Level 3:

Introduction to English Literature

 Drama:
Is the specific mode of fiction represented
in performance. The term comes from a
Greek word meaning “action” (classical
Greek:), which is derived from the verb
meaning “ to do” or “ to act”.
Types of Drama

1. Comedy: when we talk about comedy, we

usually refer to plays that are light in tone and
that typically have happy ending. The intent of
comedic play is to make the audience laugh. In
modern theater, there are many different styles
of comedy ranging from realistic stories, where
the humor is derived from real-life situations, to
outrageous slapstick humor.
2. Tragedy: tragedy is one of the oldest forms of
drama; however, its meaning has changed since
the earliest days of staged plays. In ancient
terms, a tragedy was often an historical drams
featuring the downfall of a great man. In modern
theater, the definition is a bit looser. Tragedy
usually involves serious subject matter and the
death of one or more main characters. These
plays rarely have a happy ending.
3. Farce: farce is a sub-category of comedy,
characterized by greatly exaggerated
characters and situations. Characters tend to
be one-dimensional and often follow
stereotypical behavior. Farces typically
involve mistaken identities, lots of physical
comedy and outrageous plot twist.
 4. Melodrama: melodrama is another type of
exaggerated drama. As in farce, the characters
tend to be simplified and one-dimensional. The
formulaic storyline of the classic melodrama
typically involves a villain a heroine and a hero
who must rescue the heroine from the villain.
Elements of Drama

The key elements of drama include:

the plot, Theme, characters, dialogue,
convention, genre as well as the audience.
These elements are used by a writer to create
the desired stylistic effect, the storyline and
to create interest in the play.
CHAPTER 2

Definition of poetry;

It is a literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given by the
use of distinctive style and rhythem.

Elements of poetry

1 - prosody

- The study of the metrical structure of verse

- A particular system of versification .

1-a Rhythm

reffers to the pattern of sounds made by varying the stressed and

unstressed syllabus in a poem .

1 -b Meter

refers to the number of ''feet'' of a specific kind in a line of poetry.

Kinds of poetry

1- Dramatic poetry

is any poetry that uses the discourse of the characters involved to tell a

story or portary a situation.

The major types of dramatic poetry are to be found in plays written for

the theatre ,there are further dramatic verse forms : these include

dramatic monologues , such as those written by robert browing and

Alfred Tennyson and William Shakespare.

2 - Narrative poetry

is a form of poetry which tells a story often making use of the voices of

a narrator and characters as well the entire story is usually Written in

metred verse the poems that make up this genre may be short or long ,

and the story it relates to may be complex .It is usually dramatic ,with

objectives ,diverse characters ,and metre . Narrative poems include

epics ballads ,idylls.

3 - Lyric poems

express personal or emotional feelings and are traditionally the home of

the present tense. They have specific rhyming schemes and are often ,

but not always , set to music or a beat . Aristotle ,in poetics 1447a

mentions lyric poetry along with drama epic poetry ,dancing ,painting

and other forms of mimesis

4. Sonnet

it is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and ,in the English

Version , is usually written in iambic pentameter . There are two

basic kinds of sonnets : the italian ( or petrarchan) sonnet and the

Shakespearean ( or Elizabethan /English ) sonnet . The

itilian petrarchan sonnet is named after petrarch , an italian

Renaissance poet .The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave

( eight lines) and a sestet six lines . the Shakespearean sonnet

Consists of three quatrains (Four lines each ) and a concluding

couplet ( two lines ) The petrarchan sunset tends to divide the

thought into two parts argument and conclusion the

shakespearean, into four ( the final couplet is the summary)

Chapter 3

Figure of speech
1- Smile
is an analogy that compares two things that are alike in one
way . To
help you identify a simile, know that the words '' like are as ''
are always
used : Similes can make our language more descriptive and
enjoyable
Writers ,Poets , and songwriters make use of similes often to
add depth
and emphasize what they are trying to convey to the reader or
listener .
Similes can be funny , serious ,mean , or creative
Some examples of similes :
You were as brave as a lion .
They fought like cats and dogs.

2 - Metaphors
are a kind of analogy . Where two unlike things are compared
but have
something in common .
Some examples of metaphor
You are a cough patato: This refers to someone who sits and
does nothing .
She is such an airhead : Airhead implies she is not smart
ordoesn't think well.

irony
Involves a difference or contrast between appearance and
reality that is a
discrepancy between what appears to be true and what really
is true.

