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5-1963

The Effects of Cooking Temperature and Stage of Doneness on

Some Factors in Broiled Beef
Carmencita Salvosa
Utah State University

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Salvosa, Carmencita, "The Effects of Cooking Temperature and Stage of Doneness on Some Factors in
Broiled Beef" (1963). All Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 4839.
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 THE EFFECTS OF COOKING TEMPERATURE AND STAGE OF

DONENESS ON SOME FACTORS IN BROILED BEEF

by

Carmencita Salvosa

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Food and Nutrition

UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY·

Logan, Utah

1963
 ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my major professor,

Dr. Margaret B. Merkley, for her patience, untiring personal interest

and efforts without which I would still be working on this thesis now.

To Dean Phyllis Snow and Dr. Ethelwyn B. Wilcox, I am grateful for

their generous help and suggestions throughout the study .

To Taylor Instrument Company, I would like to express my appreciation

for the loan of the multipoint potentiometer and the special thermometer .

To Dr. Rex Hurst I would like to express my thanks for help in the

statistical analyses.

I am indebted to all my friends for their true spirit in international

friendship .

Carmencita Salvosa
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Thiamine Retention

Thiamine retention after broiling 5

Soluble Proteins . 6

Denaturation 6
Effects of heat on nutritive value of proteins

Weight Losses

Stage of cookery 9
Cooking temperature 10

Tenderness 10

Cooking time and tempera tur e 11

Internal temperature 11

Press Fluid 12
Cooking of Meat 14

METHOD OF PROCEDURE 15

Preliminary Tests 15
Selection of Meat 16
Preparation for Cooking 17
Broiling 17
Chemical Tests 18

Preparation for sampling 18

Thiamine 19
Soluble proteins 19
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

Physical Tests 19

Weight losses 19
Moisture 19
Tenderness 19
Press fluid 19
Flavor test for preference 20

Other Tests 20

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 21

Thiamine Retention 21

Effect of cooking temperature 21

Effect of cooking time 30
Effect of thickness of steaks 30

Soluble Proteins . 33

Effect of cooking temperature 33

Effect of cooking time . 33
Effect of degree of doneness 35

Weight Loss 35

Effect of cooking temperature 35

Effect of degree of doneness 37

Moisture Retention 37

Effect of cooking temperature 37

Effect of degree of doneness 37

Tenderness Scores 38

Effect of cooking temperature 38

Effect of degree of doneness 38
Effect of different muscles 38

Press Fluid 41
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

Effect of cooking temperature 41

Effect of degree of doneness 43
Effect on tenderness 43
Effect on weight loss 43

Flavor 45
Cooking Time 46
Rate of Heat Penetration 46
Statistical Analyses 49

SUMMARY. 50

LITERATURE CITED 53

APPENDIX 61
 vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Thiamine content of beef round and sirloin (mg/100 gm wet

basis) 4

2. Results of preliminary tests on charcoal broiler 16

3. Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks

cooked rare 29

4. Thiamine retention as r elated to cooking time and stage of

doneness 31

5. Effect of degree of doneness on some factors in top sirloin

steaks broiled at 350° F 32

6. Tenderness values for r ec tus femoris and vastus lateralis

muscles 40

7. Juiciness as related to cooking temperatures 41

8. Press fluid as related to tenderness 44

9. Press fluid as related to weight loss 44

10. Average scores of four judges for flavor test 45

11. Cooking temperature as related to degree of doneness and

cooking time 47

12 . Time table for broiling sirloin steaks 62

13. Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks

cooked rare 63

14 . Top sirloin steaks cooke d at 350° F 66

15 . Hedonic scale 68
 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures . 28

2. Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees

of doneness at 350° F 28

3. Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at

three temperatures 34

4. Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks cooked to three

degrees of doneness at 350° F 34

5. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures 36

6 . Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F 36

7. Moisture in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F . 39

8. Shea r force values in top sirloin steaks cooked to three

degrees of doneness at 35 0° F 39

9. Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures 42

10. Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F 42

11. Heat curves representing temperatures of each of the three

thermocouples 48
 viii

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

1. One inch thi ck top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatur es 22

2 . One in ch thic k top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F . 23

3. One and one - half inc h thi ck top sirloin steaks cooked rare at
three te mpe ratures . 24

4 . One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F 25

5. Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures . 26

6 . Two inch thick top sirloin stea ks cooked to two degrees of

don eness at 350° F 27
 viii

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

1. One inch thick top s irloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures . 22

2. One inch thi ck top strloin steaks cooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F 23

3. One and one-half in h thick top sirloin steaks cooked rar e at

three temperatures 24

4 . One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F 25

5. Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

t emperatur es . 26

6 . Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to two degrees of

don eness at 350° F . 27
 INTRODUCTION

Broiling is cooking tender cuts of meat by radiant heat from hot coals ,

a gas fl ame, or an electric element. Steaks a nd chops for broiling a r e from

1 to 2 inches thick.

Broiling as a method of cooking meat is not new, but the directions for

the process are the result of individual trial a nd err or testing and are often

in conflict. Current interest in indoor and outdoor broiling, particularly in

Western United States , emphasizes the need for better information. There

is no measuring device for surface h eat during broiling and thus littl e re-

search on the relationship of surface t emperatur e, degree of doneness and

cooking time. Little has be en done to investigate the effect of a change in

rate of heat transfer on th e physical a nd che mical reactions whi ch occur dur-

ing broiling.

Although some work has been done on the effects of diffe rent cooking

methods on weight loss es, tenderness, palatability , a nd thiamine content of

beef, no reports were found rel ating cut of m eat , t emperature at the surface

of the meat, a nd degree of doneness to other factors during broiling.

The existing literature c ontained r elatively littl e information on changes

produced in broil ed beef. Most of the data available were indefinite , lacking

precise information regar ding time and temperature. Timetables for broil-

ing, like roasting , varied in directions given and frequently stated the time
 2

of cooking in minutes per pound. At best this can serve only as a poor guide

because the amount of fat and bone present, the state of the meat, whether

solid or ground, the amount of connective tissue present, and the thickness

of the meat influence the rate of heat penetration.

This initial study was conducted on beef using charcoal as the source of

heat, since the heat of the charcoal could be controlled at different tempera-

tures. A high, medium and low temperature were used for cooking and the

meat was cooked to three degrees of doneness (rare, medium and well-done).

In this research a potentiometer devised by Taylor Instrument Company

to measure the temperature at the surfaces of the meat and internally was

used. Thus it was possible to accurately measure the temperature.

An experimental model of a coil-type thermometer was also made by

Taylor Instrument Company and its use offered, for the first time, the pos-

sibility of determining the temperature at the surface of the meat.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of surface

temperature during broiling to stage of doneness and to cooking time on the

following factors in broiled sirloin steaks: thiamine retention, soluble pro-

tein content, weight loss, moisture retention, changes in tenderness, juici-

ness and flavor. It was hoped that the findings might be of use in the develop-

ment of a thermometer to be used for broiling much as oven and meat

thermometers are used now for roasting meats. Also, an attempt was made

to develop time-temperature charts for use in broiling.

 3

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Thiamine Retention

A review of literature indicated a wide variation in the thiamine content

of raw beef. Cover et al. (1944, 1947) stated that since many cuts of meat

contained a large number of muscles, muscle variation could not be excluded.

They added that animal variation may account for some of the differences.

Table 1 shows the results of some studies on the thiamine content of beef

round and sirloin.

Arnold and Elvehjem (1939), Rice and Beuk (1945), and Beadle et al.

(1943) concluded that the rate and extent of destruction were related both to

the time and temperature of healing or cooking.

Schweigert et al. (1944) and Lushbough et al. (1959) reported that thia-

mine and pyridoxine were more readily destroyed by heat processing or

standard cooking procedures than were other B-vitamins.

Lushbough et al. (1962), in their work on thiamine retention in meats

after various heat treatments, stated that if the maximum amount of thiamine

were to be retained in meat, cooking or processing should involve the us e of

the lowest temperatures a nd shortest times possible. Thiamine content of

beef round cooked to the same degree of doneness at three temperatures de-

creased significantly at tbe highest temperature.

