Chapter-1-Site Exploration

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration
CHAPTER One
SI TE EXPLORATI ON
Table of contents:
Page No.
1.1 Purpose of site exploration……………………………………………………………..…….……………...2-
1.2 Subsurface Exploration program……………………………………………………..………....….……..2-
1.2.1. Desk study or collection of preliminary information…………………..…….……....…….3-
1.2.2. Reconnaissance survey…………………………………………………………..……...…...….….3-
1.2.3. Site Investigation……………………………………………………………………..……..…….…..4-
1.3 Test Pits……………………………………………………………………………………………..………….…..5-
1.4 Borings………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……..….5-
1.4.1. Depth of Boreholes…………………………………………………………………....…..…….…...5-
1.4.2. Number of Boreholes……………………………………………………………...…..…..…….…..6-
1.4.3. Borehole log…………………………………………………………………………..……..….……….8-
1.5 Sampling and Field testing……………………………………………………………..…….…...….……..8-
1.6 Field / In-situ Tests…………………………………………………………………………….…...…..…….10-
1.6.1. Sounding Tests………………………………………………………….……………….…..…..……10-
1.6.2. Plate loading Test…………………………………………………………..…………….…..…..….14-
1.6.3. Vane shear Test…………………………………………………………………..………….….…….14-
1.7 The Geotechnical Report…………………………………………………………………………..…..….…15-
1.7.1. Factual Report……………………………………………………………………….…..……….…….16-
1.7.2. Engineering Report………………………………………………………………………..…..……..17-
Arba Minch University/ Engineering Faculty/ Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes 1
1.1. Purpose of site Exploration:
The purpose of site exploration is to assess the suitability of a site for a particular project or to
investigate the cause of failure of an existing structure.
The primary objectives of soil exploration are:
F Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.

F Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent in
their horizontal direction.
F The location of the ground water table and fluctuations in GWT.
F Obtaining soil rock samples from the various strata.
F The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect
the performance of the structure, and
F Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.
The information gathered will be used as bases:
F For the selection of foundation.

F To decide on the depth of foundation.
F For the determination of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
F For the performance of settlement of the existing foundation.
1.2. Subsurface Exploration Program.
The following steps are involved in site exploration program:
1. Desk study or collection of primary information.

2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Site Investigation.
1.2.1. Desk Study or Collection of Preliminary I nformation.
In this step try to get the following:
F Information regarding the type of structure to be built and its general use. For
example:
Building:
• Appropriate column loads.
• Spacing of columns.
• Code requirements.
Bridge:
• Span length.
• Loading on piers and abutments.
F A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered. These can
be obtained from soil maps and geologic maps.
1.2.2. Reconnaissance Survey.
Visual inspection to the site to obtain information about:
• General topography of the site, possible existence of drainage ditches.

• Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for construction of other
structures.
• Type of vegetation, which may indicate the type of soil.
• Type of construction nearby and existence of any cracks in walls or other problems.
The nature of stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby can also be obtained from
any available soil exploration report for existing structures.
1.2.3. Site I nvestigation:
The subsoil exploration should enable the engineer to draw the soil profile indicating the
sequence of the strata and the properties of the soils involved. I n general, the methods available
for soil exploration may be classified as follows:
1. Direct Methods: Test pits, Trial pits or trenches.

2. Semi-direct Methods: Borings.
3. Indirect Methods: Soundings or Penetration tests and geophysical methods.
This stage is the detailed investigation phase and it involves:
• Making test boreholes and / or test pits.

• Collecting soil samples.
• Conducting field tests.
A decision has to be made on:
• The depth of the boreholes.