There are three common types of irony in literture

A. Verbal irony occurs when people say the opposite of what
they
mean . This is perhaps the most common typ[e of irony.

B. Situational irony
Is often used to expose hypocrisy and injustice

C. Dramatic irony
Occours when a character states something that they believe to
be true but that the reader knows to not true

Function of irony
Ironical statements and situations in literature more intriguing
and
forces the readers to use their imagination and comprehend
the
underlying meanings of the texts

Definition of Hyperbole
Hyperbole, derived from Greek word meaning ''over casting is
a
figure of speech which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the
sake
of emphasis it is a device that we employ in our day- to- day
speech .For instance , when you meet a friend after a long time
,
you say , ''ages have passed since I first saw you ''you may not
have met him for three or four hours or a day , but the use of
the
word ''ages'' exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to
your
wait .Therefore , a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to
emphasize the real situation.

Common Examples of Hyperbole

• My grandmother is as old as a hill

• Your suitcase weighs a ton
• She is as heavy as an elephant
• I am dying of shame
• I am trying to solve a million issues these days

Personification:
Personification is when you assign the qualities of a person to
something
that is not human or in some cases to something that isn't
even alive
there are many reasons for using personification . it can be
used as a
method of describing something so that others can understand.
it can be
used to emphasize a point . It is a commonly favored literary
tool and
you may in fact use personification without even knowing it .
The storm attacked the town with great rage
The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.

A Lament by shelly
O World ! O Life ! O Life !
On whose last steps I climb
Trembling as that were I had stood before ;
When will return the glory of your prime ?
No more -Oh , never more !

Out of the day and night

A joy has taken Flight:
Fresh spring ,and summer ,and winter hoar
Move my faint heart with grief , but with delight
No more -Oh , never more !
Chapter 4

Fiction
Is the form of any work that deals in part or whole with
information or events that are not real , but rather
imaginary and the theoretical that is invented by author.
Fiction Features
1- Realistic Fiction
Some events the people and the places may even be real.
2- Non realistic fiction
The stories event could not happen in real life
3 - Semi fiction
Implementing a great deal of nonfiction .
Fiction elements
Plot it has several types they are
setting - theme - style - chronological order.
Exposition climax
Foreshadowing falling action
Rising action conflict

[ Fore shadowing ]
[ The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of
indicative words / phrases and hints that set the stage to
un fold the story and give the reader a hint of something
that is going to happen without revealing the story of
spoiling the sunspence . Fore shadowing is used to
suggest an upcoming outcome to the story
Exposition
is the portion of a story that introduces important
background information about the setting events
occuring before the main plot character 's back stories ,
etc. Expoistion can be conveyed through dialogues ,
through a character 's thoughts , through background
details .
[ Raising action ]
[ The events of a dramatic or Narrative plot preceding
the climax

[ Falling action ]
[The part of @ Literary plot that occurs after the climax
has been reached and the conflict has been resolved.

Climax , Greek Ladder in dramatic and non romantic

fiction the point at which the highest level of interest and
emotional response is achieved.
Chapter 5

Novel
Novel is a long narrative prose that describes
fictional characters and events ,usually in the form
of a sequential story.

Types of novel
1 . Epistolary novel
2 . Psychological novel
3 . Gothic novel
4 . sentimental novel
5 . Picaresque novel
Short Story
A short story is a brief work of literature usually
written in narrative porse .Emerging from earlier
oral storytelling traditions in the 17th century the
short story has grown to encompass a body of work
so diverse as to defy easy characterization.

Characteristics of short story

Focus of only one incident
has a single setting
limited number of characters
cover a short period of time
 Latin Literature

Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in
the Latin language. beginning arround the 3rd century BC
It took the two countries become a dominent litreature of ancient Rome with many educated
Romans still reading and writing in ancient greek as late as Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD ) Latin
Literature was in many ways a continuation of greek literature using many of the same forms
Latin was the language of the ancient Romans, but it was also the lingua franca of Western
Europe throughout the Middle Ages, so Latin literature includes not only Roman authors
like Cicero, Vergil, Ovid and Horace, but also includes European writers after the fall of the
Empire, from religious writers like Aquinas (1225–1274), to secular writers like Francis
Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza(1632–1677),
contents
• 1History
o 1.1Early Latin literature
o 1.2The Golden Age
§ 1.2.1The age of Cicero
§ 1.2.2The Augustan Age
o 1.3The Imperial Period
o 1.4Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity
• 2Characteristics
o 2.1Language and form
• 3See also
• 4References
• 5Sources
• 6External links
History

