TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
CHAPTER 1

Culture

2
CHAPTER 2

Pakistan: The Land and the People

4
CHAPTER 3

The Making of Pakistan

11
CHAPTER 4

Pakistani Culture

18
CHAPTER 5

Emerging Trends
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
Note: The blue highlight indicates a MCQs
questionnaire.
1. CULTURE
1.1 Meaning, Elements and Scope
Meaning:
• Culture covers all basic institutions of human activity:
religion, economic & political life, arts, sciences,
education, and language. It is the inner soul and the
driving force behind them.
• Cultural harmony and social advancement are only
possible when concepts of justice and equity govern
all aspects of life.
o There is also need for tolerance, forbearance as well
as fair play in social conduct. If a society fails to
promote these cultural values, social disarray sets in.
• It is an independent force, unrelated to material
needs, which gives both form and content to
community life.
• It is regarded as the force that enables a man to raise
himself to the level of a civilized being.
• It is a social order in all its totality. This includes
traditions, history, customs, manners, dress etc.
• It is dynamic and seldom static: It continues to change
with the times.
• It does not belong to an individual but to the society.
• The soul of every culture is motivated by a set of
morals and beliefs.
Elements:
• The basic elements necessary for growth of culture:
o A well-defined geographical area.
o A history representing the common ethos of the
people.
o A set of positive spiritual and moral values.
(Ideology)
o A common lingua-franca.
o A common legal system and political order.
o A code of ethics.
o A system of knowledge.
Scope:
• The ancient Greeks used “culture” to denote
agriculture.
• The Romans used culture in a physical and moral
sense.
o Cultus: Polished, Bright.
o Incultus: Rude, Vulgar.
1.2 Concept of Islamic Culture:
Based on Two Basic Aspects:
• A culture cannot exist without an ideology.
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• Spirit and matter of the religious and worldly life are
indistinguishable and thus make a single whole.
Islamic Culture in Pakistan:
• The languages of Pakistan have a common script
which is written from right to left.
• Similarly, in Islam the emphasis is on the right hand
and right side.
o Namaz (prayer) ends with the salutation, first
towards right then left.
o The circulation of the holy Ka’ba is performed from
the right to the left.
Five Absolute Truths Constituting Iman (Faith):
1. Belief in Allah.
2. Belief in Angels
3. Belief in Prophets (Messengers) of God
4. Belief in Revealed Books
5. Belief in the Day of Judgement
• These are contained in the Kalima-i-Tayyibah.
Islamic Culture Summarized:
• Islamic culture may be summarized as follows
o The basis of Islamic culture is Islam.
o Religion and the world (the material and spiritual
aspects) are regarded as unified components.
o The soul of Islamic Culture is “unity”; symbolizing
Oneness of Allah with unity of mankind and life.
o Islam does not believe in extreme ways of life.
o Life in Islam has a meaning and significance.
o Acquiring knowledge is one of the fundamental
principles of Islam.
o Taqwa (Piety): Righteous conduct in life. The
accountability to God produces moral responses
which harmonize with the concept of life
• This led the German poet-philosopher Goethe to
exclaim: “If this is Islam, then every thinking man
among us, in fact, is a Muslim”.
2. PAKISTAN: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
2.1 The Land
• Coordinates: 24°N, 61°E and 37°N, 75.5°E; Just above
tropic of Cancer.
• Area: 868,591 square km.
• Population: 90,000,000.
• Surrounded by powerful neighbors.
• Arabian Sea washes the shore in the South.
• Since 1948, Kashmir has been a bone of contention
between India and Pakistan.
2.2 Topography
• Falls into two distinct physical zones
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
o Great mountain belts in the North-West.
o Vast alluvial fertile plains in the South.
2.3 The Mountainous Zones
• This belt comprises 2 out of 4 provinces: Frontier
Province, Baluchistan, Northern and Kashmir areas.
• The northern ranges:
o Himalayas, Karakoram and, Hindu Kush.
o Start from Punjab and increase in altitude as they go
Northwards.
o Highest Peaks:
▪ K-2 (Alt: 8,600 m).
▪ Tirich Mir (Alt: 7,600 m).
o Includes valleys such as Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Swat,
Murree Hills, Nathiagali etc.
• The southern mountains:
o Suleiman Rage including Safed Koh.
o Kirthar (made of mostly limestone).
o Their height varies from 1500m to 3600m.
o Highest point: Takht-i-Suleiman.
o More arid than northern ones.
o Very inhospitable.
o Settlements discovered date back to early stone
age (400,000 to 200,000 BC) to copper and bronze
age (3000 BC).
o Serves as a natural defense.
o The “Silk Route” lies along the Khunjerab Pass. It
now serves as a link between Pakistan and China.
2.4 The Indus Basins
• An Alluvial plain created by slit brought by the river
Indus and its tributaries.
• Area: Approximately 16,100 km.
The Upper Indus Basin:
• Emerges from the Northern mountains and enters
Attock. From Attock, reaches a point below Multan
where the five tributaries join to form a mighty river
known as Panjnad (Five Rivers).
• Known as the “Granary of the East”.
Lower Indus Basin:
• Area: from the Panjnad going down to the sea-coasts,
comprising the majority of Sind.
• Sind is therefore known as the “Gift of the Indus”, just
as Egypt is known as “Gift of the Nile”.
o The word “Punjab” means Land of five rivers,
derived from Panjnad.
o The word “Hindu” is taken from Sindhu (local name
of Indus) and was influenced by Greek and Persian
phonetics and turned to Hindu and Indos (Indus,
India).
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2.5 The River System
• The Indus River arises in Western Tibet.
• The Five Punjab rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej
and Beas.
• Influence of the Indus River:
o Affected common life and scared conquerors such as
Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Tamerlane.
o Is thought to have caused destruction to the
civilization of Harappa and Mohenjodaro (by floods,
now tamed by dams).
2.6 Arid Zones
The Plateaus:
• Form middle regions, between lofty hills and low-lying
plains.
• The three major plateaus of Pakistan:
o The Potwar Plateau:
▪ Located North of the Salt Range.
▪ A large complex of Baluchistan.
▪ Runs across dry hills from NE to SW, lying west of
Kirthar and the Suleiman range
o Kohistan plateau:
▪ Situated between Lower Indus and the Kirthar.
2.7 The Deserts
• Thai Desert: Located south of the salt range, forms a
triangle between Indus, Jhelum, and Cholistan.
• Thar Desert: Stretches along the dry beds of Eastern
Nara, forming a vast track of sand hills.
o Area: 175,000 square km.
o Largest desert of Pakistan, 7th Largest in the world.
• Pat Desert: Located in the Kachchi plains of the
Suleiman Range.
2.8 The Coastline
• Stretches from Indus Belt to the Persian Gulf along the
Arabian sea.
• Secures Pakistan’s Southern baseline.
2.9 The People: Racial mix
• The cause of migration is an expulsion or scarcity of
food or water. Other factors include inhibition or a
restrictive society.
• Migratory people are classified by anthropologists into
three types:
o The Africans (Negroids).
o The Europoids (Pro-Australoids, Mediterraneans,
and Nordics).
o The Mongoloids.
• Pakistan has been called a museum of all races.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
NWFP:
• Tribes from Chitral, Dir and Gilgit ethnically identify as
Turkish and/or Mogoloids.
• Tribes of Pathans from Swat, all the way down to
Baluchistan, identify as Indo-Europeans or East
Iranians. (Though they claim their descend from the
Quraish-Arabs).
• Tribes living in north-west hilly regions are known as
Pathan. They speak a common language known as
Pashtu and follow the Pakhtunwali conduct.
Baluchistan:
• The name Baluchistan came to be known in the 16th
century.
• Baluchi traditions claim a Quraish-Arab descent, just
like the Pathans.
o Anthropologists identify them as two of the twelve
lost tribes of Judas.
o However, in all probability they have grown out of
Indo-European and Turco-Iranian races,
• They are divided into two main groups of people:
o North-Eastern group: occupying the Kachchi
lowlands and merging with the Northern uplands of
the Suleiman range along the D.G. Khan district.
o South-Western group: occupying the Lasbela and
Makran coast belt, rising in the west along Iran-
Afghan border.
▪ Includes variety of races such as the Negroids and
the tribes of Turco-Iranian descents.
Punjab:
• The racial pattern of Punjab has gone under
considerable change, losing much of its original
identity, unlike that of NWFP.
• Most tribes in Punjab have been identified as Jats and
Rajput. These two races are mixed up to an extent i.e.,
difficult to distinguish apart.