 4

Table 1. Thiamine content of beef round and sirloin (mg/100 gm wet basis)

Round Sirloin
Reference Raw Cooked Raw Cooked

Micke ls e n et al. (1939a) 0. 450a

Waisman and Elvehjem (1941) 0.900a 0. 450a

Cheldelin a nd Williams (1942) 0. 063

Campbell e t al. (1946) 0. 030 0. 039

Watt and Merrill (1950) 0. 080 0. 070

National Liv estock and Meat

Boa rd (1950) 0. 080

L e ve rton a nd Odell (1958) o. nb

Dawson e t a l. (1959) 0. 19 - 1. 20c

Noble a nd Gomez (1960) 0. 102a 0. 084a

aM01stur e tree .
brat- fr ee .
'Tat-fr ee; average for loin, rib and round .
Thiamine retention after broiling

The existing literature contained relatively little information on the

thiamine retention in broiled beef.

According to Mickelsen et al. (1939b), Cover et al. (1944), and Tucker

et al. (1946) thiamine retention was related to degree of doneness.

Farrer (1955) stated that although shorter cooking time and lower cook-

ing temperatures favored thiamine retention , a combination of high tempera-

ture and short time might lead to smaller loss es than found with lower

temperatures a nd longer cooking times.

The National Livestock and Meat Board (1950) stated that thiamine had

a retention of 80 percent in broiling. Morgan (1960) in reviewing the effects

of home preparation on the nutrient content of foods of animal origin reported

a retention of 60 to 86 percent.

In sirloin steaks pan broiled to a well-done stage for 18 minutes,

Campbell et al. (1946) reported that 13 percent of the thiamine was lost in

cooking. The cooking temperature and internal temperature at doneness

were not given.

Cover and Smith (1956) studied the effect of dry heat cooking on vitamin

retention in meat from beef animals of different levels of fleshing. They

reported that loin and bottom round steaks broiled at 392° F for 35 minutes

had thiamine retentions of 56 percent and 61 percent, respectively.

 Soluble Proteins

Denaturation

The effect of high temperatures on proteins is almost entirely one of

denaturation. According to Bull (1949) the most generally accepted theory of

protein denaturation is that of Wu who proposed that denaturation be looked

upon as a change from the unique and specific structure of the native protein

to the much more randomly arranged denatured form. The peptide chains in

the native molecule exist in a highly ordered structure and, when the protein

molecule is denatured, this precise folding of the peptide chains is destroyed .

A later definition was by Neurath et al. (1944): "Denaturation is any

non-proteolytic modification of the unique structure of a native protein , giving

rise to definite changes in chemical, physical , or biological properties."

This definition excludes hydrolysis of the peptide bonds.

Putnam (1953) interpreted the phenomenon in terms of a theory of pro-

tein structure. According to him, all the evidence indicates that denatura-

tion is a physical or intramolecular rearrangement rather than a chemical

alteration of native protein structure and that it led to a change in specific

spatial configuration without hydrolysis of primary covalent bonds.

Heat is the first known, most common , and most widely investigated

denaturing agent. Among the important changes occurring in various kinds

of denaturation of most proteins are the following which may be evaluated

quantitatively: (1) decrease in solubility, (2) loss of biological activity, (3)

increased reactivity of constituent groups, and (4) changes in molecular

shape or size.

According to Putnam (1953) , the coagulation was a secondary phenom-

enon although heat-denatured proteins readily aggregated. Diminished solu-

bility was the most familiar criterion of heat denaturation, and measurement

either of the amount of soluble proteins remaining or of the precipitate served

as a useful quantitative index. The coagulated protein was unsuited for most

physical or chemical analyses.

Anson (1945) stated that heat coagulation of isoelectric proteins took

place about 600 times faster when the temperature was raised 50° F.

Mitchell et al. (1949) and Rice and Beuk (1953) found that the effect of heat

on food proteins depended upon the temperature attained within the food.

A review of the literature showed only one report on the effect of heat

on soluble proteins of beef muscle. Ginger et al. (1954) found that cooking

caused a very marked decrease in the amount of soluble protein nitrogen

present and resulted in the liberation of some free amino nitrogen.

Effects of heat on nutritive value of proteins

Some of the work on raw and cooked beef indicated that home cooking

methods had little effect on nutritive value. This was observed by the follow-

ing workers: Seegers et al. (1936), Swanson and Nelson (1938), Mitchell

et al. (1949), McBride et al. (1951), and Clark et al. (1955).

In a study on raw and cured pork, Beuk (1948) found that neither

standard home cooking methods nor commercial heat processing methods

 8

destroyed significant amounts of amino ac ids oth er than cys tine . Studies of

Neilands et al. (1949) and Dunn et al. (1949) supported these findings . Sim-

ilar results were found by Griswold (1951) who also reporte d that excessive

h eat l owe red the nutritive value of m eat protein , probably by forming e nzym e

resistant linkages .

There were some indications that if the temperature of processing ex -

ceeded cert a in limits, i.e. , about 212° F, the nutritive value of meat pro-

teins was impaired more seriously. This was noted in the studies of Morgan

and Kern (1934) , Seegers (1935) , Seegers and Mattill (1935) , Poling et a l.

(1944), Mayfield and Hedrick (1949) , Beuk et a l. (1950) , and Wheeler and

Morgan (1958) .

Rice and Beuk (1953) stated that when a reduction in protein quality

occurred it could be attributed to one or more of th e following caus es:

1. Actua l destruction of one or mor e of the essential amino acids.

2. Formation of inte r- or intramolecular bonds which ar e r esistant to

digestive en zymes. This may result in the inability of the animal to diges t

the protein or it may be reflected only in the biological value of the fragments

which are a bsorbed.

3. Alteration in the rate at which the various amino acids are r el eased

fr om the protein , resulting in mixtures of amino acids less efficient for

m eta bolism and assimilation.

According to McHenry (1957) moderately cooked meat was digested and

a bsorbed more thoroughly than raw or overcooked meat; the moderately

cooked product had, ounce for ounce, a greater nutritive value . Clifford
 9

(1930) also found that cooked beef was digested more rapidly than raw beef.

Results similar to those of McHenry (1957) and Clifford (1930) were

found by Schroeder et al. (1961) who reported that any ordinary heating of

meat improved the nutritional quality of the protein. The methods of heating

used in ordinary cookery did not greatly diminish the nutritive value of meat

proteins. On the other hand, prolonged high temperatures appeared to de-

crease their over-all utilization.

Weight Losses

Weight losses in meat have been studied by a number of workers. In

general the higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage of done-

ness and the higher the cooking temperature , the greater the losses.

Very little work has been done on the weight losses of beef during

broiling. However, the literature showed that the factors affecting th e

shrinkage of meat were generally in agreement.

Stage of cookery

According to Hughes (1955), shrinkage in cooked meats started at

140° F. The higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage of

doneness, the greater the shrinkage. Similar findings were noted by the

following workers: Latzke (1930), Child and Satorius (1937), Cover (1937 and

1943), Satorius and Child (1938), Tucker et al. (1946), Aldrich and Lowe

(1954), Clark et al. (1955), Cover et al. (1937 and 1962), and Visser et al.

(1960).
 10

It was observed by Cover et a l. (1962) that greater weight losses were

associated with drier and less tender meat.

Cooking temperature

The literature showed that weight losses were greater with high er cook-

ing temperatures. This was observed by the following workers: Cline et al.

(1930), Alexander (1930), Child and Satorius (1938), Cover et al. (1949),

Lowe (1955) , West and Wood (1959), Bramblett et al. (1959), and Lushbough

et al. (1962) .

Griswold (1955) found that when the time of cooking was unusually long

at the lower temperature, the weight loss es during cooking were high . Lowe

et a l. (1952) had similar findings in their study with veal leg roasts.

Tenderness

According to Harrison et al. (1959) tenderness in cooked meat was the

total effect of composition of mus cle, aging before cooking , heat coagu lation

of muscle fiber proteins, and the changes which took pla::e in the connective

tissues.

