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Sorenson Atlas of Human Histology Chapters 1 and 14
Sorenson Atlas of Human Histology Chapters 1 and 14
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This atlas is a series of photographs ranging from low to high magnifications of the indi-
vidual tissue specimens. The low magnification images should be used for orientation,
while the higher magnification images show details of cells, tissues, and organs. Al-
though every effort has been made to faithfully reproduce the colors of the tissues, a full
appreciation of histological structure is best achieved by examining the original speci-
mens with a microscope. This atlas is a preview of what should be observed.
The photomicrographs found in this atlas come from the collection of microscope slide
used by medical, dental and undergraduate students of histology at the University of
Minnesota. Most of these slides were prepared by Anna-Mary Carpenter M.D., Ph.D.
during her tenure as Professor in the Department of Anatomy (University of Minnesota
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Medical School).
Each tissue specimen, in its entirety, has been digitized with a high resolution 40X
or 60X lens to generate virtual microscope slides. The Virtual Microscope Collection
includes additional slides which complement and extend the core slide collection. Pro-
ducing the virtual slide collection and developing the web site for their presentation was
done with the very capable assistance of Todd C. Brelje Ph.D.
The drawings that appear in the atlas are the product of Jean E. Magney, who is ac-
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complished both as an histologist and an artist. Her talented interpretation of biological
structure and its artistic rendering greatly facilitate the learning and comprehension of
histology. These drawings first appeared in “Color Atlas of Histology” Stanley L. Erland-
sen and Jean E. Magney, Mosby 1992.
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Robert L. Sorenson, Ph.D.
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First edition 2004
Second edition 2008
(second printing 2011)
How to study microscope slides: 3. Nuclear size and shape and nuclear/cyto-
plasmic ratio
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1. Know what structures are important to
learn. This atlas shows and identifies the 4. General Staining properties (H&E)
structures and how to find them.
a. Basophilia & eosinophilia
2. The next task in learning is to see if you
can identify the structures when examin- b. Hetero- and euchromatin
ing a slide. Always start at the lowest
power (this is important for context and 5. Special staining properties
orientation). Increase the magnification
as needed so that additional features of a. Verhoeff, Azan, silver etc.
the specimen can be observed.
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6. Cellular specializations
3. Take notes on the features that are ob-
a. Microvilli, cilia, secretion granules,
served in the slide. This is best done by
myofilaments etc.
drawing pictures and writing a description
of the specimen. As in any science labo- b. Unusual amounts of mitochondria,
ratory, it is essential that observations be RNA etc
recorded. Not only is this good practice
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but in research and medicine it is also a 7. Cellular constituents such as secretion
legal requirement. granule contents (hormones, enzymes)
b. Appearance
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10. Location
a. Example
iv. Etc.
b. Cell Cycle
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c. Active and resting cycles
i. Example
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1. Skin cells
2. Liver hepatocytes
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 1
Chapter 1 Introduction and Cell
The first chapter is an exercise in examining histo- 5. Verhoeff: stains elastic protein black
logical tissue specimens through the microscope.
A variety of cells, tissues and organs are provided 6. Feulgen: stains DNA
as samples. Also, several different histological
stains are used. 7. Sudan: stains lipids
Biological material is inherently of low contrast 9. Aldehyde fuchsin: stains insulin, mast cell
and provides little to see in the standard bright- granules and elastic fibers purple
field microscope unless treated with a histological
stain.
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Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E):
1. This is the most commonly used stain for
histology and histo-pathology.
Observe and note:
a. Hematoxylin: Cationic, positively
1. Staining characteristics of various cells
charged, blue dye complex.
and tissues.
i. Reacts with negatively charged
2. Cell size using red blood cells (7um) as
groups:
an internal metric.
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1. COO- - in proteins
3. Cell size, shape, nuclear size and shape
2. SO4- - in proteoglycans and nuclear/cytoplasmic ratios.
(GAGs)
4. Eosinophilia and basophilia.
3. PO4 - in nucleic acids
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5. Euchromatin and heterochromatin.
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ii. Reacts with basophilic structures:
6. Cellular versus extracellular material such
basophilia
as collagen.
b. Eosin: Anionic, negatively charged
7. Characteristics of different histological
red dye
stains.
i. Reacts with positively charged
groups:
1. NH3+ - in proteins
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2. mitochondria
Other stains:
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 3
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 4
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 5
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 6
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 7
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 8
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 9
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 10
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 11
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 12
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 13
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Chapter 1 Introduction & Cell 14
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Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal tract 223
Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal Tract
The gastrointestinal tract is a hollow muscular tube vascular plexus and an autonomic nerve plexus
that starts at the esophagus and ends with the associated with small parasympathetic ganglia of
anus. It is divided into four regions, the esopha- (Auerbach’s) myenteric plexus. The muscularis
gus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. externa maintains tonus in the tube and propels lu-
The esophagus is a passage for transporting food minal contents by peristalsis.
to the stomach. The stomach adds gastric juices
to begin digestion. It is divided into three histologic Adventitia or serosa: This outermost layer is
regions: cardiac, fundus/body and pyloric. The dense irregular connective tissue. When it blends
small intestine is the principle site for digestion and with connective tissue of the surrounding area it is
absorption. It transfers chyme from the stomach to an adventitia. If it has a free surface projecting
the large intestine and is divided into three regions: into the peritoneal cavity it is covered with a single
duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The large intestine layer of mesothelial cells (epithelial cells derived
has the main function of re-absorbing water from from mesoderm) and is called a serosa.
the chyme and adding mucus to facilitate transport
of the feces. The parts of the large intestine are the Esophagus
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cecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anal canal.
The epithelium is stratified squamous and non-ker-
General Plan for Hollow Tubular Organs atinized. This is a thick layer of 40-60 cells mea-
suring 300-500 um. This is supported by a lamina
The walls of hollow organs have four layers or tu- propria. A well developed muscularis mucosa is
nics: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa and present (200-300 um) and surrounded by the sub-
adventitia or serosa. mucosal region. Submucosal mucous glands are
scattered in this region. The muscularis externa
Mucosa (mucous membrane): Mucous mem- consists of an inner circular layer and an outer lon-
branes line internal passages and provide a barrier gitudinal layer. In the upper third of the esophagus
between the tissues of the body and the external the muscularis is skeletal muscle. In the middle
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environment. The membranes are constantly wet third both smooth and skeletal muscle is present
and lubricated by mucus. The mucosa has three and in the lower third only smooth muscle is pres-
parts: an epithelium, lamina propria and muscu- ent. The myenteric plexus of nerves and ganglia
laris mucosa. The epithelium varies in different (Auerbach’s plexus) are found between the inner
regions depending on its function (i.e. protective, and outer layers of the muscularis externa. A tu-
secretory or absorptive). The lamina propria is nica adventia is present.
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a connective tissue layer that supports the epithe-
lium and contains small arteries, veins, lymphatics Stomach
and nerves. Lymphocytes and plasma cells are
also frequently seen in this layer. When glands are An abrupt transition occurs at the cardio-esoph-
found in this layer they are referred to as mucosal ageal junction, where stratified squamous epi-
glands. The muscularis mucosa, when present, thelium gives way to simple columnar epithelium.
consists of two or three layers of smooth muscle. It The simple columnar epithelium (surface mucous
facilitates localized movement of the mucous mem- cells) dips into the lamina propria to form gastric
brane, aiding expression of secretions and move- pits (150-300 um deep). Gastric glands (simple
ment of fluid across the surface of the epithelium. tubular branched) empty into the bottom of the
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gastric pits. The base of gastric glands rests on
Submucosa: The submucosa is a layer of fi- a muscularis mucosa. The submucosa is quite
broelastic connective tissue that supports the mu- prominent and contains numerous arteries, veins,
cosa. Found in this layer are blood and lymphatic lymphatics and nerves. In the stomach the muscu-
vessels and nerves. Parasympathetic ganglia laris externa consists of three layers: a discontinu-
found in this layer are called Meissner’s submu- ous inner oblique layer, then an inner circular layer
cosal plexus. When glands are found in this re- and an outer longitudinal layer. When the stomach
gion (esophagus and duodenum) they are referred is empty the surface is thrown into folds (rugae).
to as sub-mucosal glands.
The stomach is divided into three histological re-
Muscularis externa: This is a separate layer not gions (cardiac, body/fundus, pyloric) based on their
to be confused with muscularis mucosa. The anatomical location and appearance of the glands.
muscularis externa consist of two thick layers of The cardiac region of the stomach is a narrow rim
smooth muscle – and inner circular layer and an of tissue around the esophageal opening. The
outer longitudinal layer. Between the layers is a cardiac glands are short tubular glands that are
Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal tract 224
coiled at the base. The glands consist mostly of um in length) on the surface of the simple
mucus secreting cells. Parietal cells may be found columnar epithelial cells. These surface
in these glands. The fundus and body make up projections make up the striate border of
more than 90% of the stomach and have the same intestinal epithelium.
histological appearance. The glands of the body
and fundus are straight tubular and have three re- The second main function of the small intestine
gions: The upper third is the isthmus and empties is digestion and is dependent on secretions from
into the gastric pits, the middle third is the neck three types of glands:
and the bottom third is the base. There are five
types of cells associated with the glands. Regen- 1. Exocrine glands (liver and pancreas) de-
erative cells are found at the boundary between liver their secretions (bile and digestive en-
the isthmus and the gastric pit. These cells are few zymes) into the duodenum by way of the
in number and not readily distinguished in routine cystic duct and main pancreatic ducts.
preparations. These cells divide and migrate up-
2. Submucosal glands. Submucosal glands
wards to replenish the surface mucous cells and
are only found in the duodenum (Brunner’s
downward to replenish the rest of the cells in the
glands). They secrete mucus and resem-
gastric glands. Mucous neck cells are found in
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ble the pyloric glands of the stomach.
the isthmus and neck region. These cells are scat-
tered among parietal cells and secrete an acidic 3. Intestinal crypts (glands) are invagina-
form of mucus. Parietal cells are distinctive eo- tions of the surface epithelium down into
sinophillic cells with a centrally located nucleus and the underlying lamina propria.
secrete hydrochloric acid. The eosinophilia is due
to the large quantity of mitochondria in these cells. Cell types found in the intestinal epithelium in-
Some parietal cells are also be found in the base of clude:
the gland. The primary cell type in the base is the
chief cell which has a basophilic cytoplasm in its 1. Simple columnar epithelium absorptive
basal region. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen and cells have a microvillus (striate) border and
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gastric lipase. Gastric enteroendocrine cells are are involved in nutrient digestion and ab-
part of the diffuse neuroendocrine system (DNES) sorption.
are few in number and secrete enteric hormones
(these can not be identified with H&E). The pylo- 2. Goblet cells secrete mucin.
ric region has short coiled tubular glands that only
secrete mucus – chief cells and parietal cells are 3. Columnar crypt cells transport secretory
absent. IgA
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Small Intestine 4. Paneth cells at the base of intestinal crypts
produce antibacterial substances. These
One of the main functions of the small intestine is cells have very eosinophillic secretion
nutrient absorption. Specializations for increasing granules due to their content of lysozyme.
surface area for absorption involve three magni-
tudes of folds or projections. 5. M cells occur in regions where lymphoid
nodules abut intestinal epithelium. Here
1. Circular transverse folds (plicae circu- the columnar cells are replaced by the
lares or valves of Kerckring) of the en- cuboidal to squamous M cells. M cells be-
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tire mucosa (with a core of submucosa) long to the mononuclear phagocytic sys-
project permanently into the lumen. The tem of macrophages and antigen present-
plicae are prominent in the duodenum and ing cells.
jejunum and diminish in the later part of the
ileum. 6. Stem cells are located in the base of the
intestinal crypts
2. Villi are projections (evaginations) of the
mucous membrane (with a core of lamina 7. Enteroendocrine cells (DNES) produce
propria) into the lumen. The shape of villi hormones and are not readily distinguished
varies in the different regions of the small in routine preparations.
intestine: They start as tall, narrow, fin-
The lamina propria forms the core of the villi and
ger-like projections in the duodenum and
supports the intestinal glands, is highly vascular
evolve to a short broad leaf-like projection
and rich in lymphocytes and plasma cells. The
in the distal ileum.
muscularis mucosa lies at the base of the glands
3. Microvilli are cytoplasmic projections (1-2 and sends fibers into the core of the villi. The sub-
Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal tract 225
mucosa is irregular fibroelastic tissue with a rich seen. The colon is mostly covered by a serosa.
lymphatic and vascular supply. Meissner’s sub- The appendix is a 4-6 cm blind ending diverticu-
mucosal nerve plexus is found in this layer and lum descending from the cecum. Its epithelium is
controls the muscularis mucosa. In the duodenum similar to the colon, but with fewer goblet cells. The
submucosal glands are found. The muscularis crypts are short (150-250 um) in comparison to the
externa, is responsible for peristalsis, and has an colon. Enteroendocrine cells are found in the base
inner circular and outer longitudinal layer. Auer- of the crypts. Numerous lymphocytes and nodules
bach’s plexus of nerves is found between the two are present in the lamina propria. When nodules
muscle layers. are present M cells are frequently observed in the
epithelium overlying the nodules. The muscularis
The small intestine is divided into three regions: mucosa is very thin. The muscularis externa is in-
duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The pyloric stom- ner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth
ach transitions to the duodenum at the pyloric muscle. The appendix is covered by a serosa.
sphincter (thick inner circular layer of the muscu-
laris externa). The duodenum is the shortest seg-
ment (25 cm) and receives secretions from the liver
(bile) and pancreas (digestive enzymes). A distin-
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guishing feature of the duodenum is the presence
of submucosal glands (Brunner’s glands, their
appearance differs from pyloric glands only with re-
spect to where they are located i.e. submucosal vs.
mucosal). The jejunum and ileum have a similar
appearance. Lymphoid tissue in the lamina propria
progressively increases from the jejunum to the il-
eum. In the ileum, permanent clusters of lymphoid
nodules (Peyer’s patches) become a prominent
feature. Villi become shorter, broader and have
increasingly larger lacteals (blind ending lymphoid
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vessels in the core of villi) in the ileum. Frequency
of goblet cells and Paneth cells increases as one
progresses from the duodenum to the ileum.
Large Intestine
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The main function of the large intestine is to re-
absorb water and to consolidate and transport the
fecal mass. The parts of the large intestine are
the cecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anal ca-
nal. The cecum and colon are histologically indis-
tinguishable. Having no villi, the inner surface is
smooth and even. The intestinal glands (crypts
of Lieberkuhn) are frequent and closely packed
together. The glands are simple straight tubular
glands and quite long (>600 um). The two ma-
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jor cell types are simple columnar absorptive
cells with striated border and numerous goblet
cells. Paneth cells may or may not be present.
Enteroendocrine cells may be seen at the base
of the crypts. Lymphocytes are common in the
lamina propria. The muscularis mucosa is found at
the base of the glands. The submucosa is well de-
veloped with prominent blood and lymph vessels.
Meissner’s submucosal nerve plexus is easily
seen in the colon. The muscularis externa con-
sists of an inner circular layer and an unusual outer
longitudinal layer. The outer layer is gathered into
three distinct bundles (taenia coli) that are equally
spaced around the gut. Between the muscle layers
the numerous ganglia of Auerbach’s plexus are
Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal tract 226
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membranes).
Observe and note:
c. Muscularis mucosa
Tongue
2. Submucosa consisting of:
1. Striated muscle
a. Submucosal glands with ducts pass-
ing through the mucosa
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2. Lingual (minor) salivary glands
3. Foliate and filiform papillae. 3. Muscularis externa: inner and outer layers
5. Submucosa b. Submucosa
Appendix
1. Mucosa
a. Absence of villi
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b. Short crypts
f. Submucosa
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g. Muscularis externa
Colon
1. Mucosa
a. Absence of villi
e. Lamina propria
Chapter 14 Gastrointestinal tract 229
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INDEX 359
INDEX B