• Among them, the Ghakkars, Janjuas, Khokkars, and
Awans are the traditional settlers of the salt range.
• In Bohawalpur-Multan regions, most Jats and Rajputs
claim Quraish-Arab descents.
• These people had no physical barrier to isolate them,
hence they acquired wider regional characteristics
through more social intercourse and a common
language of Punjabi grew out.
Kashmir:
• Tucked in lofty heights of Karakoram and Pir Panjal
ranges of the Himalayas (part of it is under Indian
occupation).
• Has been abode of the early Indo-European and
Mongoloid races which are now identified as
Ghakkars, Gujjars, and Jat-Rajputs.
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• The Kashmir language belongs to the Dardic group of
languages and is akin to Pashtu and Hindko.
Sindh (the lower Indus Basin):
• One of the earliest known complexes of human
settlement, characterized by antiquity and variety.
• Mainly inhabited by Rajputs:
o In upper regions: Sials, Joyos and Khawars.
o In other regions: Siraikis and Baluchis (originally
settled in upper region but later diffused below).
o Smaller groups of Muslims of Arab-Iranian, Mughal,
and Pathan origin entered Sindh at a later period,
scattering around the upper region of Sindh.
3. THE MAKING OF PAKISTAN
3.1 Pre-Muslim Era
• Traces of stone age civilizations have been found
around Potwar Plateau.
• Traces of bronze age civilizations (around the 4th
millennium) have been found in:
o Baluchistan: in Zhob, Nal, Kulli, and Makran.
o Lower Sindh: in Amri.
3.1.1 Indus Valley Civilization:
• Existed around 3000 BC.
• Existed at the same time as the Euphrates and Nile
Valley civilizations.
• Little is known about the IVC because their language is
yet to be deciphered. Therefore, the only reliable
source of information are the excavated sites.
• Area: 1600 sq. km.
• The Harappa – Mohenjodaro civilization occupied
modern day Punjab and Sind.
• A Third city was located at Bahawalpur, along an old
river bed.
• The Indus valley civilization was:
o Sustained by a sufficiently developed state of
agriculture (evidence of crops such as wheat, barley,
peas, sesame and cotton).
o Highly developed in the state of husbandry due to
the elaborately constructed large grannies at
Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
o Enjoyed heavier rainfall than at present because of
the brick-lined streets, drains and rain-water
channels.
o Existence of thick vegetation and animals in their
habitats found such as tigers, elephants etc.
• Indus people had trade links with Mesopotamia.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
Evidence of advanced civic planning:
• Excavated sites show cities divided into fortified
citadels and residential area.
• Fortified citadels enclose essential public utilities and • They were Racially different (nomadic).
institutions of civic and religious life.
• Residential areas contain large residential blacks along
a 9-meter-wide central street intersected by network
of narrow lanes.
• Living rooms built around a square courtyard.
• Each house had its own wall and bathroom.
• Bathrooms had drains flowing into the sewers under
the main streets, leading to soak-pits. No other
ancient civil possessed such unique system of drains
except of Romans.
• The great Bath at Mohenjodaro, in the citadel area,
seemed to be used for religious and ceremonial
bathing.
Artifacts:
• Unearthed from major sites provide ample glimpses of
society and religion that flourished 5000 years ago.
• Extensive use of potter’s wheel for earthen ware, kiln-
burnt bricks and utensils, implements, ornaments and
statuettes of copper and bronze.
o Shows highly developed techniques in craftsmanship
• Architecture was plain, well planned and utilitarian
with more emphasis on solid comfort than on luxury.
• Households items used:
o Ornaments of gold and alloys of other metals.
o Precious stones and beads.
o Playthings such as terracotta toys.
Religion:
• Aspects of their religion included worship of their
“Mother Goddess” as well as trees, animal, and
various terracotta figurines worshipping.
Trade:
• Evidence exists of Indus people trading with
Mesopotamia, either by land or by sea.
• Evidence of sailing was discovered in Mohenjodaro
signifying river transport.
• Ships would go down the delta into the high sea.
• Evidence of export of cotton to Babylonia.
3.1.2 The End of Indus Valley Civilization:
• It is an enigma how the ancient cities of the Indus
Valley civilization decayed (after 1,800 BC)
• May be through progressive desiccation (climate
change) or overflowing of rivers around which most
settlements were located.
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The Migration of Aryans:
• There was a large-scale migration of Aryans to the
Indus Valley civilization in the ensuing millennium.
• They substituted urban life with pastoral life.
Brahmatic and Buddhist trace:
• After the Aryans swept away the Harappa-
Mohenjodaro culture, an interregnum of 2
millenniums divided into two major epochs started.
First Period:
• First, Aryans had to contend with the tenacious
opposition of people of the 7 rivers.
o Mythical Mahabharata wars were the off-shoots of
this great struggle.
o Urban life was replaced with village life based on
pastoral economy of Aryans.
o New socio-religions order took roots.
o Four tier hierarchy was implemented:
▪ Highest born: the Brahmin (priest)
▪ The warrior: the Kashtriya.
▪ The average trader/farmer: the Vaishya.
▪ Non-Aryan races: Sudras (meaning unclean), they
were denied all social rights.
• Aryan’s sacred book: Vedas
o Only the Brahmin were given the right of attaining
supreme knowledge.
Second Period:
• Second phase was characterized by two further
distinct phenomena:
o One reflected the insularity of region as a result of
destabilization by Aryan influx.
o The other were Incursions (invasions) of the Persian,
Greeks, Scytho-Parthians, Kushans, and White-Huns
continued until the region attained some internal
stability by end of 1st millennium AD.
Religion:
• The two great movements of 6th century B.C. are
Jainism and Buddhism. They challenged the authority
of Vedas and repudiated Brahminic superiority.
• Out of these two, Buddhism became popular.
Buddhism:
• Stresses on moral and ethical values.
• Became a great civilizing force in Asia.
• The non-Aryan races were antipathic to Brahminism,
thus they were greatly attracted to Buddhism.
• The ruling class of Asoka converted to Buddhism
around 273-232 BC.
Kanishka:
• He was the emperor of the Kushan Empire.
• He converted to Buddhism during 1st century A.D.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• His Trans-Hindu-Kush empire extended from China to
North of the sub-continent. Its capital was Purushapur
(Peshawar).
• His influence expanded Buddhism beyond Hindu-Kush
to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China.
Arts and Artifacts:
• The past Persian, Greek, Scytho-Parthian, and Central
Asian Kushan settlers left distinct legacies of cultural
skills and attainments in land they occupied.
• The Buddhist traditions synthesized these skills to
those of the Hellenistic Greeks to produce the
Gandhara School of Art.
• The effervescence of Graeco-Buddhist art reached its
climax during Kushan Age.
• The Gandhara Valley at this point became the nucleus
of cosmopolitan culture:
o It extended as far as Swat and Kashmir.
o It included the Potwar region on one side and
Afghanistan on the other.
• Excavations at Swat, Taxilla, Peshawar, and Bamian
revealed huge buildings, monasteries, and stupaswith
mural engravings blending Graeco-Roman styles with
Buddhist Indian motifs.
Factors effecting stability:
• Three factors mitigated against the stability
o The advance of Ephatalites (nomadic white huns)
from borders of China.
o The emergence of Sassanid Persian Monarchy.
o The Brahmic revival under Gupta rulers.
• Buddhism suffered a lot mainly due to:
o Large scale persecution.
o Its Mahayan sect folding back to Hinduism.
• Buddhism virtually disappeared from the sub-
continent by the end of 7th century.
• The suffering of Buddhism continued until the
persecution was saved by Islam when it entered Sindh
and Multan in the early 8th century.
3.2 The Arab Period
• Beginning of Islamic society.
• Two terminologies to be known:
o Tauhid: Unity of God (Belief in Oneness of Allah).
o Risalat: Belief in Prophethood.
• Islam transformed the Arab society into a fraternity of
people.
• After the death of the Prophet in 632 AD, in less than
half a century, half of the known world from China to
Arctic was brought under the fold of Islam.
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The Conquest of the Persian Empire:
• The Arabs rolled up the Persian Empire in the first
sweep which was a part of their Eastward expansion.
• Persians offered little resistance.
• The Islamic Region became more stable, politically and
socially, after the conquest.
• The province of Sind was given the name Bab-ul-Islam.
• In the aftermath of Hindu revivalism, Buddhists that
survived by isolating themselves started to come out
and two centuries later they gravitated into the region
• Main entry of the Muslims in the sub-continent was
through the North-West passes of Hindu-Kush.
Sindh Expansion:
• When the Arabs advanced Eastwards, it lodged Sindhis
along the Makran hills and over the Suleiman Range
on borders of Sindh.
