to one habitat
 disease may affect all the individuals in a population

Flowers
Flowers are important in the sexual reproduction of plants. They produce male sex cells (pollen grains) and female sex
cells (contained in the ovules). These must meet for reproduction to begin - a process called pollination.

Parts of a flower
Structure Function
Sepal Protects the unopened flower
Petal May be brightly coloured to attract insects
Stamen The male part of the flower, comprising an anther attached to a filament
Anther Produces the male sex cells (pollen)
Stigma The top of the female part of the flower, which collects pollen grains
Ovary Produces the female sex cells (contained in the ovules)
The female parts of the flower together are called the carpel.
Forming seeds and fruit
Fertilisation
When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the correct species, a pollen tube begins to grow. It grows through
the style until it reaches an ovule inside the ovary. The nucleus of the pollen then passes along the pollen tube and fuses
(joins) with the nucleus of the ovule. This process is called fertilisation.

Plant reproduction process

1. Pollen lands on stigma and grows a pollen tube, 2. The pollen grain travels down the pollen tube to fertilise the female
nucleus of the ovule, 3. The fertilised ovule develops into a seed

Seeds and fruit

After fertilisation the female parts of the flower develop into a fruit:
 the ovules become seeds
 the rest of the carpel becomes the fruit
Germination
A seed has three main parts:
 embryo – the young root and shoot that will become the adult plant
 food store – starch for the young plant to use until it is able to carry out photosynthesis
 seed coat – a tough protective outer covering

Germination is a process, controlled by enzymes, in which the seed begins to develop into a new young plant. Three
main factors are needed for successful germination.

Factor Description
Water Lets the seed swell and the embryo start to grow
Oxygen Needed for aerobic respiration
Warmth Increases growth rate and enzyme activity (but very high temperatures denature enzymes)

Germinating seeds use their food stores until the seedlings can produce their own food by photosynthesis.

Asexual reproduction in plants

Since there is only one parent involved in asexual reproduction, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and
to each other – they are clones.

Runners
Some plants naturally produce side branches with plantlets on them. The spider plant does this. Other plants, such as
strawberries, produce runners with plantlets on them.

Bulbs
Many plants naturally develop underground food storage organs that later develop into the following year’s plants - potato
tubers and daffodil bulbs are examples of this.

Vegetatif propagation

Cuttings
Plant cuttings can be dipped in hormone rooting powder before planting
The simplest way to clone a plant is to take a cutting:
1. cut off a branch from the parent plant
2. remove the lower leaves and plant the stem in damp compost
3. plant hormones in rooting powder can be used to encourage new roots to develop
4. cover the cutting in a clear plastic bag to keep it moist and warm
After a few weeks, new roots develop and a new plant is produced.

Tissue culture
Tissue culture is another artificial way to clone plants. It uses tiny pieces from the parent plant, rather than cuttings.
Sterile agar jelly with plant hormones and lots of nutrients are needed. Tissue culture is more expensive and more difficult
than taking cuttings.

Cloning plants by tissue culture