Ramsbottom et al. (1945) reported that in as much as connective tissue

and fatty tissue were made more tender by cooking, the decreas e in tender-

ness of muscle was associated with factors such as coagulation and denatura-

tion of muscle proteins together with varying degrees of shrinkage and hard-

ening of muscle fibers.

 11

Winegarden et al. (1952) concluded that cooking steaks a nd roasts to

rare or medium-done (131 ° to 149° F) brought about littl e, if any, c hange in

the connectiv e tissues of the muscles . At 131° F little change occurred with

short periods of heating, but with higher temper atur e s , physic al changes

occurred rapidly. During heating, the collagenous tissues lost weight ,

softened, shrank in length, and increas ed in thickness .

Rams bottom et al. (1945) found that collagenous tissue changed con-

siderably on cooking but elastic tissue cha nged l ess.

Cooking time and temperature

Cooking time, Cover (1941) pointed out, was one factor in det ermining

tenderness of meat. Experimenting with paired roasts (one roasted with a

skewer and the other without), she found that long , slow cooking of unskewered

roasts increased tenderness of m eat. In a later work Cover (1943) compared

th e effect of extremely slow rates of h eat penetr ation to tenderness of beef

r oas ts. She fo und , with paired roa sts , that those cooked at 17 6° F consist-

ently had lower shear values than thos e cooked a t 257° F .

Internal t emperature

Top a nd bottom round steaks were cooked by Clark et al. (1955) by

oven-braising to 176° F, in a pr essure saucepan unde r 10 and 15 pounds

pr essure to the same internal temperatur e, and under 15 pounds pr essure to

234 ° F. Top a nd bottom round steaks cooked to 234 ° F were significantly

mor e tender than those cooked to 176° F. It was concluded that the internal
 12

temperatures to which meat was cooked were more important in determining

tenderness than were methods of cooking studied.

Hood et al. (1955) noted no significant differences in tenderness of biceps

femoris cuts between meat roasted to 160° F and that to 176° F. When semi-

tendinosus muscle was cooked to thr ee internal temperatures (136°, 153° ,

and 167° F) by Satorius and Child (1938) , the diameter_ of the muscle fibers

decreas ed and tenderness increased up to 153° F. Between 153° and 167° F

the muscle fiber diameter did not change but tenderness decreased.

Visser et a l. (1960), in a study of various beef muscles cooked in deep

fat to 212° and 230° F, showed that an increa se in internal temperatur e

tended to increase tenderness scores, but not significantly.

Cover et al. (1962) observed that beef steaks cooked by dry heat became

less tender with increasing internal temperature. Smith (1961) found similar

results in he r study on venison.

Press Fluid

On the whole, subjective juiciness and the amount of press fluid did not

appear to represent quite the same thing. Satorius and Child (193 8), Hall

et al. (1944), Hardy and Noble (1945) , and Gaddis et al. (1950) found no rela-

tion betw een press fluid and juiciness.

That temperature and l ength of cooking affect juiciness in meat was

established by Satorius and Child (19 38). Similar results were noted by

Lowe et al. (1952), Siemers and Hanning (1953) , and Bramblett et al. (1959).

How ever, Child and Satorius (1938) noted that semit endinosus muscle heated
 13

to a n internal temperature of 136° F (rare ) a t different oven temperatures

did not differ in press fluid or shear for ce.

Although low oven temperatures during roasting usually resulted in

lower cooking losses and juicier meat both cooking loss es and juic iness

were adversely affected if meat were held at low cooking t emperatur es for

very l ong periods Griswold (1955) studied the effect of cooking beef r ound

roasted at two temperatures and found that meat roasted at 300° F was

superior in juiciness to that roasted at the lower t e mp erature.

Weir (1960) stated that tenderness a nd juic iness were closely related;

the more tender the meat , the more quickly the juices were rel eased by chew-

ing and the juicier the meat appeared. Cooking procedure was perhaps the

most important factor influencing th e juic iness of cook ed meat. In general,

those cooking procedures that resulted in the greatest retention of fluids and

fat yielded the juiciest meat. For this reason juic iness usually varied in-

versely with cooking losses.

Rare meat is juicier than well-done meat. Satorius and Child (19 38 )

found that both the total moisture and press fluid decreased with each incre-

ment in interior temperature except that there wa s no decrease in press

fluid between 136° and 153° F for beef roasts . Several workers , Hall (1944),

Cover a nd Shrode (1955), Clark et al. (1955) , Visser et a l. (1960) , a nd

Cover et al. (1962), also reporte d that meat becam e progressively l ess juicy

as its internal temperature increased .

 14

Cooking of Meat

Cooking of meat is accomplished when the heat necessary to achieve

the desired changes has penetrated to the center of the cut being cooked.

Directions for cooking often state the time of cooking in terms of minutes per

pound. Lowe (1955) stated that at best this served only as a poor guide for

the following factors affected the time required to cook meat or the rate of

heat penetration: (a) the method of cooking, (b) the cooking temperature , (c)

weight, surface area, and the shortest distance to the center of the thickest

portion of the meat , (d) degree of doneness , (e ) the composition of the meat,

(f) the degree of post mortem changes, and (g) the initial temperature of the

meat . It is for these reasons that cookbook directions vary greatly (See

Appendix, Table 12).

According to Tischer and Hurwicz (1957) the striation of muscles in-

flu e nced heat transfer and chemical and microbiological changes . Th e

structure of muscles was such that it conducted impulses , fluids, and gases

in one direction much more readily than in another . It is well known, for

instance, that diffusion through the sheath of muscle cells was much slower

than it was through the length of the muscle . The structure of cells was

changed after the application of heat . The changes, no doubt, influenced the

passage of heat and the character and extent of chemical changes in animal

tissue .
 15

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

Preliminary Tests

Preliminary studies were made to determine the broiling t e mp eratur es

used in elec tric ovens as a guide to those which might be us ed with a char-

coa l broiler. These studies were conducted on an el ectric Hotpoint r ange

(Model RB , RC, and RD, Catalogue Number 109RD6).

Four broiling temperatures (500°, 400°, 350°, a nd 300° F) at three

different distances (8, 6, and 4 inches) from the broiler were tested. The

thermometer was placed on a rack, the heat regulator set at the temperature

being tested, the broiler turned on, the door l eft open as indicated for broil-

ing , and a record made of the tempera tur e at the broiling surface in 1 minute

intervals.

For example , with the heat regulator at 500° F a nd the thermometer

8 inch es from the broiler, at the end of 10 minutes the temperature was

340° F; a t the end of 20 minutes the temperatur e was 430° F; and a t th e end

of 30 minutes the temperature wa s 460° F. At 6 inches from the heat , the

temperatures at the end of 10, 20, and 30 minutes were 400°, 480°, and 520°

F, respectively. At 4 inches from the heat, at the end of 10 , 20, a nd 30

minutes, the temperatures were 500° , 570°, a nd 580° F. These and other

tests showed that it was impossible to regulate the heat at a constant

temperature.
 16

Since it was impossible to control the heat of the electric broiler at a

given temperature, the preliminary study was done using a charcoa l broiler

where through manipulation of the height of the grill from the charcoal and

manipulation of the coals, it was possible to keep the heat comparatively

constant.

Tests were conducted to determine the internal temperatures at time of

turning and at the end of the broiling period, methods of controlling surface

temperature, approximate cooking time required, and to work out the defini-

tions for the three degrees of doneness . The results of these tests are

shown below.

Table 2 . Results of preliminary tests on charcoal broiler

Internal Color in a
Degree of Final internal Amount and
temperature cross section
doneness temperature color of juice
at turning slice

Rare 85°-90° F 135°-140° F Bright red Abundant ; red

Medium 90°-110° F 155°-160° F Pink or rose Less than rare;

lighter red

Well-done 11o 0 -n2° F 165°-170° F Not pink Very little;

yellowish

Selection of Meat

Top sirloin steaks of good grade, 1, 1 1/2, and 2 inches thick, were

selected as representative of the type of steaks generally charcoal broiled.

 17

They were purchased from the meat counter of a Logan supermarket either

the morning of the cooking day or the night before. In the latter case the

meat was loosely wrapped and stored at 40° F until needed .

Preparation for Cooking

Before cooking the width of the outer contour fat was measured in cen-

timeters .

A raw meat sample, approximately 100 grams, was cut from the bi-

ceps femoris, gluteus medius, and gluteus profundus muscles for chemical

analyses. This sample was placed in a labeled 250 milliliter beaker, cov-

ered with saran wrap, and refrigerated until chemical tests could be made

later in the day.

The fat was scored and the steak weighed in grams on a labeled weighed

aluminum pan. The meat, covered with saran wrap to help prevent moisture

loss , was kept at refrigeration temperature until ready for cooking.

Thermocouples were sewed to the top and bottom surfaces and into the

center of each steak, using nylon thread and a straight needle . These thermo-

coupl es were attached to a multi-point potentiometer built by Taylor Instru-

ment Company. The steaks were placed in an aluminum pan over ice during

the sewing and registered between 35° and 45° F at the start of broiling.

Cooking was done outdoors on a charcoal grill. Charcoal was ignited

with an el ectric starter. It was allowed to burn until gray and then spread
 18

evenly. An experimental thermometer made by Taylor Instrument Company

was placed on the grill to note the temperature of cooking. The desired

temperature (300°, 350°, or 400° F) was regulated by manipulation of the

coals and the grill. These temperatures were chosen because they were the

ones most often suggested in cookbooks (See Appendix, Table 12).

The temperatures in the preliminary tests were used to determine time

of turning and degree of doneness.

The steaks broiled rare were cooked at 300°, 350°, and 400° F. Reten-

tions of thiamine and soluble proteins were greater at 350° F than at either of

the other temperatures; moreover these steaks cooked at 350° were the most

palatable as indicated by the scores obtained by the subjective judging, thus

the medium and well-done steaks were cooked at 350° F . It was found im-

practical to cook 2-inch steaks to the well-done stage. Surface core harden-

ing, formed during broiling, prevented penetration of heat into the center of

the meat and it was impossible to reach an internal temperature of 170° F

even after broiling times of 120 minutes.

Chemical Tests

Preparation for sampling

Samples of the l ean raw and cooked steaks, freed of visible fat and

connective tissue, were each cut into 1/2 to 1 inch cubes and ground with a

grinder attachment of an el ectric mixer. After grinding three times, samples

were weighed out for analyses. All determinations were made in duplicate.
 19

Thiamine

The thiochrome method as modified by Conner and Straub (1941) was

us ed for thiamine assays.

Soluble proteins

Soluble protein determinations were made by a modification of the

biuret method of Salwin (1954).

Physical Tests

Weight losses

Weight losses were calculated from the change in weight of the meat

during cooking and thus included losses due to both evaporation and drippings.

Moisture

Moisture was determined by drying 5 grams of the ground meat in a

dehydrator for 2 hours and then in a vacuum oven for 5 hours at 208° F a nd

at 22 to 25 pounds pressure.

Tenderness

Four cylindrical cores, 1 inch in diameter, were taken from the rectus

fe moris and vastus lateralis muscles of each cooked steak. These cores

were tested for tenderness on the Warner-Bratzler shearing machine .

Press fluid

Tests for juiciness were made with 50 grams of meat from each steak.

The meat was placed in the succulometer machine and pressure was held at
 20

2, 500 to 2, 550 pounds for 10 minutes to express the juice from the m eat.

The juice was measured in millilite rs .

Flavor test for preference

Research showed that when judging tenderness and flavor at the same

time , tenderness affected flavor. Therefore it was decided to do tests for

flavor only due to the limited amount of meat .

The cores of meat used in the tests for te nderness were wrapped sep-

arately in squares of aluminum foil and teste d a t room temperature by four

judge s. Because of its flexibility, simpli city, and reliability of results ,

the Hedonic scale suggested by Peryam and Girardot (1952) was used for

scoring. This scale has nine phrases arranged from 1. 0 (dislike extremely)

to 9. 0 (like extremely) . See Appendix, Table 15 .

Other T ests

Total nitrogen and fat extractions were run on a ll samples included in

this study . These results will be r eported at a later time.

 21

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Basic data on the thiamine and soluble protein content , weight loss es,

moisture , tenderness, press fluid, and flavor of the cooked meat are given

in the Appendix , Tables 13 and 14.

Colored pictures of the different thicknesses of steak.,; cooked rare a t

three temperatures and those cooked to three degrees of doneness at 350° F

are shown in Plates 1 to 6.

Thiamine Retention

Effect of cooking temperature

For all thicknesses, thiamine retention of the steaks cooked to the rare

stage was found to be highest in those steaks cooked at 350° F (Figure 1 and

Table 3) . At 400° and 300° F there was greater destruction of the vitamin.

Average retentions of thiamine in the 1 inch thick cuts were 55 percent at

400° F, 70 percent at 350° F, and 57 percent at 300° F. In the 11/2 inch

thick cuts average retentions at 400°, 350°, and 300° F were 61, 71, and

60 percent, respectively . The 2 inch thick cuts retained 51 percent at 400°,

67 percent at 350°, and 59 percent at 300° F . This is similar to the results

of Lushbough et al. (1962) who found that in beef round thiamine losses were

greatest at the highest temperature.

 22

Plate 1. One inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at thrr·ee temperatur es.
 23

Rare

Medium

Well-done

Plate 2. One inch thick top sirloin steaks cookec t c three degrees of
doneness at 350° F.
 ~4

Plate 3. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooiked rar e at hree
temperatures.
 24

Plate 3. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at threJ
temperatures.
 25

Rare

Medium

Well -done

Plate 4. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cookredi to three
degrees of doneness at 350° F .
 25

Rare

Medium

Plate 4. One and one-half inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked t(J) three
degrees of doneness at 350° F .
 26

Plate 5. Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked rare at t htr ree temp(ratures.
 27

Rare

Medium

Plate 6 . Two inch thick top sirloin steaks cooked to two degrees of doneness
at 350° F .
 28

in, thick

80

Figure 1. Thiamine retention in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three

temperatures.

in . thick

80

~ra re CJmedium ~well-done

Figure 2. Thiamine retentio n ~ n top sir loin steaks e ooked to three degrees of
doneness at 350°. F.
Table 3. Effect of tempera ture on s ome factors in t op sirloin steaks cooked r a r e

Internal Final Total Solubl e Press

Cooking . Turning . . Thia mine Weight Moisture Shear Flav or
t temperatur e t ' mternal cookmg protein fluid
emperature . 1me r et e ntion los s content forc e s cor e
at turnmg t e mpera ture time r et ention value

min . min . per c ent pe rcent percent percent lb . ml.

1 in. thick
400° F 85° F 12 137° F 19 55 53 31. 2 59 . 3 20.8 8.6 7. 2
350° F 83° F 11 138° F 18 70 62 22.8 63 . 9 19. 1 9.8 7. 2
300° F 85° F 15 139° F 22 57 60 23 . 2 62. 0 18.8 7.5 6. 8

1 1/2 in . thick
400° F 98° F 11 138° F 22 61 27 30.4 60 . 0 21.0 6.7 7. 3
350° F 97° F 12 139° F 27 71 44 23 . 6 63.4 22 . 8 9. 2 7. 7
300° F 91°F 17 140° F 36 60 30 26.8 62.3 23 . 1 7.1 6. 8

2 in. thick
400° F 86° F 22 136° F 33 51 27 29. 0 62 . 6 18. 1 11 . 0 6. 3
350° F 86° F 31 141° F 43 67 41 32.9 62 . 9 18.5 10.1 7. 4
300° F 87° F 32 136° F 61 59 23 25.6 59. 3 21. 7 8 .0 6.8

"'"'
 30

Effect of cooking time

All s t eaks broiled rare at 300° F required a longer cooking time tha n

at 350° F (Table 3) and retention of thia mine was less . This agreed with the

findings of Farrer (1955) which stat ed that both shorter cooking time a nd

low er cooking temperatures favor thia min e retention, but a combination of

high temperatures and short cooking times may l ead t o smaller losses than

lower temperatures for longer times.

Cooking times for all stea ks at a ll degrees of doneness vari ed greatl y.

At a ny temperatur e, as cooking tim e required to reach the same fina l inter-

nal temperature increased, thiamine retention decreased (See Tabl e 4 a nd

Appendix , Tables 13 and 14) . This finding agrees with that of Beadl e et a l.

(1943) who reported that, at any tempe ratur e, the rate and extent of thiamine

destruction were related to time of heating or cooking.

Effect of thickness of steaks

Degree of doneness affected th e retention of thia mine in all thicknesses

of steaks cooked a t 350° F (See Figur e 2, page 28, and Table 5, page 32). A

negative correl ation of -0 . 59 showed that thiamine retention decreas ed as the

sta ge of doneness increased. In the 1 inch thick steaks retention averaged

70 percent in the cuts cooked rare, 49 perc e nt in the medium-done cuts, a nd

40 percent in the well-done cuts. Retentions in the 1 1/ 2 inch thick steaks

cooked rare, me dium , and well-done were 71 , 51 , and 42 percent , respec-

tively. The 2 inch thick steaks ha d a retention of 67 percent in the cuts

cooked rare a nd 49 percent in the cuts cooked medium-done.

 31

Table 4. Thia min e r etention as related to cooking time and stage of donen ess

Degree of Cooking Cooking Thiamine

Thickness Sampl e No.
doneness t e mperature time retention

inches minutes perc e nt

Rar e 400° F 2 24 19 63
32 29 51
27 41 38

Rar e 300° F 26 48 64
29 60 59
34 74 54

Medium 350° F 50 30 51
46 41 49
51 43 46

Medium 350° F 2 49 33 52
48 42 49
56 58 46
Table 5 . Effect of degree of doneness on some factors in top sirloin steaks broiled at 350° F

De ree of Inter nal Tu rnin Final Total Thiamine Soluble Weight Press
Moistur e Shear Flavor
g temperature g internal cooking protein fluid
donenes s at turning time temperature time retention l oss content force score
retention value

min . min . percent percent percent percent lb. ml.

1 in . thick
Rar e 83° F 11 138° F 18 70 62 22.8 63.9 19 . 1 9.8 7. 2
Medium 93° F 14 150° F 38 49 43 29 . 8 57.0 20 . 8 4.0 7.5
Well-done 112° F 17 173° F 52 40 28 43.1 50. 0 24 . 9 2. 0 6. 1

1 1/2 in . thick
Rare 97° F 12 139° F 27 71 44 23 . 6 63.4 22 . 8 9.2 7. 7
Medium 8 7° F 30 149° F 45 51 39 32.6 60.4 21. 3 5. 9 7. 7
Well-done 114° F 32 172° F 51 42 28 38.6 57.9 29.2 3. 0 7. 2

2 in . thick
Rar e 86° F 31 141° F 43 67 41 32.9 62.9 18.5 10. 1 7.4
Medium 93° F 31 152° F 44 49 37 32 . 2 62 .7 24 . 5 6. 8 7. 3

"'"'
 33

These results were similar to those of Mickels en et at. (1939) , Cover

et at. (1944), and Tucker et al. (1946) who noted that thiamine retention was

related to stage of doneness .

It was interesting to note that for the steaks cooked rare at 350° F,

th e 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch cuts r etained slightly mor e thiamine than did the

2 inch cuts (Figur e 1, page 28, a nd Ta ble 3, page 29) .

Soluble Proteins

Effect of cooking temperature

Under the conditions of this study retention of soluble proteins in th e

steaks cooked rare was found to be greatest at 350° F (Figure 3 and Tabl e 3).

A greater rate of dena turation was observed at 400° a nd 300° F. Average

retentions of solubl e proteins in the 1 inch thi ck cuts cooked at 400°, 350°,

and 300° F were 53, 62, and 60 percent, respectively. In the 1 1/2 inch

thick cuts th e retentions were 27 percent at 400° F, 44 percent at 350° F,

and 30 percent at 300° F . It was observed tha t a t the thr ee cooking tempera-

tur es, so lubl e protein retention was highest in the 1 inch thick cuts, probably

due to shorter cooking time. The highly significant correlation of -0.58 be-

tween soluble protein retention and thickness indicated that as thickness

incr ease d , soluble protein retention decreased.

Effect of cooking time

Denatura tion of proteins was greater with longe r cooking time in some

individual steaks. As cooking time increased soluble protein retention

 34

in. thick

% "
-4000 F. rnrm 3500 F. §sooo F.

F1111re 3. Soluble protein retention in top elrloln et~ cooked rare at tiu'e.!l
temperaturee.

% o 10 20 so 40 so eo 7o
~rare CJmedium ~well-done

F11\lre 4. Soluble protein retention in top sirloin steaks Qooked to tiu'ee degree&
of donenese at 3500 F.
 35

decreased . This agreed with the findings of Mitchell et al. (1949) and Rice

and Beuk (1953) who found that the effect of heat on food proteins depended

not only upon the intensity but a ls o upon the duration of the heat treatment .

Effect of degree of doneness

As in thiamine , degree of doneness was related to retention of solubl e

proteins. The steaks cooked to highest internal temperatures lost most

soluble proteins . F igure 4 and Table 5 show that at 350° F and at all thick-

nesses steaks cooked rare had a greater amount of soluble proteins than did

those cooked medium and well-done. Soluble protein retentions in the 1 inch

thick cuts cooked rare, medium, and well-done were 62, 43, and 28 percent,

respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick cuts retentions were 44 percent when

cooked rare, 39 percent when cooked medium-done , and 28 percent when

cooked well -done. The 2 inch thick cuts cooked rare retained 41 percent of

the soluble proteins while thos e cooked medium-done retained 37 percent .

Weight Loss

Effect of cooking temperature

Weight loss was directly related to cooking temperature. Figure 5 and

Table 3 show that in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick steaks cooked rare ,

weight l osses were markedly increased at the highest cooking temperature

or at 400° F. This was in agreement with the results obtained by the follow-

ing workers: Cline et al. (1930), Alexander (1930) , Child and Satorius (1938),
 36

in. thick

1 1/2

% 15 20 25 30 35

Figure 5. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooke d rare at three temperatures.

in. thick

11/2

% 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 4 45

E228rarr. c=Jmedium ~well-done

Figure 6. Weight loss in top sirloin steaks cooked to t1!ree degrees of

doneness at 350° F.
 37

Cover et al. (1949), Lowe (1955), West and Wood (1959), Bramblett et al.

(1959) , and Lushbough et al. (1962) .

Effect of degree of doneness

In general the higher the internal temperature of the meat or the stage

of doneness, the greater the loss in weight. In the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch

thick cuts cooked to three degrees of doneness at 350° F , weight loss es were

increased as th e internal temperatures were raised (Figure 6 and Table 5).

Weight losses in the 1 inch thick steaks cooked rare, medium, and well-done

were 22. 8 , 29. 8, and 43.1 percent , respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick

cuts, weight losses were 23.6 percent in those cuts cooked rare, 32.6 per-

cent in the medium-done cuts, and 38.6 percent in the well-done cuts .

A number of workers confirmed these findings: Latzke (1930) , Child

and Satorius (1937), Cover (1937 and 1943), Satorius and Child (19 38),

Tucker et al. (1946), Aldrich and Lowe (1954) , Hughes (1955) , Clark et al.

(1955) , Cover et al. (1957 and 1962) , and Visser et al. (1960).

Moisture Retention

Effect of cooking temperature

Although the data show that cooking temperature affected moisture,

variations were very slight.

Effect of degree of doneness

In the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked to three degrees of done-

ness at 350° F, the total moisture tended to decrease with an increase in the
 38

internal temperature (Figure 7 and Table 5). Similar findings were reported

by Satorius and Child (1938) and Cover et al. (196 2).

Tenderness Scores

In th e shear test results, scores indicate the number of pounds required

to cut or press through a 1 inch core of meat .

Effect of cooking temperature

Cooking temperature affected tenderness in the steaks cooked rare at

the thr ee temperatures. However, results in the different thicknesses were

inconsistent .

Effect of degr ee of doneness

Tenderness scores in the 1 inch and 2 inch thick steaks cooked to three

degrees of doneness at 350° F were similar to thos e found by Cover et al.

(1962). As th e internal temperature of the m eat increased , toughness of the

meat increased also.

Effect of different muscles

Table 6 shows that except for the results on tenderness of the 2 inch

thick cuts cooked rare at the three different temperatures, the mean tender-

ness scores of the rectus femoris and vastus la teralis muscles were in

agreement with those reported by Ramsbottom and Strandine (1948). The

vastus lateralis muscle was found slightly tougher than the rectus femoris

muscle.
 39

in. thick

% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

~rare O medium ~well-done

Figure 7. Moisture i.n top sirloin steaks cooked to three degrees of doneness
at 350° F.

in. thi ck

1 1/2

lb. 0 10 15 20 25 30

~ra re Omedium ~well-done

Figure 8. Shear force values in top s irloin steaks cooked to three degrees
of donenes s at 350° F.
 40

Table 6 . Tenderness values for rectus femoris and vastus lateralis muscles

Degr ee of Cooking Shear forc e

Thickness
done ness te mperature Rectus femoris Vastus late r a lis

in. lb.

Ra r e 400° F 2 0.2 21. 4

350° F 18 . 8 19 . 4
300° F 17 . 0 20 . 6

400° F 1 1/2 17.1 24.9

350° F 22.1 23.5
300° F 22 . 4 23 . 9

400° F 2 18 . 4 17 . 3
350° F 19.2 17.9
300° F 22 . 1 21. 3

Me dium 350° F 1 19 . 5 22 . 2
1 1/2 20.5 22. 1
2 23 . 2 25.8

Well-done 350° F 1 24. 6 25 . 2

1 1/2 28 . 8 29 . 5
 41

Press Fluid

Effect of cooking temperature

Only s light differences in juiciness were observed . Cooking tempera -

ture affected juiciness in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked rare

(Figur e 9 and Table 7). The amount of juice was found to be highest in those

cuts cooked at 350° F . At 300° F and with a longer cooking time the juice

was decreased.

Table 7. Juiciness as rela ted to cooking t emperatures

Cooking temperature Thickness Cooking time Press fluid

in . min . ml.

19 8. 6
18 9.8
22 7.5

400° F 1 1/2 22 6.7

350° F 27 9.2
300° F 36 7. 1

The results were similar to those of Satorius and Child (19 38), Lowe

et al. (19 52), Siemers and Hanning (195 3) , a nd Bramblett et al. (19 59), who

found that juiciness in meat was influenced greatly both by the temperature

and l ength of cooking.

 42

in . thick

1 1/2

m l. 2 4 6

Figure 9. Press fluid in top sirloin steaks cooked rare at three t emperatures .

in. thic

1 1/2

ml. 0 2 4 6 10
~rar e c:::Jmedium ~well-done

Figur e 10. P ress flu id m t op sirloin steaks c ooked to three degrees of

doneness at 350° F.
 43

Effect of degree of doneness

The meat became progressively les s juicy as the internal temp eratur e

was incr eased. This fact was noted by Satorius a nd Child (1938), Ha ll (1944),

Cover and Shrode (1955), Clark et al. (1955) , Cover et al. (1957 and 1962),

and Viss er et al. (1960).

In the three thicknesses of steaks cooked to thr ee degrees of doneness

at 350° F, press fluid values were found to decrease with inc reas ing internal

temperature (Figure 10 and Table 5). The 1 inch thick steaks cooked rar e,

m edium , a nd well -done had 9. 8, 4. 0 , and 2. 0 milliliters of press fluid ,

respectively . In the 1 1/2 inch thick steaks press fluid values wer e 9. 2

milliliters when cooked rare, 5. 9 milliliters when cooked medium , and

3. 0 milliliters when cooked well-done . The 2 inch thick steaks cooked rare

had 10 . 1 milliliters of press fluid while thos e cooked m e dium-done had

6. 8 milliliters. As the degree of doneness was increased, press fluid

dec r eased.

Effect on tenderness

P ress fluid was related to tenderness . As press fluid decreased,

tenderness decreased. This was observed at 350° F with a ll thicknesses and

at a ll thr ee degrees of doneness with one exception, the 1 1/ 2 inch thick cuts

cooked rare (Table 8).

Effect on weight loss

Table 9 shows that press fluid decreas ed with increasing weight loss.

This was noted in the 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked rare at 400° F and 350° F .
 44

Table 8. Pr ess fluid as related to tenderness

Degree of doneness Thickness Press fluid value Shear forc e

in. ml. lb.

Rare 9.8 19. 1

Medium 4.0 20.8
Well - done 2.0 24 . 9

Rare 1 1/2 9.2 22. 8

Medium 5. 9 21. 3
Well-done 3. 0 29.2

Rare 2 10. 1 18 . 5
Medium 6.8 24 . 5

Table 9. Pr ess fluid as related to weight loss

Degree of Cooking Press fluid

Thickness Weight loss
doneness te mperature value

in. ml. percent

Rare 400° F 1 1/2 6. 7 30 . 4

Rare 350° F 1 1/2 9.2 23 . 6

Rare 350° F 9.8 22 . 8

Medium 4. 0 29 . 8
Well-done 2.0 43.1

Rare 350° F 1 1/2 9.2 23 . 6

Medium 5.9 32.6
Well-done 3. 0 38.6
 45

The same trend was observed in the 1 inch and 1 1/2 inch thick cuts cooked

to different degrees of doneness at 350° F . These results concurred with

the report of Weir (1959) and Cover et al. (1962) who stated that juiciness

varied inversely with cooking losses.

Average scores obtained by the subjective judging for flavor are shown

in Table 10. The Hedonic scale (See Appendix, Table 15) was used to judge

flavor . In the rare steaks cooked at the thr ee different temperatures, the

best score , 7. 4 (between "like moderately" and "like very much") , was given

to those cooked at 350° F. Steaks cooked at 400° F scored 6. 9 or "like

moderately . " Steaks cooked at 300° F scored slightly lower , 6. 8. Comments

showed that the judges found the meat juicy at 350° F but drier and less

tender at 300° F.

Table 10. Average scores of four judges for flavor test

Cooking Flavor score

temperature Rare Medium Well-done

400° F 6.9

350° F 7.4 7.5 6.6

300° F 6.8
 46

Steaks were considered best wh en cooked m e dium - done at 350° F.

They scored 7. 5. Those cooked well-don e at the same temperature rec eiv ed

th e lowest scor e, 6 . 6 , between "liked slightly" and "like moderately."

Comme nts on the well-done steaks were m ade to the effect that they were

tough and ve ry dry .

Cooking Time

There was great variation in cooking time of the individual steaks (See

App endix, Tabl es 13 and 14) .

Table 11 shows the results of cooking temperature as related to degree

of doneness and cooking time. The steaks are classified according t otem-

perature of cooking, thickness of th e cut , a nd degree of doneness .

It was obser ved that the thick cuts took th e long est time to reach a

definite te mpe r ature . A highly significant corr elation coeffici ent of 0. 48

indicated a direct relationship between thickness of the cut and l ength of

cooking time .

The temperature of cooking affected cooking time. The meat r eached

th e fin al inte rnal temperature more r apidly at th e higher temperatur e.

Rate of Heat P enetration

Composite heat curves are shown in Figur e 11. These curves r epre-

s ent the temperatures of each of the thr ee th ermocouples in the steaks broil ed

to the different stages of doneness at th e three t e mperatures.

 47

Table 11 . Cooking temperature as related to degree of doneness a nd cooking

time

Internal Fina l Total

Degree of Cooking
Thickness temperature Turning inte rnal cooking
doneness te mperature
at turning time temperature time

in. min. min .

Rare 400° F 85° F 12 137° F 19

350° F 83° F 11 138° F 18
300° F 85° F 15 139° F 22

400° F 1 1/2 98° F 11 138° F 22

350° F 97° F 12 139° F 27
300° F 91° F 17 140° F 36

400° F 2 88° F 22 136° F 33

350° F 86° F 31 141° F 43
300° F 87° F 32 1 36° F 61

Medium 350° F 1 93° F 14 150° F 38

1 1/2 87° F 30 149° F 45
2 93° F 31 152° F 44

0
Well-done 350° F 1 112 F 17 173° F 52
1 1/2 114° F 32 172° F 51
 49

The standar d deviations of t emperatur e for the surface toward the heat

source and away from th e h eat source were greater than for th e internal

temperature . For exampl e, in the 1 inch thi c k r are steaks cooked a t 300° F

the standard deviation for the tempera ture away from the heat source was

25, fo r the t emperature toward the heat sourc e, 29, a nd for th e internal

temperature , 13 . 7. Other sampl es follow ed a similar pattern.

Statistical Analyses

When the first three variables , i.e ., thickness , cooking te mperature,

a nd internal tempe rature, were compared to cooking time in th e formula

2
1 , 1 , 2 , 22 , 3, 32 , 1 X 2, 1 X 3,
2
R = 0. 64 §. = 10. 35 .

Th e variation in cooking time was 10 minutes ; 64 percent of th e total

variation was accounted for by the mathematical equati on whil e 36 percent

was due to unknown facto r s .

By adding five other variables, namely, raw weight, shear for ce,

pr ess fluid , solubl e proteins (raw ), and thiamine (raw), to the formula
2 2 2
1, 1 2 , 2 , 3, 3 1 X 2, 1 X 3, 4, 6 , 7, 9, 11,

R 2 = 0.79 §. = 8. 24.

The var iation in cooking time was decreased 8 minutes , 79 percent of

this variation was due to the mathematical e quation .

 50

SUMMARY

Studies were conducted on Good grade top sirloin steaks of beef, 1,

1 1/2, and 2 inches thick, charcoal broiled at 400°, 350°, and 300° F. The

steaks were cooked to an internal temperature of 135° to 140° Fat a ll three

temperatures . Those cooked to the medium (155° to 160° F) and well-done

(165° to 170° F) stages were broiled at 350° F . The following chemical and

physical tests were made on each: thiamine, soluble proteins , weight loss ,

moisture, t enderness, juiciness, and flavor .

For all thicknesses, thiamine retention in the steaks cooked rare was

found to be highest in those cuts cooked at 350° F . When cooked to different

degrees of doneness, thiamine retention decr eased as the inte rnal tempera-

ture increased. It was found that in some steaks destruction of the vitamin

was proportional to the time of cooking .

Like thiamine , soluble protein retention was influenced by temperature

of cooking, degree of doneness, and time of cooking. Retention of soluble

proteins in the steaks cooked rare was found to be best at 350° F . When

cooked to different end-point temperatures at 350° F, the steaks cooked rare

had a greater amount of soluble proteins than did those cooked medium and

well-done. Denaturation of proteins was greater with longer cooking time in

some individual steaks . Thickness was found to be related to retention. The

highest amount of soluble proteins was found in the 1 inch cuts when the
 51

steaks were cooked rare at th e three temperatures. When cooked to different

degrees of done ness at 350° F, the 1 inch cuts cooked rare also had the best

retention of soluble proteins.

Weight losses were related to cooking temperature and degree of done-

ness in the 1 and 1 1/2 inch cuts. At the highest cooking temperature, or at

400° F, the meat had a greater decrease in weight than when cooked at the

lower temperatures. Ther e was a consistent increase in weight loss as the

internal temperature of the meat was increased.

In the 1 a nd 1 1/2 inch cuts cooked to three degrees of doneness at

350° F, moisture decreased with an increase in the internal temperature of

the meat .

Rare meat was more tender than medium and well-done meat . This

was noted in the 1 and 2 inch thick cuts cooked at 350° F . In the 1 1/2 inch

cuts the steaks cooked medium were more tender than those cooked rare .

However, the meat became l ess te nder when cooke d well-done.

Cooking temperature a ffected juiciness in the 1 and 1 1/2 inch thick

cuts cooked rare . The amount of press fluid was found to be highest in those

cuts cooked at 350° F. Degree of doneness was another factor related to

juiciness. The meat became progressively less juicy as its internal tem-

perature was increased. It was found that juiciness was also influenced by

tenderness and weight loss. Greater press fluid was related to more tender

meat and less loss in weight.

Flavor scores showed a preference for steaks cooked rare and medium-

done at 350° F. The lowest score was receiv ed by those steaks cooked
 52

well-done at 35 0° F.

Broiling the meat rare at 350° F proved to be the best cooking tempera-

ture . Besides having the best retention of thiamine and soluble proteins ,

the steaks cooked at 350° F had more juice and better flavor than thos e

cooked at 400° and 300° F .

In the statistical analyses of the results the first three variables, i.e.,

thickness, cooking temperature, and inter na l temperature, gave an R 2 of

0. 64 and a~ of 10 . 35. Adding five other variables, namely, raw weight,

percentage of weight loss, shear force, pr ess fluid , and percentage of

thiamine retention, resulted in R 2 : 0. 79 a nd ~ = 8. 24.

Further research is needed to develop cooking charts for outdoor

broiling and to confirm the findings in this thesis.

 53

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 54

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 55

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 56

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 57

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 58

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 59

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 60

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 61

APPENDIX
Table 12 . Time tabl e for broiling s irloin steaks

Cooking Final internal tempera ture Cooking time

Thickness temperature Rar e Medium Well-done Rare Medium Well-done
in. minutes
National Livestock and Meat
Boa rd (1950) 1 350° F 140° F 160° F 20 25
1 1/2 350° F 140° F 160° F 30 35
2 350° F 140° F 160° F 40 45

McLean and Campbell (1952 ) 1 5 6 7-8

1 1/2 9 10 12-13
2 16 18 20 -2 1
Better Homes a nd Ga rdens (1953) 140° F 160° F 170° F
Wilmot a nd Batjer (1955) 110° Fa ll0° Fa 120° Fa
135° F 155° F 170° F
Hughes (1955 ) 1 350° F 20-22 25 30
1 1/ 2 350° F 30-32 35 40
Lowe (1955) 131-149° F 149-158° F 158-176° F
Armour (1956) 1 10-12 14-16 20-2 5
1 1/2 14-16 18-20 25-30
2 20- 25 30 - 35 40-45
West and Wood (1959) 130-135° F
Fowler et al. (1961) 1 15 20 30
1 1/2 25 35
2 35 50
Taylor Instrum ent Co. (1962 ) 1 35° F 155° F 165° F

a At turning .
"'
""
Table 13. Effect of temperature on some factors in top sirloin steaks cooked rare

Chemical tests
Sampl e Internal Turning Final Total Physical tests
Thiamine Soluble
number temperature time internal cooking
retention protein Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
at turning temperature time loss content force
retention value score
min. min . percent percent percent percent lb. ml.
1 inch thick
400° F
18 84° F 6 140° F 11 63.9 60.0 26.5 65.2 19.9 8 .2 7. 0
21 82° F 10 141° F 18 60.0 49.7 36.6 53.2 17.6 10.6 6.8
38 84° F 14 134° F 21 44.9 45.3 41.1 55.2 25.7 6.4 7. 3
44 81° F 15 135° F 23 56.9 55.6 23.6 64.8 17.0 9.0 7. 3
35 95° F 13 136° F 23 51.4 53.2 31.3 58.0 24 .0 8.8 ~
Average 85° F 12 137° F 19 55.3 53.1 31.2 59.3 20 . 8 8.6 7.2
350° F
22 84° F 8 139° F 13 64.7 70.1 24 . 8 62.1 16.4 13. 7 7. 0
19 82° F 10 144° F 14 79.1 65.5 18.2 66.5 17 .1 10.8 6. 5
39 81° F 13 135° F 16 71. 3 52.2 23.8 63.6 21.9 9.3 6. 8
36 84° F 9 136° F 20 77.0 63.3 25.4 62.2 21. 1 9. 7 8. 0
45 85° F 16 135° F 27 64 .8 61.4 22.6 65.2 15.4 ~ .§.:_Q
Average 83° F 11 138° F 18 70.1 61. 7 22.8 63.9 19 . 1 9.8 7. 3
300° F
20 79° F 9 140° F 13 66. 3 62.2 14. 8 68.4 19.2 9.0 5.8
37 91° F 11 145° F 17 45.5 65.4 37.5 56.1 27.8 5.5 5.8
55 93° F 17 135° F 23 61. 6 59.4 21.5 63.3 13.7 5.0 7. 0
47 82° F 16 141° F 25 56.8 65.4 18.7 66.5 15 .3 13.4 7.5
40 81° F 22 134° F 30 54.0 45 .3 20.6 55.6 17 .4 ~ ~
Average 85° F 15 139° F 22 56.8 59.8 23.2 62.0 18 .8 7.5 6.8 "'
"'
Table 13. (Continued)

Chemical tests
Sample Internal Turning Final Total Thiamine Soluble Physical tests
number temperature time internal cooking retention protein Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
at turning temperature time retention loss content force value score

min. min percent percent percent percent lb. ml.

!....!L.2 inches thick

400° F
16 106° F 9 140° F 17 58.7 30.3 30.9 61. 1 21.6 9.3 7.3
10 98° F 9 140° F 24 60.0 23.0 30.6 58.6 24 . 1 3. 9 7.5
13 90° F 15 134° F 26 62.7 30.9 30.1 60.4 17 .3 ~ 7.3
Average 98° F 11 138° F 22 60.7 27.2 30.4 60.0 21.0 6.7 7.3

350° F
17 92° F 12 139° F 20 70.5 34.3 24.1 60.7 18 . 4 10.4 7.8
105° F 12 140° F 27 75.8 60.0 17.5 67 . 3 23 . 8 11.8 7. 3
11 95° F 12 139° F 35 -~ 45.0 31.3 62.1 26.1 ~ §.:Jl.
Average ~ 12 139° F 27 70.8 43.5 23.6 63.4 22. 8 9 .2 7. 7

300° F
15 90° F 6 141° F 24 65.5 21.7 20.1 64.9 19 . 1 10.9 7. 0
9 95° F 12 139° F 34 74.3 47.2 20.0 63.5 24 .4 7.4 7. 3
12 89° F 30 141° F 50 43 . 9 25 .5 41.5 58.5 25.9 ~ §.:Jl.
Average 91°F 17 140° F 36 59 . 9 29.9 26.8 62.3 23 . 1 7.1 6.8

"'
""
Table 13. (Continued)

Chemical tests
Sam le Internal Turnin . Final Total Thiamine Soluble . . Physical tests .
p temperatur e g mternal cookmg We1ght Mo1sture Shear Press flmd Flavor
number at turning time temperature time retention protein loss content force value score
retention
min. min. percent percent percent percent lb . ml.

2 inches thick
400° F
24 91° F 16 138° F 29 63.3 25.8 29.8 62.7 14 . 2 10.3 6. 0
32 89° F 21 135° F 29 51. 1 31.2 22.7 64.0 20.2 12.4 6. 8
27 85° F 29 136° F 41 38.5 21.5 51.5 61.2 19.9 10.4 ~
Average 88° F 22 136° F 33 51. 1 27.1 29.0 62.6 18.1 11. 0 6.3

350° F
25 89° F 27 139° F 37 64.7 44.8 31. 0 64.3 11.9 11. 3 7.8
28 85° F 29 136° F 46 40.9 42.4 35.7 60.3 21.6 7.7 6.8
33 85° F 37 149° F 46 58.5 39.6 32 . 3 64.0 22.1 11.4 u
Average 86° F 31 141° F 43 67 . 4 41.4 32.9 62 .9 18 .5 10 . 1 7. 4

300° F
26 89° F 34 136° F 48 63. 6 30.0 19.1 61.3 18.1 9.5 5.8
29 86° F 33 136° F 60 58 .7 23.6 33.5 56.4 19 .2 3.5 7.2
34 85° F ~ 135° F 74 53.8 20.7 23.0 60.2 27. 8 11. 1 22
Average 87° F 32 136° F 61 58.7 23.1 25.6 59. 3 21. 7 8.0 6.8

a>
"'
Table 14 . Top sirloin steaks cooked at 350° F

Internal Final Total Chemical tests

Physical tests
Sample temperature Turning internal cooking Thiamine Soluble
Weight Moisture Shear Press fluid Flavor
number at turning time temperature time retention protein
loss content force value score
retention
min . min. percent percent percent percent lb. ml.

Medium-done

1 inch thick
50 98° F 14 150° F 30 51. 1 48.0 32.8 57.4 21.9 4.3 8.2
46 90° F 15 149° F 41 48.7 38 . 9 18 .7 55.7 18.8 3.1 7.0
51 91°F
-12 150° F 43 46.-
- 3 43.3
- - 35. 1 57.9
- - 21. 7
- - -4.7 -7.2
Average 93° F 14 150° F 38 48.7 42 .8 29.8 57.0 20.8 4. 0 7.5

1 1/2 inches thick

42 89° F 23 149° F 40 52.2 40.0 27.6 59.9 18 . 7 7. 7 8.2
43 89° F 27 149° F 40 48.1 36.1 35.4 60.9 19.5 5.0 8.0
41 82° F 39 150° F 56 54.6 40.0 34.4 60.5 25 . 6 !:....!!. ~
Average 87° F 30 149° F 45 51.4 38.7 32.6 60 . 4 21. 3 5.9 7.7

2 inches thick
49 90° F 22 148° F 33 51. 7 45.9 28.5 63.9 25.1 7.5 7.0
48 90° F 28 151° F 42 49.5 38 . 0 33 . 2 64 . 6 24.2 3.6 7.0
56 99° F 44 156° F 58 45 . 7 30 .3 34.6 59 .4 24.1 9.2 8. 0
Average 93° F 31 l52"F 44 49 . 1 36 . 9 32.2 62.7 24.5 6 .8 7.3

a>
a>
Table 14 . (Continued)

Chemical tests
Sam le Internal Turnin . Final Total Thiamine Soluble . . Physical tests .
P temperature g mternal cookmg Weight Mmsture Shear Press flmd Flavor
number at turning time temperatur e time retention protein loss content forc e value score
retention
min . min percent percent percent percent lb. ml.

Well-done

1 inch thick
54 117° F 10 176° F 34 40.6 29.6 42. 3 50.6 22 .9 1.6 6. 5
57 110° F 29 171° F 50 37. 8 29 . 6 38 .2 52 . 0 27.8 3.7 6.8
64 110° F 12 171° F 73 41.8 26.4 51.4 46 . 3 24.0 .2.:.1. £.Jl.
Average 112° F 17 173° F 52 40.0 28.4 43. 1 49.6 24 . 9 2.0 6.1

1 1/2 inches thick

59 123° F 22 171° F 38 41.9 26.3 36 .8 56 . 5 33.1 3. 1 7.2
60 110° F 36 174° F 53 42.4 31.6 44 . 1 56.5 20.2 2.1 7.2
58 110° F 38 170° F 62 42.1 26.3 34. 7 60.7 31.6 ~ .?.:...Q
Average 114° F 32 172° F 51 42.1 28 . 1 38 . 6 57.9 29.2 3.0 7. 2

...,
0>
 68

Table 15 . Hedonic scale

Name Date

Sample_ Sample_ Sample_ Sample_ Sampl e _ __

Like Like Like Like Like

9 Extremely Extremely Extre m ely Extremely Extremely

Like Like Like Like Like

8 Very Much Very Muc h Very Much Very Much Ver y Much

Like Like Like Like Like

7 Moderately Moderately Moderat ely Moderately Moderately

Like Like Like Like Like

6 Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly

Neither Like Neither Like Neither Like Neither Like Neither Like
5 Nor Dis like Nor Dislike Nor Dislike Nor Dislike Nor Dislike

Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike

4 Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly

Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike

3 Moderately Moderately Moderately Moderately Moderately

Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike

2 Very Much Very Muc h Very Much Very Much Very Much

Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike

1 Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely

Comm ents Comments Comments Comments Comments

Directions: Completely enctrcl e the category which best describes your

reaction to the s a mpl e written above the column . Then under
Comments give your reasons for r ating the sample as you did .
(i. e. Flavor too strong, lacks flavor, odor not pleasant, etc.)