• The ruler of Sindh was a Brahmin and made the region
strife-torn. He did many acts of indiscretion.
o These acts ranged from border violence (when
pursuing fleeing Buddhists) to interference with
Arab coastal trades.
• This made it exigent for the Arabs to move further into
the region.
• This offered both a challenge and a promise
o The challenge from the Brahminic repressive system
wilted at very first contact.
o Buddhist acquiescence to Islamic liberalism opened
up horizon of enduring orders (The promise).
Arab occupation of Sindh:
• Was effective in 712 A.D. by Muhammad Bin Qasim
and maintained nearly three centuries.
• This was more than a territorial acquisition:
o In less than 3 years, Muhammad Bin Qasim carried
the message of Islam from Sindh to Multan which
was extended to Kashmir by his successors.
• This was by winning people’s hearts rather than
defeating them. The Buddhist chiefs and people
welcomed and helped him in areas of difficulty.
• Toleration was shown to Brahmins and the Hindus
were given freedom to worship and the permission to
repair and build temples.
• Coming of Arabs showed:
o Spirit of tolerance in society.
o Social justice in the way of life.
o Equitable distribution of economic resources.
• This increased acceptance of Islam by local populace.
• During the 3 centuries, social orders were developed.
• Settlements were changed:
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
o Arabs developed exclusive areas and rests in Hamlet
(during Umayyad caliphate).
o To flourishing cities like the capital of Multan and
Mansurah.
Impact on knowledge:
• The Arabs enriched the Islamic civilization by using the
knowledge of Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Persians
to make contributions.
• Arabs extended their horizons by drawing upon Indian
traditions in medicine, astronomy, and arithmetic.
3.3 Turco-Mughal Period
Summary of past periods:
• The South Asian continent went through a series of
socio-cultural changes since Aryans.
• This ceased when Arabs established themselves:
o On the Northern slopes of Hindu Kush
o By entering the Western valley.
• Cultural formations in these areas were mostly
conditioned by local environments and old traditions.
Islamic civilization of Persia and Central Asia:
• During the three centuries since the coming of Islam,
two major factors went into the making of the Islamic
civilization of Persian and Central Asia:
o Emergence of sturdy Turkish races.
o Acceptance of Persian institutions and traditions as
constituents of Islamic civilization.
• Spiritual links with the Caliphs of Baghdad continued
to be maintained.
• Persian monarchy and Turkish military gained validity
within Islamic framework.
• Persian became the Islamic thought language in non-
Arab countries (East of Iraq) giving new dimensions to
Islamic civilization and hitherto Arab literature.
Rise of Caliph linked Emirates:
• 3 Caliph-linked Emirates were seen:
o Saffarids: had its centre at Sistan.
o Samanids: had its centre at Bukhara.
o Ghaznavids and Ghurids: Ghazni and Ghor.
• Each had their own contribution to Islamic civilization
• Saffarids were linked with Sindh.
• Ghaznavids and Ghurids moved down to the Hind-
Kush.
The two entries of Islamic civilization in South Asia:
• By Muhammad Bin Qasim:
o Was through Sindh.
o Carried his mission successfully by winning
adherents (group support).
• By Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni:
o Was through Northern gateways.
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o Carried by being keen on breaking the idols. This
incited dread and terror that the sufis helped calm.
Sufis:
• Came to Punjab in the wake of Ghaznavids and had
great impact on local populace.
• Among the Sufis were:
o Shaikh Ismail Bukhari
o Shaikh Saifuddin Gazruni
o Sultan Sakhi Sarwar
o Shaikh Ali Bin Usman Jujwiri (Data Ganj-Bakh).
Ghaznavid occupation of Punjab:
• In effect: 1020 A.D.
• Area: Entire belt along Indus from Northern hill tracks
down the sea coast.
• The heritage of Ghazni remained confined to these
areas for two centuries.
• The Ghaznavids were replaced by Ghurids in Punjab in
1186 A.D.
Mongol eruption:
• Came in the 13th century from beyond the Oxus River.
• Destroyed the caliphate of Baghdad in 1258 A.D.
• Ghurids found an answer to the Mongol eruption by
expanding their base.
o This caused an exodus of Sufis, which resulted in the
help of the expand of Islam.
Qutubuddin Aibak:
• He was the chief of Ghurid generals.
• He held Delhi since its occupation in 1193 A.D. and
when the Ghurid chief died in 1206 A.D. he assumed
independence
• His tomb is located in Lahore.
o Successors:
▪ The Khaljis (1290-1320)
▪ The Tughluqs (1320-1414)
▪ The Sayyid (1414-1415)
▪ The Lodi Afghans (1415-1526)
Turkish expansion:
• With the Mongols sweeping away the Ghurids, the
Turkish tribe of Kha-Warism got an opportunity.
• The Turkish rose up the shores of Caspian and worked
their way into the North, shattering the supremacy of
Rajputs – the high caste of Kashtriya Hindus.
• They occupied Delhi in 1193 A.D.
• This era preserved and enforced Shariah properly.
• Qazi: Interpreted Shariah and dispensed Justice.
• Jizya: A nominal tax.
• Muslims and Hindus worked out a modus vivendi.
• Kharaji lands: Given to officers in proportion to their
services, known as iqtas or jagris.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• In trade and commerce, there grew mutuality
between towns and urban centers which helped in
building bridges between the two vastly different
social systems.
• The soul of Hinduism remained distrustful of Islam.
• They left no opportunities to strike despite their
defeat, countless times, by the Turco-Afghan onset.
o Rajputs were still petty over the loss of their socio-
political ascendancy and always became active
during political changes in Delhi.
• Khiljs (Alauddin Khilji) led a successful expedition in
Rajputa (far-off south). The Hindus took advantage of
the Khilji decline to gain advantage.
• The Tughluqs (M. Bin Tughluq) made a more
significant move down the South (in Daulatabad),
implanting a Muslim colony, Ulema and Sufis for Islam
o In 1398 A.D., a fresh wave of Rajput incursion from
the Chughtai Mughals of Central-Asia under Amir
Taimur came.
• The Tughluqs yielded grounds to:
o Turkish-Sayyid family (1414-1450).
o Lodhi-Afghans (1450-1526).
• The Rajputs were finally put to rest when the Mughals
under Babur swept Afghans and Rajputs away.
• Hindus persisted in their aloofness and resorted to
isolation as much as possible.
o They were developed in agriculture and commerce
which allowed them to reduce contact to the
minimum.
o Alauddin Khilji took strict measures against Hindu
zamindars and tax collectors of Doab, and
merchant/traders of Multan to keep them on track.
Vendata cult of Sankaracharya (780-820):
• Was located in the Hindu majority (South), away from
the Muslims (North).
• The cult was based on monotheistic concepts of God.
• It laid emphasis on mediation and devotion rather
than ritualistic idolatry.
• It could not break Brahminic hold but came close to
some practice of Muslim mystics. However, the
vigilance of Ulema and Sufis strictly observed Shariah
and frustrated all moves to disrupt the Muslim society.
Sufis and their roles:
• Based on the teachings of Quran.
• Philosophical interpretation of Divine Message.
• Application of Divine Message in a more popular form.
• Rejected or adjusted all philosophies alien to Islamic
faith.
• Carried missionary activity among the mass of people.
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• Formed a pivot to attract people:
o The Inner circle Muslims.
o The Outer circle of Non-Muslims: mainly low caste
Hindus. They attracted people by spirituality and
humanity.
Mystic Sufi orders:
• In the early Arab period, there was no significant Sufi
activity. However, Abu Ali Sindhi, a Sindhi mystic was
known to have contact with Bayazid Bistami, an 8th
century Persian mystic.
• In the wake of the Ghaznavids (during 11th century),
Sufi mystics arrived from the Central-Asia and Persia.
“Silsilas” (Organised mystic orders):
• Established at the arrival of Ghurids:
1. The Chishties:
o Among them was Shaikh Fariduddin (1175-1265)
a.k.a. Ganj-i-Shakar. He settled in Ajodhan (Pak-
Pattan) and brought large numbers of rural
communities and occupation groups in Islam.
2. The Suhrawardis of Multan and the Uchch Sharif:
o Among them were:
▪ Shaikh Bahauddin Zakriya.
▪ Shaikh Rukn Qutbi-i-Alam.
▪ Makhdoom Jahanian.
▪ Shaikh Usman a.k.a. Lai Shahbaz of Sehwan.
o They carried out missionary work deep into Sindh
during the 13th and 14th centuries.
o They converted many Rajputs and Jats.
3. The Qadris and the Naqshbandis:
o They had a greater impact in lower Punjab and
Sindh. Among them were:
o Shaikh Yusufuddin:
▪ Came to Sindh in 1422 A.D.
▪ Converted 700 families of Lohanas caste whose
descendants are known as Memon (from
Momin, True Muslim). (The Memons form the
largest Sunni communities in Sindh, Cutch,
Crujrat and Bombay).
▪ He was the descendant of Abdul Qadir Jilani.
o Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi:
▪ Was a renovator of 2nd millennium of Islam.
▪ He disputed all heterodox trends in Islam i.e.
when Akbar wanted to disregard the Shariah.
3.3.1 The Mughals
• The two and half centuries that followed the advent of
Mughals under Zahiruddin (1526 A.D.) were filled with
prosperity in every area.
Timeline:
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• The Timurids and Lodhi Afghans (1450-1526) take over
for 75 years breaking up House Tughluq.
• Suri Afghans (1540-1555) took over later for less than
a quarter century but more efficiently.
• Afghans were best with tribal factionalism and lacked
broad social outlook.
• Babur at 1526 A.D. takes over, starting Mughal rule,
bringing prosperity and developing. However, his
tenure was too short lived for the long-term
measures.
• Humayun (the son of Babar) takes over and fails to
measure up to Afghan tenacity, gets elbowed out by
Sher Shah Suri.
• To reconcile, Humayun brought fresh ideas to the
Mughal empire, seeking restoration with the Rajputs
for their help against the stubborn Afghans.
• Akbar (1556-1605): Humayun’s idea to reconcile with
Rajputs was initially successful until Akbar stretched it
to an extreme of liberalism, infringing Islamic norms.
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707): His period symbolizes the
return of Islamic Shariah. Muslim reformers helped
counteract Akbar’s liberal measures. A major step that
was taken here was the compilation of Islamic laws:
Fatawi-i-lam-giri.
3.3.2 Rajput Alliance
• The Rajput alliance was only helpful to Mughals as far
as it served interests of the Rajputs and Hindu
communities.
• When the conflict between Aurangzeb and his
brother, Dara Shukoh occurred, the Rajput’s dislike for
Muslims climaxed and they favored Shukoh since he
stood for the revival of the heterodox ways of Akbar.
• However, Aurangzeb emerged victorious and Rajput’s
attempts failed. Nevertheless, they persisted in
fanning factionalism among Aurangzeb’s sons.
• Their last great chance stood on the Marathas
(Rajputians), under Shivaji (1627-1680) who posed a
threat to Mughals, the Rajputs bolstered their
campaign. However, Aurangzeb stood up to the
challenge and moved from Delhi to Deccan. By the
time of Aurangzeb’s death, in 1707 A.D., Marathas
were not only crushed but Islamic supremacy was
established.
3.3.3 Urdu
• Arabic and Persian remained the medium of literary
expression and official translation.
• Urdu was developed after the contact of early muslims
o Originated after Ghaznavids came to Punjab.
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• Sufis made notable contribution in spreading it
through early converts.
• Among those Sufis were:
o Shaikh Ali Hujwiri aka Data Ganj Baksh of Lahore.
o Sultan Sakhi Sarwar of Multan.
o Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-shakr of Pak Pattan.
o Makhdum Jahanin of Uchcha.
o Pir Patha of Sind.
• Amir Khusrau of Delhi and Gisu-Daraz of Daccan are
credited with Sufi works in Urdu.
• Popular fold songs (Dohas) are attributed to Bu Ali
Qalandar of Panipat and Lal Shahbaz of Sehwan.
• Urdu became symbol of Muslim culture under
Mughals.
3.3.4 Architecture
• Architecture is a form of human expression that
reflects the ethos and character of the people.
• Islamic architecture is represented with Mosques,
Mausoleums, Khan-qahs with domes, arches, and
Minarets.
• With the advents of Muslims, the topography of the
cities also changed.
• Hindu town planning was preserved. Muslims
influenced spacious mosques in the central area,
fountains in open spaces, domes, and arches.
• Beyond outer limits of the city stood graveyard,
shrines, and mausoleums.
• Some of them exist today and one situated in Makli-
Thatta is regarded as one of the biggest necropolises.
• Shrines and Khanqahs of the Sufis in Sindh, Uchcha,
Multan, Lahore, Agra, and Delhi gave the towns an
Islamic identity.
• Most showpieces were the product of the Mughal
area. Some are now in ruins or completely lost except
the Qutb Minar in Delhi.
• Mughals further enriched the field, with new
architectural concepts derived from Central Asia and
Persia. This produced masterpieces such as:
o The Palaces in Agra, Delhi, and Lahore.
o Pearl Mosque in Agra.
o Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar.
o Badshahi Mosque in Thatta, Lahore, and Delhi.
o Shalimar Garden, Lahore.
3.4 Socio-Political Decline
• 50 years after the death of Aurangzeb (1707 AD), a
foreign company of merchants took control of the
political and economic resources of nearly half the
country.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• 100 years later in 1857 AD, the last Mughals were
exiled by those very merchants.
• This was the outcome of the hostility of Hindus.
• The rise of European trading interests in Bombay,
th
Madras, and Bengal during early 18 century allowed
the Hindu merchants to collaborate in illegal activities. • They implemented policies to keep the Muslims
• This destabilized the Muslims economically and
paralyzed them politically.
The Incursions of Nadir Shah & Ahmed Shah Durrani:
• These incursions came from the North Persia; the
Mughals were considerably shaken at the time and
this caused the Marathas to revive their hopes.
• The Marathas took advantage of the British designs
against Mughals and swept through the Central Indian
plains till Sutlej.
Sikhs
• Beyond Sutlej, the Sikhs were another non-Muslim
militant community sagging the Mughal elites.
• They even challenged Durrani claims over the lands of
Sindh, Baluchistan, Multan, and Punjab, occupying as
far as Peshawar and Kashmir.
Reform movements
• In the South, attempts were made by Haider Ali and
Tipu Sultan of Mysore to reverse trend of events but
failed due to the Maratha-British collusion.
• Another reform by Shah Walliullah (1703-1762) and
his son, Shah Abdul Aziz (d. 1823). Their main
objective was moral and religious reconstruction,
along with political recovery.
• The teachings had great impact and sense of direction, • These were met with some skepticism in certain
but it had little to contribute to the politics, especially
when it was against the British-Hindus.
• The attempts were later channelized properly into
programs of militant action by the martyrs of Balakot:
Syed Ahmed and Shah Ismail (1831). They invoked
‘Jihad’ (holy war).
• Even though it did not succeed in achieving precise
goals, it is these reforms that are unmistakably owed
inspiration and spirit for the outbreak of the War of
1857 AD.
• Ulema started rallying people for the struggle against
the British by sermons and the circulation of
mysterious chapatti (bread) from village to village.
• This movement, however, failed due to extensive
British military organizations.
• The British retribution was severe and harsh: Mughals
were completely liquidated. Muslims were hunted
down, persecuted, and sent to gallows. The ones who
helped in organizing the protests i.e. ulema, zamindars
etc. were executed.
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3.5 The Beginning of Muslim Resurgence
• After the war of 1857, the British emerged as the
masters of the subcontinent.
• They became very distrustful of the Muslims.
backwards economically.
• As for the Hindus, they played a major role in
overthrowing Muslims & now stood to reap the
advantage of their cooperation with the British.
• They relaunched their long-cherished dreams of
reestablishing their supremacy.
• Circumstances favored them in relaunching
movements like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Shivaji
Cult, which went to extremes of absorbing
Muslims into Hindu society and expulsing their lands.
• Another sinister move was to replace Urdu as the
common language with English.
Sayyid Ahmed Khan
• Brought new ideas of social reconstruction with his
understanding of the British mind.
• First modern Muslim leader, his four directions for the
people were:
o Accommodation and adjustment with British.
o Interpreting teachings of Islam in terms of modern
science so as to protect it from Christian and Hindu
onslaught.
o Education as a basic requirement for all progress.
o Recognition of Muslims as distinctive entities.
quarters. However, with the Muslims they opened a
new chapter leading to an organized life.
• He was the first modern Muslim to advance the idea
of Hindus and Muslims as two separate nations.
• He emphasized that Muslims needed arrangements
where they chose their true representatives. And that
they needed greater share in order to offset their
position as a minority.
• His ideas were vindicated at Simla in October 1906,
under Aga Khan when they presented a memorandum
to the Viceroy. The electorate was accepted and the
All-India Muslim League was formed.
o In December 1906 at Dacca.
• In consequence, Minto-Morley Reforms were
introduced in 1909, which gave Muslims reserved
seats for elections.
• However, on the other hand, Hindus were quickly
moving towards the goal of Swaraj (self govt.) which
would mean the denial of Muslim aspiration.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• This climaxed when Muslims were working on the
partition of Bengal (1905), which would create a
Muslim majority province.
• After successive riots, and terrorist acts, Hindus
succeeded in reversing the partition.
• Another dismay for the Muslims was the desolation of
the Turkish caliphate. Muslims were deeply embedded
in the concept of unity and solidarity and when the
Balkan wars (1911-1913) and then the First World War
(1914-1919) broke out, the British were against
turkey, which created a dilemma for the Muslims.
• The Muslims did launch a powerful mass agitation
known as the Khilafat Movement, under Maulana M.
Ali and Shaukat Ali, it came to nothing as the caliphate
was abolished in 1924 by Kemal Ataturk.
• While Hindus had an array of capable leaders, Muslims
lacked leadership since Sir Sayyad Ahmed’s death in
1898. Enter M. Ali Jinnah (Next Topic).
Sir Syed’s programs for education:
• Aligarh College (1878).
• Muslim University.
• Anjuman-i-Himyat-i-Islam, Lahore (1884).
• The Sind Madrasat-ut-Islam, Karachi (1885).
• Islamia College, Peshawar (1913).
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam)
• Muslim politics enjoyed new orientation when an
astute lawyer-politician joined the Muslim League in
1913.
• He was already known for his Wakf Bill (1911).
• He now changed course of history through his
Lucknow Pact in 1916, where he obtained congress
acceptance for separate electorate.
• However, Hindus worked out a scheme called Nehru
Report (1928). This would deny Muslims their position
in Muslim majority provinces.
• Muslim reaction to it were Jinnah’s fourteen points,
which remained the sheet-anchor for Muslims until
the Lahore Resolution in 1940.
• After that, the more Muslim aspirants were rejected,
the stronger their determination got for a Muslim
homeland.
• While Mr. Jinnah was working for the Muslims in
constitutional terms, it was the poet-philosopher Dr.
M. Iqbal who formulated the rationale of Muslim
aspirants.
• Ultimately a scheme was proposed by Chaudri Rehmat
Ali, representing a group of Cambridge students.
Chaudri Rehmat Ali coined the name Pakistan.
PAGE 11 OF 19
The Birth of Pakistan
• The outbreak of WW2 sped things up. It created a
sense of urgency for all three parties to move towards
a solution.
• The British seemed to hope for a sort of measure of
self-govt.
• The congress sought to exploit the circumstances by
wrestling out the British, which would create a self-
govt while Muslim positions being set aside.
• Each of these had imminent danger to all that the
Muslims had established so far.
• It was the great negotiating of Mr. Jinnah, now known
as Quaid-e-Azam (the great leader), who used his cold
logic at:
o Cripps Offer (1942)
o Cabinet Mission Plan (1940)
• Among other schemes, the Gandhi-Jinnah Discussions
finally forced the British out, this marked the end of
the struggle for a separate nation.
• The last British victory, Mountbatten made the
announcement on June 4, 1947 partitioning the
subcontinent into two sovereign states, India and
Pakistan.
• History was created when Quaid-e-Azam was sworn in
as the head of the world’s largest Muslim state on 14th
August, 1947.
4. PAKISTANI CULTURE
4.1: Ideology Moorings
• Inner soul of Pakistani culture is in the belief that the
universe is bade on an absolute truth.
• This truth gives meaning to Pakistani culture and is
based on the divine revelation.
• The premises laid down to know eternal truth:
o Tauhid (unity and oneness to Allah).
o Risalat (belief in prophethood).
o Ilm (knowledge).
o Amal (deeds).
o Akhrat (hereafter).
Oneness to Allah (Tauhid):
• According to the Quran, Tauhid is the main essence of
all revealed books and religions.
• Tauhid implies that all the attributes of God are
absolute and none other than him can share these.
Man’s position with reference to Tauhid:
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• A man is independent of all worldly power except that
of God.
• The superiority of a man lies not in color, creed or
class, but in righteous deeds.
Prophet-hood (Risalat):
• Is the belief in the process of God’s revelations to his
apostles, leading up to the revelation of the Holy
Quran on Prophet Muhammad.
• The Prophet’s life as well as the teachings of the
Quran as enunciated by him serve as a guiding
principle for all lives.
Knowledge (Ilm):
• ‘Absolute Truth’ or ‘Ilm’ according to the Holy Quran is
a divine attribute.
• Only knowledge other than the Absolute truth is
attainable through a man’s intellect.
• The obtaining of knowledge has been made
obligatory.
• Knowledge enables the possessor to distinguish what
is forbidden.
“My lord! Increase my knowledge”
(The Quran, 20, 114)
• This was one of the prayers very dear to the Prophet
Muhammad.
Deeds (Amal)
• As defined in Islam, Amal or human actions are
essentially correlated to knowledge and learning.
• Human actions flow from “intellect” or “reason”.
• Islamic teachings make sure there is a balance
between the two thus maintaining righteousness and
ensuring human peace.
Hereafter (Akhirat)
• The destiny of a man lies in Divine Dispensation, this
brings meaning and purpose to life.
• The five essentials of Qur’anic teachings lead to Taqwa
(a life of piety).
• Pakistani culture draws its spirit from these teachings
in its science and arts:
o Muslims reached unpreceded heights by following
these teachings.
o Non observation of these in later times lead to our
decline.
4.2: Social Patterns
• The Pakistani society in its regional and provincial
setting presents a variegated picture.
• On one side the tribal system with old traditional and
values in the Frontier, Baluchistan, Punjab, Sindh, and
Kashmir present ancient rural and agrarian societies.
PAGE 12 OF 19
• The modern industrial cities on the other hand, have
life bustling with activity, while nonindustrial towns
continue to be calm and quiescent.
Social Patterns of Baluchistan:
• Most common sight: shepherds grazing their sheep,
goats, and camels in the summer.
• Social Pattern in winter: shepherds moving to small
tents in Sibi and Karachi (near water sources) with
their animals.
• In Makran and Baluchistan it is customary to see
fishermen with their fishnets early in the morning.
• Women-folk wear long-sleeved flowing dresses with
colorful needle-work called “pashk”.
Social Patterns of the Northern Frontier:
• The Pathans live under a full-fledged tribal system and
code known as Pakhtunwali.
• Its three main characters are:
o Badal (revenge) i.e. avenging any injustice to the
family, regardless of their consequences.
o Melamastia (hospitality).
o Nanawati i.e. the duty of every Pathan to give
sanctuary to friend or foe.
• Pakhtunwalui is based on four institutions:
o Jirga: meeting of elders, deciding all disputes.
o Riwaj and shariat: customs and religious law.
o The Lashkar: tribal army
o Hujra: guest house or community center.
Social Patterns of Punjab:
• Punjab is the largest population-based province, a
world of its own.
• The tribal system is replaced by a system of
brotherhood, known as “Biradri”. The people are
generally lively with games, festivals and music.
• “Heer” is the symbol of a yearning soul in Punjab.
• “Ranjha” is the symbol of eternal love in Punjab.
• Agriculture and industrialization go together
• Some towns still wear an old look.
Social Patterns in Sindh:
• Fertile land everywhere: the Indus and its off-shoots
run through the whole region.
• Large variety of races and ethnicities.
• The occasional bullock-cart appearing resembles the
Mohenjo-Daro antiquity.
• Also known as “the land of saints and fakirs”,
resounding with the mystic folklores of Lal Shahbaz,
Shah Latif, and Sachchal Sarmat.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• On the coastline of the Arabian Sea, stands Karachi, subcontinent. Thus, Jainism today lingers in some
struggling through its population growth and a fasting sects of Hinduism while Buddhism only in some parts
rising skyline. of the subcontinent, though far more popular in east.
Pakistan, Geographically: • Islam was different from all of this. There were
• Central position, linking south Asia to the rest of the concepts of love, equality, brotherhood and justice.
world. There was no distinction of classes. It was a system
• Highlands stretch a continuous belt through Bharat, with no discrimination against color, creed or race.
China, Iran, and Afghanistan. • Islam readily attracted people which were suppressed
• Coastlines stretch through the Middle East. by the earlier systems. Efforts by Sufis and Sheiks
• On both flanks, the passes on the hills i.e. Khyber and resulted in large sale conversions in majority as well as
Bolan, and along the coastlines (particularly the remote areas of Pakistan.
Makran coast) serve as important routes of
communication. 4.3: Arts and Crafts
• North: invincible mountain ranges, the Himalayas and
4.3.1 Music, Vocal and Instrumental:
Karakorum.
• Arabs were great patrons of music.
• South: in the southeast, the great desert separates
• Some Muslim savants of music: Avicenna, Al-Farabi,
the Indus valley from Rajasthan and Gujrat.
and Al-Kindi.
• In between: the plains of Punjab and Sindh serve as
• Some great centers of music: Damascus, Baghdad,
an elaborate river, ensuring geo-physical unity.
Cordoba, and later Granada. They enriched early
Pakistan, Archaeologically:
European music.
• Human settlements have been revealed, dating back
• Gipsies of Europe had the Cithara (guitar) and the
hundreds of thousands of years, from objects
Barbat (harp) with ears to guide in tuning.
discovered in Soan valley.
• Arabs introduced:
• Village cultures along the west of Indus and
o Ud’ (lute)
Baluchistan have been discovered by archeology as
o Bandair (bandura)
well.
o Qitara (guitar)
o They were between 5 to 20 thousand years old.
o With note placement technique of farz (frets)
o They revolutionized into advanced civilizations of
o The fretting of Arabian lute was widely employed by
the Indus valley and Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
Europeans.
during 3000-2000 BC.
• After acquaintance with Iranian and Central Asian
• Art pieces and other archaeological finds show that
music traditions, Muslims added:
this process was maintained even during incursions of
o Asrabab (Rebeca), ghishak (viol), chang (harp),
Persians, Greek and other Turko-Mughal races.
tanburah (bandura), sharud/sarod (archlute), qanun
Inner form and Spirituality in Pakistan:
(dulcimer), nai (flute) and naqqarah (drum).
• In its long history, Pakistan encountered many creed
o These were based on string, reed percussions (vina,
and religions, and the acceptance of one and
bansri, and pakhawaj).
rejections of others suggest that people were always
Amir Khusrau (1253-1523 AD):
in quest for spirituality.
• Mixed Arab-Iranian traditions with those of the
• Unlike earlier systems which rose and fell, Islam
subcontinent gave new forms and content to the
became a catalyst. Islamic principles inspired cultural
musical system.
expression, which, in turn led to the creation of
• Amir’s new melodies and harmonies are: qawl,
Pakistan.
qalbana, tarana, mundha naqsha, nigar, gul, and hawa.
• Before Muslims, Hinduism introduced by Aryans had
• Qawali devotional music was also developed by him. It
firm roots in the region (Brahmic). It was based on
was the most popular mystic music in subcontinent.
obsessive class system. The high class were (the
• He evolved Qawali by combining Qawl and Qalbana.
Brahmins) and the low class (the Sudras). This
• Others who contributed greatly were Sultan Hussain
retarded social and economic process.
Sharqi of Janupur, Ibrahim Shah II, and Jagatguru of
• There were uprisings against the Brahminic system,
Deccan.
such as Buddhism and Jainism. However, they were
Sultan Sharqi:
either absorbed back by the Hindus or forced out of
PAGE 13 OF 19
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• Well known classical, the khayal owes its origin to him.
• He dropped two of the four rigid meters of the old
raga and the dhrupad, making it more decorous.
• Considerable melodies were developed around khayal,
the most popular one was raga.
Qawali:
• Essentially rooted in institutions of Sufism.
• Based on the infinite desire to be one with God, deep
love of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH, and of the
murshid (spiritual guide).
• Themes: highly mystical and moral.
• Sung with repetitive refrains and rhythmic patterns,
creating on artistic climax which throws both the
singer and listener in a state of ecstatic rupture,
known as haal.
Ghazal (Lyric):
• The most popular form of Pakistani poetry.
• When sung with music, it creates an instant emotional
response among listeners.
• Words rendered with clarity and emotion.
• Conveyed with gestures and adding classic tunes like
Thumri and Dadra.
o Bhairvin and Kafi are ragas of classical music. They
have a permanent place in Pakistani traditional folk
and mystic music.
o They are accredited to great Sufis such as Shah
Hassan, Bullhe Shah, Shah Abdul Latif, Sachal
Sarmast, and Khwaja Ghulam Farid.
o They are deeply melodic and simple.
• Thus, folk music represents cultural bearing of the
people, their emotions of love and hate, their weal
and woes, and hopes and aspirations.
• Songs of folk music are linked with dancing gestures.
Among them are Pushtu, Tappa, Sammi, Mahia, Gidda,
Jhumar, Bhangra, Jugni, and Jamala.
• Love-epics are sung in specific thematic surs (modes).
Among them are Heer-Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohini-
Mahinwal, Umer-Marvi, Sassi-Punnun, and Momal-
Rano.
• Sindh developed its own style which is known as Shah-
jo-Rago (Shahs music), after Shah Abdul Latif, who
perfected it.
• Popular music instruments in Pakistan are Sarangi,
Sitar, Tambura, Tabla, Dholki, and Bansri.
• Folk music instruments: Chimta (iron-tongs), Iktara
(single stringed instrument), Sarangi, Bansri and
Dholak (oblong drum)
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• Classical music instruments: Sitar, Sarangi, Tabla and
Tambura.
Qirat:
• Not classified as music:
o Qirat are Hymns sung in praise of attributes of
Supreme Being.
o Qirat is the Art of recitation of the Holy Quran with
measured rhythm and melodious voice.
• The reason for Qirat: The holy prophet PBUH didn’t
want the Holy Book to be read as simple prose, but
with rhythm and melody.
• The poetic diction and syllabus language of the Holy
Quran makes the Qirat pleasing, both aesthetically
and satisfying to the spiritual longings.
• In Pakistan, Qirat enjoys pride of precedence.
Hamd-o-Naat:
• Not classified as music either.
• Poet’s expressions of passionate love and intense
devotion to the Holy Prophet.
• Not sung with musical instruments like Qawali.
• Recitation in lyrical tunes gives it the likeness of a highly
specialized musical art.
4.3.2 Painting:
• Like elsewhere, it is highly popular in Pakistan, except it
was greatly tempered by Islamic teachings and since
Islam shows sensitivity towards iconography or idol
worship, such arts have not been found in early Islamic
societies.
• Muslims excelled so much in arts like calligraphy,
tughra, floral, decorative drawings and illuminating
book-binding that they later came to be distinguished
as Islamic arts.
Painting in Baghdad:
• By the 13th century, great interest in painting was
developed in Baghdad but it was used mostly to
illustrate books.
• After Mongols destroyed Baghdad, painting developed
into flying birds with floating clouds. This was done in
Northern Iran. And there, from Chinese influence,
paintings developed into calligraphic and decorative
patterns.
Painting during the Post-Timurid Conquest of Iran:
• New concepts were introduced.
• It was the era of Bihzad, a legend in the realm of
painting new heights of artistic perfection.
o His characteristics: lifelike miniatures, ornate
landscapes, misty mountains, and rising horizons
done in bright and luminous colors.
Painting under the Safavids of Iran:
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• Painting was developed into pictorial art under the
patronage of Safavids of Iran.
• It depicted scenes of battle and sieges, royal hunts,
feasts and festivities, love and romance and portraits of
richly attired princes and princesses, under sumptuous
colors.
Painting in Subcontinent under Delhi Sultans:
• Followed the pattern of the 13th century Baghdad.
• Mughals themselves experimented with painting which
came to be known as the Mughal School of painting. It
remained in vogue up until the 19th century.
Abdur Rahman Chughtai (1897-1975):
• Great exponent of old Mughal schools.
• Features of his paintings:
o Stunning juxtaposes between his subjects and
judicious color harmonies.
o Implied Symbolism: In one of the paintings a frail
beggar in tattered clothes is shown; another shows a
fallen tree near an exuberant prince. Such illustrations
bring out the contradiction of “resignation and
acceptance”.
o Using similar old traditions, Ustad Allah Bakhsh made
a mark by portraying realistic scenes of Punjab
countryside.
Painting in Pakistan Recently:
• New generation of painters, such as Shakir Ali and
Zubeida Agha have imbibed western influence,
experimenting with abstract style of painting. Both
represent cubist, abstract and surrealist trends.
• They are followed by Ahmed Perver, Shemza, Mueen
Najmi, Ali Imam etc. There is also Sadequin who stands
as a class by himself because of his diversity. With
mastery in both calligraphy and pictorial writing
(tughra).
• Recently, painting in Pakistan has been deeply
influenced by modernist western trends such as
impressionism, surrealism, abstractionism,
Romanticism, realism and pop art.
4.3.3 Calligraphy:
• Calligraphy is an Islamic art grown out of sheer
necessity of transcribing the word of God (the Holy
Quran) in a manner that would bring pleasure to the
eyes, joy to the heart and fragrance to the soul”
• In the Holy Quran, the almighty himself has sworn by
the pen in Surah Al Alaq.
• Therefore, the pen and the letter have been given a
sanctity in Islam, out of which developed the wonderful
art of Islamic calligraphy.
The Kufi Script:
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• The earliest script employed for transcribing the Quran.
• Had an angular and vertical form, this facilitated the
adoption of geometric and ornamental designs.
• The script, however, looked stiff and ponderous,
therefore the naksh was adapted.
The Naksh Script:
• More legible and simpler than the Kufi script.
• Developed in the 10th century.
• Relatively round and more cursive.
• Its popularity led to the development of more variations
in styles of writing (Khatt) under the Abbasid Caliphate
in Baghdad.
Ibn-i-Muqla (886-940 A.D):
• One of the greatest calligraphers of his time.
• Credited with having evolved six calligraphic styles:
1. Naksh
2. Muhaqqaq
3. Riqa
4. Tauqi
5. Suls
6. Raihan
• He also standardized the art of calligraphy and fixed its
grammar, introducing Zer, Zabar, Pesh, and Tanween
(nunnation) i.e doubling the sign.
• Abjad (numeric arrangement of Arabic) is also said to be
systematized by him.
• He was followed by Ibn-i-Bawwab and then three
calligraphers of the same name of Yaqut.
Yaqut Mustasimi (D. 1298):
• Flourished at the court of the lost Abbasid caliph, aka al-
Mustasim.
• He further improved naksh by mixing it with Suls.
• He was styled as Qiblat-al-Kuttab (The model of the
calligraphers), and his style of Quranic writing continues
to be the model of calligraphers.
The Taliq Script:
• After Baghdad fell, Iran was the center of gravity of
Islam. Here a new style was in vogue, called Taliq.
• Taliq was developed by combining Viqa and Tauqi. It
was a new variant of cursive style, had a vertical
emphasis, and series of running diagonals. However,
Naksh remained in use for scribing the Holy Quran.
The Nashtaliq Script:
• During the 14th and 15th century, The interaction of the
Iranian and Arab scripts i.e. The Nasksh and The Taliq
produced Nasthtaliq.
• Characteristics: strokes were long and pointed, flowed
horizontally with ease. Curves were swift and steady
and bended with freedom and dignity.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• Accredited to: Khwaja Mir Ali Tabrezi (d. 1446). He was
the master calligrapher (Qiblat-al-Kuttab) of the
Timruids. Others were Sultan Ali Mashhadi (d. 1519),
and Mir Ali Harvi (d. 1544). Flourished under Timurids.
• There were others who made their mark under the
Safavids and took service under Mughals: Mir Imdad al-
Hussaini Qazvini (d. 1615) and Rashid al-Dailami (d.
1667).
• The Naskshi Script: substantial, equable and assured.
• The Taliq Script: forceful, dominating and arbitrary.
• The Nastiliq Script: polished, elegant and easy casual,
also the expression of highly civilized and sophisticated
people.
Calligraphy under Mughals:
• In the 16th century, the Mughals popularized Nastaliq.
• They too, were enthusiasts of penmanship. They
attracted master calligraphers from Iran and central
Asia.
• Babur invented a new style, Khatt-i-Babur.
• Akbar maintained a department called Aina-i-Tasweer
Khana, meant for compiling calligraphy, decorations
and illustrations.
• Courts of Jahangir and Shah Jehan were adored with
some of the best calligraphers ever known.
• Aurangzeb transcribed numerous copies of the Quran
using the beautiful naksh and sent them to Makkah.
• The last of the Mughals, Bahadur Shah Zafar was known
to be adept in penmanship; he wrote beautiful tughras.
Masters of The Period in Calligraphy (Qalam):
• Khwaja Abdus Samd (Shirin Qalam).
• Mir Syed Ali Tabrezi.
• Mulla Fakhr.
• Muhammad Husain Kashmiri (Zarrin Qalam).
• Miza Muhammad Hussain (introduced “shikasta”, a
broken form of nastaliq).
• Abdur Rahman Harvi (Ambareen Qalam).
• Mir Abdullah (Mushkil Qalam).
• Rashid Dailami.
• Abdul Haq Shirazi aka Amanat Khan, the calligrapher of
Taj Mahal.
• Abdul Baqi Haddad and Muhammad Arif.
• Mir Panja Kash.
• In course of time, nastaliq was almost wholly replaced
by Naskh. Naskh continued to be employed for
calligraphy of Holy Quran and other Arabic tracts.
• Capital cities of Agra and Delhi rose to great heights of
calligraphy under Mughals and regional centers like
Sindh, Multan, Lahore, and Kashmir developed their
own expertise and style.
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• During 19th century, under the British, calligraphy
went through a period of stress and strain upon
introduction of printing.
4.3.4 Handicrafts and Folk Arts
• The tradition of crafts has been handed down by the
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Gandhara men. And
perfected by the Mughal craftsmen and artisans.
• Every area has an acquired characteristic profile:
o Sindh: Has the oldest tradition of cotton weaving,
dyeing and designing ceramics and pottery.
o Baluchistan: Excels in embroidery, needlework, rug
making, and decorated weaponry.
o The NW frontier: Robust folk-carvings, ceramics, and
metal work.
o Kashmir: like Sindh and Baluchistan, has a long
tradition in embroidery, needlework in silk and wool
and inlay work in metal, wood and ivory.
o Punjab: Legendary in woodwork, wood-carving, inlay
works, and wide range of crafts.
Cotton-weaving:
• Oldest heritage of Pakistan.
• Sindh exported fabrics to West Asia, the Roman
countries.
• Refinement and sophistication in cotton-weaving
peaked under the sultans of Delhi and the Mughals.
Stitchery and embroidery:
• Inherited from the Mughal craftsmen, acclaimed to be
the finest specimen of needlework anywhere.
Mirror embroidery:
• Traditional craft of gypsy women in Pakistan.
Rilli patchwork:
• (In Sindh), The art is made of turning retrieved bits and
pieces of clothes into bedspreads etc.
Wool craft:
• Comes naturally to the sheep breeding areas of NWFP,
Baluchistan etc.
Dyeing:
• Developed as early as cotton weaving.
• Evidence of exporting dyeing products to China and
Egypt in ancient time.
Printing with wax:
• Known as Khosi, developed in Peshawar.
Leather crafts:
• Rich and artistic, historically linked with the Muslim
period.
Metal craft/smithy:
• As old as the first civilization, there are three different
techniques:
o The Greco-Roman (Gandhara).
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
o The damascene (Arabs of Damascus).
o Turko-Iranian (Mughals).
Damascening:
• Also known as Koftgari, the Arab art of inlaying or
encrusting gold/silver on base metal.
Enameling:
• Also known as Mina-Kari, originally done in Kashmir and • Begins with the coming of Muslims in the
parts of Punjab. Best designs come from Karachi,
Hyderabad, Multan, and Lahore.
Folk jewelry:
• The medium is generally silver. In Peshawar the folk
jewelry is marked with absence of stone settings.
Pottery:
• All over crafts for its quick and easy manipulation with
the potter’s wheel.
• Sindh has the oldest tradition in pottery.
Timber:
• Used as a building material, survived in Punjab and
frontier regions to developed to a highly artistic form.
Woodwork:
• Developed during Mughal times. Punjab has been
leading this category.
Basketry, Cane Furniture and Mat Making:
• Classified as minor crafts, representing the best
examples of ingenious vegetable waste and wild plants
utilization.
Stone cutting and Engraving:
• Rooted in the region’s antiquity.
Colored Marbles
• Gave new dimensions to lapidary arts.
4.4 Language, Literature and Folk Lore:
• Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. Among the several
languages and dialects spoken are:
o Pashto and Hindko in the Frontier with dialects of
Chitral, Gilgit and Hunza
o Baluchi and Bahui and Jugdal (and Makrani) in
Baluchistan
o Gujri and Kashmiri in Azad Kashmir
o Punjab, Potwari and Siraiki in the Punjab
o Sindhi Siraiki and Urdu in Sindh
• Out of these only Brahui belongs to the Dravidian
language family while the majority are Indo-Aryan
• Most of these languages have a common vocabulary
with Arabic, Persian and Turkish and are written in
Arabic and Persian scripts from right to left.
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4.4.1 Urdu:
• Urdu serves as the “lingua-franca” or “link-language”
for all regions and is the national language of Pakistan.
• According to UNESCO, Urdu is the third largest spoken
language of the world.
• Urdu has a 700-year-old literary tradition.
History:
subcontinent (through Sind in the 8th century). They
spoke Arabic, Turkish and Persian. Soon a “link-
language” was developed. It contained rich vocabulary
from local dialects along with words borrowed from
Arabic, Persian and Turkish.
• Expanded when the Ghaznavids dominion of Sindh
spread to the whole of Punjab.
• Therefore, the development of this languages is linked
with Punjab and is as old as Punjabi itself.
Mahmud Shirani: “the Muslims had developed their
own language in the sub-cont., which spread along
with their conquests in the East, West, North and the
South”
Earliest examples of the language are found in:
• Persian diwan of Masud Saad Salman
• In the works of Mir Khurd, Amir Khusrau
• Some phrases in this language are attributed of Shiekh
Farid Ganj-i-Shakar and Makhdum Jahanian of Uchcha.
Early Urdu Literature:
• Came from Gujrat and Deccan
• Nizami’s Masnawi Kadam rao Padam Rao, a long-
rhymed poem (c. 1425) is the earliest work in Urdu.
• Gisu-Daraz’s Miraj-ul-Ashiquin (1421) is regarded as
the first prose work in Urdu.
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries:
• Urdu mainly flourished in the Deccan Sultanates of
Bijapur and Golconda.
• Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda (d. 1611) a contemporary
of Akbar was a prolific poet and his Diwan is one of
the earliest collections of Urdu poems
• Other Dakani ports such as Hasan Shauqi and Nusrati
greatly enriched Urdu poetry with Persian traditions
• Further enriched by Wali Dakani (1668-1744)
Eighteenth Century:
• Delhi became established as center of literary activity
• Urdu poetry reached a stage of maturity in the works
of great masters like Mir, Sauda and Dard
• Mir and Sauda went to Lucknow and became the fore-
runners of the Lucknow school of poetry
Nineteenth Century:
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• The Delhi school made the Urdu poetry reach its
zenith in the Ghazals of Momin, Ghalib and Dagh.
• There was little prose in Urdu till the beginning of the
19th century except for a few story books like Fasana-i-
Ajaib of Rajab Ali Beg.
• The Holy Quran was translated by Shah Rafiuddin (d.
1817) and Shah Abdul Qadir (d. 1814)
• After the War of Independence in 1857, Sayyid Ahmed
Khan pioneered a scientific and literary movement. His
own journal Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq and other works, Aasar-
us-Sana-did, Khutbai-i-Ahmadiya and Tafsir-ul-Quran
set the standard for simpler and more practical style.
Inspired by Syed Ahmed,
o The historian Zakaullah wrote Tarikh-i-Hind
o The historian Shibli Nomani wrote Sher-ul-Ajam,
Maqalat, Sirat-un-Nabi
o The Novelist Nazir Ahmad wrote Taubat-un-Nasuh,
Mirat-ul-Urus, Binat-un-naash
o Altaf Hussain Hali wrote Musaddas, Muqaddima-i-
Sher-o-Shairi and Hayat-i-Javed.
Twentieth Century:
• Osmania University was founded in 1917 in Hyderabad
• Saw the emergence of “modern literary movement”.
The local Urdu writers increased acquaintance with
the Western Literature and gave rise to new trends
• Iqbal (1875-1939) was the best exponent of this trend.
He used Urdu to channel the social and political
longings of the Muslims.
o His works include: Bang-i-dara, Shikwa and Jawab-i-
Shikwa, Bal-i-Jibril, Masjid-i-Qurtuba, and Zarb-i-
Kalim.
• Others who contributed in transforming Urdu poetry
from classic to modern are: Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Noon
Meem Rashid, Hafiz Jullundhri (who also composed
the National Anthem of Pakistan)
• Traditional poetry i.e. the ghazal continued to retain
its charm and popularity.
• The Modern movement gained further ground upon
the formation of Progressive Writers’ Association in
1936.
Urdu Fiction:
• Rose to unprecedented heights during the 20th century
and could be rated as world-class
Noted in this field were Prem Chand, Qazi Abdul Ghaffar
and Sa’adat Hasan Manto.
5. EMERGING TRENDS
5.1 New Orientations
• Can be best understood by a look into the past:
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British Invasion of the 18th Century:
• The British possessed superior technology and
scientific know-how and with their new dominion they
soon achieved a high degree of industrialization.
• The British were however, always apprehensive of a
Muslim revival.
• This was because the British were culturally different
from the Muslims, who were against change in their
own culture.
• Therefore, they implemented several policies, which
left the Muslims paralyzed.
Policies against the Muslims:
• The first blow of the British upon the Muslims was
destroying their cottage industries.
o Results: Muslims were economically ruined, while
the British monopolized the subcontinent as a vast
market for machine-made goods from England.
• The second blow came when English was made the
official language.
o Results: Rendered the educated Muslims jobless,
which made them intensely more hostile.
o Hindus readily took to English language and western
education, leaving Muslims behind in all walks of
life.
• Factors like these lead to the War of Independence of
1857, the failure of which completed the ruin of
Muslims.
Reconciliation of Muslims:
• Reform movements like those lead by the great Sir
Sayyid Ahmed Khan.
• The exodus of non-Muslims upon the creation of
Pakistan lead to a void in services and professions. To
this challenge, the Muslims responded magnificently:
o Within a short span of a quarter century, the
country made remarkable progress, all while being
under immense pressures of a newly formed
Country.
• Hence, over time it became clear that in order to
achieve progress in modern times, it was essential to
retain some of the concepts introduced by the British.
In course of time, Pakistan evolved a pattern of life
which followed the process of science and technology.
• Islam encourages free inquiry to the truth. Therefore,
the use of science and technology is written into the
Injunctions of Islam.
5.2 Islamisation
• Pakistan was officially constitutionalized as the Islamic
Republic of Pakistan in 1956.
 FBISE HSSC-1 PAKISTAN CULTURE
• It is laid down in the constitution that “No law shall be • These concepts are utilized in Pakistan by policies
enacted which is repugnant to the injunctions of Islam devised from the experts, with thoughtful measures
as laid down in the Holy Quran, Sunnah and the for infusing spiritual and ideological traditions at
existing laws.” different levels of studies.
• In recent years, successive measures have been taken • Thus, Pakistani scholars, scientists, and other
to uphold this. Among them are professionals are reckoned as second to none in field.

o The Zakat Ushr Ordinance: 5.4 Literature

▪ Zakat and Ushr began in 1980 with an ordinance • Was also greatly influenced by Western thought. This
decreed by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. is highlighted in the “Progressive Movement” on the
▪ Zakat is the giving of a fixed portion of one's pre-Pakistan days.
wealth to needy people, and is one of the Five • Its distinctive feature continued to be its ideological
Pillars of Islam. orientation.
▪ Ushr is collected on compulsory basis at a rate of This impacted the regional literatures of Sindhi,
5 percent of the produce from everyone who Pashtu, Punjabi and Baluchi which also make their
meets the definition of sahib-e-nisab (producing own adjustments towards developing the modern
849 KG of wheat, or equivalent). synthesis.
o The Hudood Ordinance:
▪ These are laws in Pakistan that were enacted in 5.5 Socio-Economic Trends
1979 as part of the military ruler Zia-ul-Haq's • In this field technological advancement has led to
"Islamisation" process. sustained economic growth
▪ Added new criminal offences of adultery and • With Industrialization a new urban middle-class had
fornication, and new punishments of whipping, popped up
amputation, and stoning to death.
• Modern technology has greatly revolutionized the
▪ Intended to implement Shariah law. The system
concept of agriculture.
provided for two kinds of offences hadd and tazir
Results:
with different punishments to go with them.
o While the villages have received extensive facelift,
▪ Hadd offences (fixed punishment) require a
the traditional village farmers have been moving to
higher standard of proof than tazir (discretionary
industrial cities in search of employment.
punishment) and their punishments are more
o The century old barrier between urban and rural
severe.
areas is gradually narrowing down.
o Appointment of Muthasib (ombudsman):
• The employment boom in oil-rich Middle Eastern
▪ An ombudsman is an official, usually appointed
countries has given Pakistani professionals an
by the government but
opportunity to display their skills and competence in
▪ Has a significant degree of independence
the respective fields.
▪ Is charged with representing the interests of the
public by investigating and addressing complaints
of violation of rights.
▪ In Pakistan, the establishment of an ombudsman
institution had been advocated for some time
before 1972.

5.3 Education
• Education is another field where the problem of
striking a proper balance between the local Pakistani
Ideologies and the foreign Western Education
techniques come into play
• The West in its wake brought new concepts and
techniques in science and technology

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