Vapor Pockets Formation &

Column Separation

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 1
 What is the Boiling Point of Water?
• Water Boils at ≈ 100oC
• This is only true if the pressure applied on water is
atmospheric pressure (1013 mm water)
• On Top of Mount Everest (at 8,848m elevation),
the pressure is 260 mbar and water boils at
69oC!!
• Boiling point is function of pressure
• Water can boil (change state from liquid to vapor)
at room temperature if the pressure becomes low
enough.
Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013
Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 2
 What is the Boiling Point of Water?

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 3
 Vapor Pressure
Temperature
(oC)
Vapor Pressure
(g/cm2) Vapor Pressure: is the pressure at
0 6.23 which steam is saturated, at higher
5 8.89 pressure, water would condense..
10 12.51
15 17.38 In other words, if pressure drops
20 23.83
below that value, water will change
25 32.30
30 43.27
state to vapor
35
40
57.34
75.23
Vapor Pressure can be calculated
50 125.83 as a function in Temp.
60 203.19
where P is the
70 317.84
vapor pressure
80 483.01 (mmHg) and T is
90 714.95 temp in Kelvin
100 1013.23

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 4
 Where can this Happen?
• At locations where negative pressures can be
encountered
• At the eye of the
impeller of a
centrifugal pump
• This is also called
Cavitation

To avoid Cavity Formation:

@NPSH ≥ Required NPSH

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 5
 Cavitation
• When liquid enters the eye of the impeller,
pressure drops suddenly as the velocity of water
is increased suddenly.
• Cavity
bubbles are
formed if the
pressure of
liquid is
below that of
vapor
pressure
Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013
Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 6
 Cavitation
• Vapor bubbles grow in size and travel along the
trailing edge of the impeller.
• Then it reach the
region of high
pressures where it
start collapsing.
• The life cycle of a
cavity bubble is
estimated at 0.003
seconds.

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 7
 Cavitation
• When pressure increases, the surrounding liquid
rushes to fill the void creating a liquid microjet.
• The microjet
ruptures the bubble
with a force that a
hammering noise is
heard.
• The highly localized
hammering effect
can pit the impeller.

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 8
 Cavitation

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 9
 Cavitation
• When Cavitation is encountered at a pump:

– Hammering Noise
and Vibrations
– Reduction in pump
capacity
– Reduction in pumping
head
– Damage to pump
parts

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 10
 Where else can this Happen?
• Cavitation can also occur at Control Valves:

– Pressure can drop

down to vapor
pressure at the valve
constricted area.
– This can happen at
very small valve
openings if the
manufacturers sizing
recommendations are
not followed

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 11
 Where else can this Happen?

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 12
 Where else can this Happen?
• Cavitation can also occur at Control Valves:

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 13
 Where else can this Happen?
• During a hydraulic transient event:
– Pressures may drop down to vapor pressure and
sometimes to full vacuum.
– Water will flush from liquid to vapor resulting in a
temporary column separation

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 14
 Column Separation
• During a hydraulic transient event:
– When system pressure is increased again, vapor
condenses to liquid as the two columns accelerate
towards each other
– Extreme transient pressures will form when the two
column collide.

This is considered the

most violent and
damaging water hammer
phenomenon possible

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 15
 Column Separation
• We can also have column separation without
having water to boil
– When we have an Air Valve located at a high point and
suddenly pressure drops below zero at the valve
location.
– Some types of Air Valves will limit subatmospheric
pressures by letting Air into the pipeline (and not Vapor)

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 16
 Column Separation
• We can also have column separation without
having water to boil
– Air valves can ingress HUGE volumes of air.
– When pressure rises again, the water columns
accelerate towards each other and the air valve should
expel air out of the system (double acting)

What will happen when the two

columns join Highly depends on
the rate by which the Air Valve
expels air

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 17
 Column Separation
This is the case of
Fast air exhaust
rate

Extreme transient
pressures are
formed as the two
columns collapse

Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013

Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 18
 Column Separation
This is the case of
Slow air exhausting
rate

The air outflow

through the valve is
throttled and thus
air inside the
pipeline is
compressed

This acts as a
cushion slowing
down both columns
before collapse and
acceptable
transient pressures
are formed
Design of Pipelines and Pumping Stations (IHD-443) Mar 2013
Irrigation and Hydraulics Dept., Cairo University Slide 19