• The number and the location of boreholes.
• The sampling interval.
• Type of sample to be collected.
• Type of field tests to be conducted.
• Types of laboratory tests to be conducted.
The choice of appropriate testing method is affected by:
• Economy.
• Type of structure.
• Type of foundation, if predetermined.
• Type of soil.
1.3. Test Pits:
Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory methods. Soils can be inspected in
their natural condition. The necessary soil samples may be obtained by sampling techniques and
used for ascertaining strength and other engineering properties by appropriate laboratory tests.
Test pits will also be useful for conducting field tests such as the plate-loading test.
Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths- up to 3m; the cost of these increases
rapidly with depth. For greater depths, especially in granular soils, lateral supports or braking of
the excavations will be necessary. Ground water table may have to be lowered.
Hence, test pits are usually made only for supplementing other methods or for minor structures.
1.4. Boring:
Making or drilling boreholes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock samples from
specified or known depth is called “boring”.
1.4.1. Depth of boreholes:
Investigation should be carried extend below the depth where the stress increase from the
foundation load is significant. This value is often take as 10 %( or less) of the contact stress qo.
For square footing this is about 2B, where B is the width of the foundation. Since footing sizes
are seldom known in advance of borings, a general rule of thumb is twice the least lateral
dimension of the structure. When the 2 X width is not practical as, say, for a two story
warehouse or department store, boring depths of 6 to 15m may be adequate. On the other hand,
for important9or high-rise) structures that have small-plan dimension, it is common to extend
one or more of the borings to bedrock or to competent (hard) soil regardless of the depth.
According to American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the following procedure is used to
establish the depth of investigation:
1. Determine the net increase of stress, ?s, under a foundation with depth.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, s’v, with depth.
3. Determine the depth, D= D1, at which the stress increase ?s is equal to (1/ 10) q where
q= estimated net stress on the foundation.
4. Determine the depth, D= D2, at which ?s/ s’v = 0.05.
5. Unless the bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just
determined is the approximate minimum depth of boring required.
If the proceeding rules are used, the depths of boring for a building with a width of 30.50m will
be approximately the following, according to Sowers (1970)
Table 1:
No of stress Boring depth(m)

1 3.5m
2 6.0m
3 10m
4 16m
5 24m
1.4.2. Number of boreholes:
There are no clear-cut criteria for determining directly the number and depth of borings required
on a project in advance of some subsurface exploration.
For buildings a minimum of three borings, where the surface is level and the first two borings
indicate regular stratification, may be adequate. Five borings are generally preferable (at building
corners and center), especially if the site is not level. On the other hand, a single boring may
sufficient for an antenna or industrial process tower base in a fixed location with the hole made
at the point. Five or Four borings are sufficient if the site soil is non uniform (both to determine
this and for the exploration program). This number will be enough to delineate a layer of soft
clay) or silt) and to determine the properties of the poorest material so that a design can be
made that adequately limits settlements for most other situations.
Additional borings may be required in very uneven sites or where fill areas have been made and
the soil varies horizontally rather than vertically. Even through the geotechnical-engineer may be
furnished with a tentative site plan locating the building(s), often there are still in the stage
where horizontal relocations can occur, so the borings should be sufficiently spread to allow this
without having to make any( or at least no more that a few) additional borings.
1.4.3. Borehole Log:
Information on the subsurface conditions obtained from the boring-operation is typically

presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as “borehole log”.
The borehole log should provide the following:

• A continuous record of the various strata identified at various depth of the boring is
recorded.
• Description or classification of the various types of soil or rock encountered.
• Data regarding ground water level.
• Size of hole.
• Method of excavation or boring.

• Dates work was carried out.
• The types and depths of samples taken.
• In-situ tests carried out and the depth at which they were conducted.
• Problems or any special conditions encountered during boring.
Fig. 1.1 Typical example of borehole log
1.5. Sampling and Field Testing:
Types and spacing of samples depend on the material encountered and the types of the project.
As a general guide, undisturbed samples in clays, or a saturated penetration test in sands, should
be carried out at 1.5m to 3m intervals and at every change in stratum, in shell and auger
borings. Standard or cone penetration tests should be carried out every 1.5m in rotary drill holes
through sand and gravel. Disturbed samples should be taken in all kinds of borings at 1.5m
intervals and at each change of stratum. I n soft clays, or for special conditions, continuous
sampling may be necessary.
1.6. Field / I n- situ Tests:

1.6.1. Sounding Tests:
Sounding tests are normally carried out to supplement borings. Since they are relatively cheaper
and faster than borings they are widely used in site exploration.
Sampling disturbances and sample preparation for laboratory tests significantly affect the shear
strength parameters. Consequently, a variety of field tests have been developed to obtain more
reliable soil shear strength parameters by testing soils in-situ. I n the following sections some of
the most popular field tests are described.
The most common sounding test devices are penetrometrs. Penetrometers are of two: Static
penetrometr and dynamic penetrometer. In both types of penetrometers it is the resistance
against penetration that is measured.
1.6.1.1. Cone Penetration Test:
The penetrometer essentially consists of a metal-rod with a wedge shaped tip having a cross-
sectional are of 10cm2. The metal rod is encased in a metal pipe with specific dimensions.
The penetrometer is pushed into the soil with a constant speed (at about 0.25 meter/ minute),
and the corresponding point resistance and total resistance are measured at specific depths. The
point resistance is measured while pushing the metal rod a distance of 13cm. then the metal rod
and casing are pushed together a distance of 7cm in which the total resistance is measure. The
specific skin friction, which is the difference between the total resistance and the point
resistance, may also be plotted. This parameter plays an important role in the design of piles.
The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for subsurface exploration in fine and
medium sands, soft silts and clays. The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7 mm end
diameter, projected area of 1000 mm2 and 600 point angle (Fig. 1.2) that is attached to a rod. An
outer sleeve encloses the rod.
Figure 1.2: CPT apparatus (Budhu, 250)
The thrusts required to drive the cone and the sleeve 80 mm into the ground at a constant rate
of 10 mm/ s to 20 mm/ s are measured independently so that the end resistance or cone
resistance and side friction or sleeve resistance may be estimated separately. A special type of
the cone penetrometer, known as piezocone, has porous elements inserted into the cone or
sleeve to allow for pore water pressure measurements.
The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained shear strength. One correlation
equation is:
qc − σ z
Su = (1.1)
Nk
Where σ z represents the total overburden pressure above the cone tip, and Nk is a cone factor
that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration. Average values of Nk as a
function of plasticity index I p can be estimated from
I p − 10
N k = 19 − ; I p >10 (1.2)
5
Results of cone penetrometer tests have also been correlated with the friction angle. A number of
correlations exist. Based on published data for sand (Roberston and Campanella, 1983), you can
estimate φ' using:
 qc 
φ' = 35 0 + 11.5 log
30σ ' ; 25 < φ' < 50
0 0
(1.3)
 z0 
1.6.1.2. Standard Penetration Test ( SPT) :
The SPT is primarily used to assess in-situ properties of granular soils which can not be sampled
in an undisturbed state. It is also used in cemented soils and some clay.
A standard split-spoon sampler is driven 450mm into the soil by repeated blows from a hammer
of standard dimensions (mass of 63.5 Kg dropped from a height of 76cm). The blows required to
produce the first 150mm penetration are usually ignored and the number of blows required
driving the sampler a further 300mm is recorded as “the N-value”.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was developed around 1927 and it is perhaps the most
popular field test performed mostly in coarse grained ( or cohesionless) soils. The SPT is
performed by driving a standard split spoon sampler into the ground by blows from a drop
hammer of mass 64 kg falling 760 mm (Fig. 1.3). The sampler is driven 150 mm into the soil at
the bottom of a borehole, and the number of blows (N) required to drive it an additional 300 mm
is counted. The number of blows N is called the standard penetration number.
Figure 1.3: Standard Penetration Test (Budhu, 248)
Various corrections are applied to the N values to account for energy losses, overburden
pressure, rod length, and so on. It is customary to correct the N values to a rod energy ratio of
60%. The rod energy ratio is – the ratio of the energy delivered to the split spoon sampler to the
free falling energy of the hammer. The corrected N values are denoted as N60. The N value is
used to estimate the relative density, friction angle, and settlement in coarse grained soils. The
test is very simple, but the results are difficult to interpret.
Typical correlation among N values, relative density, and φ' , for coarse grained soils are given in
Table 1.4 below (Budhu, 248).
Table 1.4: Correlation of N, N 60 , D r, γ , and F ’ for coarse grained soils