Early Latin literature

Main article: Old Latin

Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek
play.[1] The adaptor was Livius Andronicus, a Greek who had been brought to Rome as a prisoner
of war in 272 BC.[citation needed] Andronicus also translated Homer's Greek epic the Odyssey into an
old type of Latin verse called Saturnian. The first Latin poet to write on a Roman theme
was Gnaeus Naevius during the 3rd century BC.[citation needed] He composed an epic poem about
the first Punic War, in which he had fought. Naevius's dramas were mainly reworkings of Greek
originals, but he also created tragedies based on Roman myths and history.
Other epic poets followed Naevius. Quintus Ennius wrote a historical epic, the Annals (soon after
200 BC), describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time.[2]He adopted
Greek dactylic hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics. He also
became famous for his tragic dramas. In this field, his most distinguished successors were Marcus
Pacuvius .

cato the Elder

The prose of the period is best known through On Agriculture (160 BC) by Cato the Elder. Cato
also wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities.[4] He was the first Roman
statesman to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion.
Early Latin literature ended with Gaius Lucilius, who created a new kind of poetry in his 30 books
of Satires (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about books, food, friends,
and current events.
The Golden Age [ Edit Soutce]
Main article: Classical Latin

Latin literature was its height from 81 BC to AD 17 .This period begun with the

first known speech of Ciero and ended with the death of Ovid .
The age of Cicero[edit]

Cicero

Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose.[6][7] The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that
of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic
excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations. His
letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman
governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works
were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United
States.

Cicero
Julius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote
commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as
a general. He wrote descriptions of people and their motives.

The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period. The short love lyrics
of Catullus are noted for their emotional intensity. Catullus also wrote poems that attacked
his enemies. Contemporary with Catullus, Lucretius expounded the Epicurean philosophy
in a long poem, De rerum natura.

One of the most learned writers of the period was Marcus Terentius Varro. Called "the most
learned of the Romans" by Quintillian,[8] he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects,
from religion to poetry. But only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are
extant in their complete form.
The Augustan Age[edit]
Main article: Augustan literature (ancient Rome)
Virgil the 2nd century include the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, a collection of anecdotes and
reports of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius
Fronto to Marcus Aurelius. The most famous work of the period was Metamorphoses, also
called The Golden Ass, by Apuleius. This novel concerns a young man who is accidentally
changed into a donkey. The story is filled with tales of love and witchcraft.

Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance [edit source]

Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th
centuries. Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory,
andAusonius and Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry. The Mosella by Ausonius demonstrated
a modernism of feeling that indicates the end of classical literature as such.
At the same time, other men laid the foundations of Christian Latin literature during the 4th century
and 5th century. They included the church fathers Augustine of Hippo,Jerome, and Ambrose, and
the first great Christian poet, Prudentius.
Latin continued to be used as a Lungua Franca through out Europe with some of the latest
great works in the latin began composed by Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Spinoza (1632- 1626)

Characteristics of Latin Literature [edit]

Much Latin writing reflects the Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading.
Public speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted
successful political careers. When Rome was a republic, effective speaking often determined who
would be elected or what bills would pass. After Rome became an empire, the ability to impress
and persuade people by the spoken word lost much of its importance. But training in rhetoric
continued to flourish and to affect styles of writing. A large part of rhetoric consists of the ability to
present a familiar idea in a striking new manner that attracts attention. Latin authors became
masters of this art of variety.

Language and form[edit]

Latin is a highly inflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words. As a result, it
can be used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English. It also lends itself to elaboration,
because its tight syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as a logical
unit. Latin can be used with conciseness, as in the works ofSallust and Tacitus. Or it can have
wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works of Livy and the speeches of Cicero.
Latin lacks poetic vocabulary that marks the Greek poetry. Some earlier Latin poets tried to make
up for this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done. But Roman
writers seldom invented words. Except in epic poetry, they tended to use a familiar vocabulary,
giving it poetic value by combinations of words and by rich sound effects. Rome's leading poets
had great

 Ancient Greek literature

Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written by the ancient Greek Language from the earliest
tyexts until roughly the rise of the Byzantine Empire.

Contents

•
• 1Pre-classical and classical antiquity
o 1.1Epic poetry
o 1.2Lyric poetry
o 1.3Drama
o 1.4Historiography
o 1.5Philosophy
• 2Hellenistic age
• 2Hellenistic poetry
• 2Hellenistic and Roman periods
o 3.2Historiography
o 3.3Science and mathematics
o 3.4Philosophy
• 4Legacy
• see also
• 7Further reading

Pre-classical and classical antiquity[edit]

This period of Greek literature stretches from Homer until the fourth century BC and the
rise ofAlexander the Great. the writtings nglish Mathemation and Phislosiper Alfred North
whitehead once claimed that all of pholophsy is but a foot note to plato to suggest that all
of western literature is no more that a foot note to the writtings of ancient greece is an
exaggeration but it is never theless true that the greek world of thought was so far ranging
that there is scarcelyan idea discussed today not already debated by the ancient writers.

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean, written in the Linear Bsyllabary on clay
tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists,
inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered severial theories have
been advanced to explain this curious absense one is that mycenaean literature like the
works of homer an other epic poems was passed on orally since the lineear B /syllabary is
not well - suited to recordind the sounds of greek
(see phonemic principle)
Greek literature was divided in well-defined literary genres, each one having a compulsory
formal structure, about both dialect and metrics.[3] The first division was between prose and
poetry. and drama where further divided into more Ficictional literature was written in
worse while sentific literature was in prose within the poetry we could separate three super
- genres epic lyric and drama we can observe here that the greek termonology has became
the common european termonology about literary genres lyric and drama were further
divided into more generes lyric in four(elegiac ,iambic ,monodic lyric and choral lyric )
drama in three ( tragdery ,commedy and postral drama ) about literature in prose there was
more freedom the main areas were historicalgraphy ,pholospy rhetoric .

Epic poetry[edit]
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer,
the Iliad and the Odyssey.[7]:1–3 The figure of Homer is shrouded in mystery. Although the
works as they now stand are credited to him, it is certain that their roots reach far back
before his time (see Homeric Question).[7]:15 The Iliad is a narrative of a single episode
spanning over the course of a ten-day-period from near the end of the ten years of the
Trojan War. It centers on the person of Achilles,[8] who embodied the Greek heroic ideal.

While the iliad is pure tregary the odyssey is a mixture of tragedy and comedy it is the story
of oddvessess one of the worrors at troy after ten years fighting the war he spends another
ten years sailing back home to his wife and family during his ten years voyagehe loses all
of his comrades and ships and makes his way home to ithaca disgised as a begger both of
these works were based on ancient legends the stories are told in language that is simple
and direct the homeric dialect was an archic language based on lonic dilect mixed with
some element of aeolic diolect and attic dilect the latter due to the athenian edition of 6th
centuary BC the epic worse was the hexameter.

The other great poet of the preclassical period was Hesiod.[7]:23–24[12] Unlike Homer, Hesiod
refers to himself in his poetry.[13]Nonetheless, nothing is known about him from any
external source. He was a native of Boeotia in central Greece, and is thought to have lived
and worked around 700 BC.[14] Hesiod's two extant poems are Works and
Days and Theogony. Works and Days is a faithful depiction of the poverty-stricken country
life he knew so well, and it sets forth principles and rules for farmers. Theogony is a
systematic account of creation and of the gods. It vividly describes the ages of mankind,
beginning with a long-past Golden Age.[15]The writings of Homer and Hesiod were held in
extremely high regard throughout antiquity[12] and were viewed by many ancient authors as
the foundational texts behind ancient Greek religion;[16] Homer told the story of
a heroic past, which Hesiod bracketed with a creation narrative and an account of the
practical realities of contemporary daily life.

Lyric poetry
main article Greek lyric
the type of poetry called lyric got its name from the fact that it was organally sung by
individuals or a chorus accompaned by the instrunment called the lyre. although despied te
name the lyric poetry in this general meaning was divided in four generes ,two of which
were not accompanied by cithara but by flute theses two laters generes were the elegic
poetry and the imabic poetry both were written in ionic dilect elegiac poetry was in elegiac
couplets and imabic poems in emabic trimeter the frist of the lyric poets was probably
archilochus of paros circa 700 BC THE most important iamabic poet onlly fragments
remain of his work as is the case with most of the poets the few remnants suggest that he
was an embittered adventuralwho led a vary terbullent life the lyric in narrowsence was
written in aeolic dilect and maters were really varied the most famous authers were the so
called nine lyric poets and perticularly Aleasus and Sappho for monodic lyric and Pindirus
for choral lyric

Drama
Ancient Greek drama developed arround Greeces theather cultural drama was perticularly
developed in athens so works are written in attic dilect the dialouges are in imabic trimeter while
chores are in the matters of choral lyric

In the age that followed the greeco Percian wars the awakned national spirit of athins was
expressed in hundreds of superb tragedies based on heroic and legendary themes of the past the
tregdric please grew out of simple choral songs and diagulougs perfromed at festivials of the God.