N N 60 Description γ ( kN/ m 3 ) Dr ( % ) F ’ ( 0)
0–5 0–3 Very loose 11 – 13 0 – 15 26 – 28
5 – 10 3–9 Loose 14 – 16 16 – 35 29 – 34
10 – 30 9 – 25 Medium 17 – 19 36 – 65 35 – 40
30 – 50 25 – 45 Dense 20 – 21 66 – 85 38 – 45
> 50 > 45 Very dense > 21 > 86 > 45
The SPT is mostly used in coarse grained soils. However, in some countries, for example, Japan
and the United States, it is also used in fine-grained soils. Table 1.4 below shows, correlation of
N60 and Su for saturated fine grained soils.
Table 1.4: Correlation of N 60 , and Su for fine grained soils.

N 60 Description Su ( kpa)
0–2 Very soft < 10
3–5 Soft 10 – 25
6–9 Medium 25 – 50
10 – 15 Stiff 50 – 100
15 – 30 Very stiff 100 – 200
> 30 Extremely stiff > 200
1.6.2. Plate Loading Test:
A square or circular plate is seated on the stratum to be tested, usually at the bottom of a trial
pit, and loaded. Load is applied in the increments and maintained until full settlement has taken
place at each load increment.
Correlations are available to estimate the settlement of a full-sized foundation based on

settlement of the plate.
Plate loading tests are particularly suitable for coarse granular materials which cannot be tested
by normal laboratory means or by a penetration test. The main pitfall in predicting settlement
from these tests is that the zone of stressed soil beneath the plat is much smaller than that
beneath the larger foundation; it will thus be unaffected by deeper strata whose load bearing and
settlement characteristics may critically affect the behavior of the foundation. With clays, tests do
not usually continue for long enough for consolidation to be completed so settlement cannot be
predicted. In order to obtain reliable results, plates should be as large as possible and should
never be less than 0.3m.
1.6.3. Vane Shear Test:
In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is difficult to obtain, the undrained
shear strength is measured using a shear vane test. A diagrammatic view of the shear vane
apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.4. It consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally (900) to
a rod where the height H is twice the diameter D (Fig. 1.4). Commonly used diameters are 38, 50
and 75 mm.
Figure 1.4: Shear vane apparatus.
The vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at the bottom of a borehole until
totally embedded in the soil (at least 0.5 m). A torque T is applied by a torque head device
(located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod) and the vane is rotated at a
slow rate of 60 per minute. As a result, shear stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a cylindrical
volume of the soil generated by the rotation. The maximum torque is measured by a suitable
instrument and equals to the moment of the mobilized shear stress about the central axis of the
apparatus. The undrained shear strength is calculated from:
T
Su = (1.4)
πD ( H / 2 + D / 6)
2
Field vane equipment is available for use either at the bottom of a borehole or for direct
penetration into the ground. Smaller laboratory versions are also available.
1.7. The Geotechnical Report:
Reports broadly fall into two categories:

1. The basic “Factual”, site investigation report which simply records its findings of the site
investigation, and
2. The “Comprehensive” or “engineering” report, which, in addition, interprets those
findings and makes specific recommendations.
1.7.1. Factual Report:
A factual report typically contains the items described below:
• Introduction: the project is briefly described and the scope of the report is defined. The
name of the client and his consulting engineers are given. Location of the site is often
included in this section.
• Topography and Geology: the site, and possibly the surrounding area, is briefly
described. This will include general descriptions (whether the area is flat, has rolling hills
or whatever); will mention specific features (such as stream or pond); and will state what
is on site (possibly trees or buildings). A briefly summary of published geological
information is normally also given in this section.
• Site Work: Details of the extent of the site work are given, including the number of trial
pits, boreholes and probes and the methods used. The types and numbers of any field
tests are also included. Overall dates of site working are given.
• Laboratory Testing: The types and numbers of laboratory tests are given, with overall
dates for the testing program.
• Summary of Ground Conditions: It is usual, even in a factual report, to summarize what
conditions were encountered during the site work.
• Test Results: Results of all field and laboratory tests are presented in the form of tables
and graphs.
• Trial Pits and Borehole Records: Details of each trial pit and borehole are given
diagrammatically.
• Sit Plan: A plan or plans showing borehole and trial pit locations.
• Notes: At some point in the report there is usually a set of notes giving standard
abbreviations and symbols used. Details of some of the standard tests may be explained
and references may be made to the standards used in carrying out the work. There is
usually a general disclaimer to protect the site investigation contractor should problems
arise later due to ground conditions which were not revealed during the ground
investigation.
1.7.2. Engineering Report:
Engineering reports usually contain all the items given in the factual report, either as part of the
report itself or as an appendix, plus additional items outlined below.
• Description of project: This is usually discussed more fully than in the factual report. It
will include, where possible, such items as the size and type individual buildings and any
particular considerations such as permissible settlement.
• Results of the desk study: the desk study carried out by site investigation firms for a
factual report is usually fairly rudimentary and may only consist of checking the
appropriate geological maps. For the engineering report the desk study section may be
substantial but could be virtually non-existent, depending on how much information is
available.
• Discussion of ground conditions: Again, this is much more fully covered than the sample
summary which usually appears in the factual report. Where appropriate, it will refer to
possible seismic, hydrological or mining problems, or any other special factors.
• Soil properties for Design: Design values of soil properties, such as shear strength and
compressibility, are given for each of the foundation soils encountered. Variations in
properties with a given soils, both across the site and with depth, should be indicated.
The extent and location of each of the soil types and their distinguishing features should
also be included.
• Foundation Design: Foundation types are recommended, along with suggested founding
depths, sizes, permissible loadings, expected settlement and any other relevant details.
• Calculations: The recommended values of the soil properties and foundation design
details given in the previous two sections should be supported by clearly laid out
calculations. The assumptions made and the design methods used should be stated so
the work can be checked by others and values can easily be amended if new information
becomes available.
• Site Plans: These are usually more detailed that for the factual report and normally show
the proposed project layout.
• Other Items: These may include such items as a brief for the resident engineer; a
warning that specific problems may arise which will require special treatment or a
redesign of certain features; or a recommendation that further investigation be carried
out.

Chapter-1-Site Exploration

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.1. Purpose of site Exploration:

The primary objectives of soil exploration are:

F Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.

The information gathered will be used as bases:

F For the selection of foundation.

1.2. Subsurface Exploration Program.

The following steps are involved in site exploration program:

1. Desk study or collection of primary information.

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.2.1. Desk Study or Collection of Preliminary I nformation.

In this step try to get the following:

1.2.2. Reconnaissance Survey.

Visual inspection to the site to obtain information about:

• General topography of the site, possible existence of drainage ditches.

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.2.3. Site I nvestigation:

1. Direct Methods: Test pits, Trial pits or trenches.

This stage is the detailed investigation phase and it involves:

• Making test boreholes and / or test pits.

A decision has to be made on:

• The depth of the boreholes.

The choice of appropriate testing method is affected by:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.3. Test Pits:

1.4.1. Depth of boreholes:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

No of stress Boring depth(m)

1.4.2. Number of boreholes:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.4.3. Borehole Log:

Information on the subsurface conditions obtained from the boring-operation is typically

The borehole log should provide the following:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

• Method of excavation or boring.

Fig. 1.1 Typical example of borehole log

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.5. Sampling and Field Testing:

1.6. Field / I n- situ Tests:

1.6.1.1. Cone Penetration Test:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Figure 1.2: CPT apparatus (Budhu, 250)

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.6.1.2. Standard Penetration Test ( SPT) :

Figure 1.3: Standard Penetration Test (Budhu, 248)

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Table 1.4 below (Budhu, 248).

Table 1.4: Correlation of N, N 60 , D r, γ , and F ’ for coarse grained soils

Table 1.4: Correlation of N 60 , and Su for fine grained soils.

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.6.2. Plate Loading Test:

Correlations are available to estimate the settlement of a full-sized foundation based on

1.6.3. Vane Shear Test:

Figure 1.4: Shear vane apparatus.

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.7. The Geotechnical Report:

Reports broadly fall into two categories:

1.7.1. Factual Report:

A factual report typically contains the items described below:

Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration