Cairo University - Faculty of Engineering

Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Pipelines and Pumping

Station Design
IHD 443

Prof. Amgad Elansary
p
April 2013
Hydraulic Transients
Hydraulic Transients
Lecture 10

Concepts & definitions
 References
• Chaudhry
Chaudhry, M. H. 1987. Applied Hydraulic 
M H 1987 Applied Hydraulic
Transients. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold 
Company.
Company
• Wylie, E. B. and V. L. Streeter. 1983. Fluid 
Transients Ann Arbor FEB Press
Transients. Ann Arbor, FEB Press.
 Hydraulic Gradeline ‐ HG
Hydraulic Gradeline 

HG
HG = H + Z
H H = pressure in the pipe
(meter water column)
Z = the
th elevation
l ti above
b
Pipe
an arbitrary datum.
Z

Datum
Datum Pressure in pipe H=HG-Z

22 April 2013 6
 Hydraulic gradeline ‐ HG
Hydraulic gradeline ‐

H
H
Negative head

X along the pipe

22 April 2013 7
 Hydraulic gradeline ‐
y g HG
HGmax
ma
HGsteady state

Max pressure

Min pressure

HGmin
i

X along the pipe

22 April 2013 8
 Exercise 1
Exercise 1
• Draw the hydraulic gradeline in the system below. 
The pump is at rest
The pump is at rest.

22 April 2013 9
 Exercise 1
Exercise 1
• Draw the hydraulic gradeline in the system below. 
The pump is at rest
The pump is at rest.

22 April 2013 10
 Hydraulic Transients
Hydraulic Transients
Unsteady Pipe Flow: time varying flow and pressure

• Routine transients • Catastrophic transients
– change in valve settings – unstable pump or turbine 
– starting or stopping of pumps operation
– changes in power demand for  – pipe breaks
i b k
turbines
– changes in reservoir elevation
changes in reservoir elevation
– turbine governor ‘hunting’
– action of reciprocating pumps
action of reciprocating pumps
– lawn sprinkler
 Hydraulic Transients
Hydraulic Transients
• Transient: The unsteady course of events when the 
The unsteady course of events when the
status of a system is changed from one steady state to 
another steady state. 

• Water Hammer: Strong pressure oscillations during 
transients, normally the term Water Hammer is used 
, y
when the influence of the elasticity of the pipe wall 
and liquid is of importance. 

• Surge: Low frequent oscillations where the effect of 
elasticity can be ignored. 

12
 Transient flow through long pipes

• Consider a pipe length of length L 
• Water is flowing from a constant level upstream 
reservoir to a valve at downstream
reservoir to a valve at downstream
• Assume valve is instantaneously closed at time 
t=t0 from the full open position to half open 
from the full open position to half open
position.
• This reduces the flow velocity through the valve, 
Thi d th fl l it th h th l
thereby increasing the pressure at the valve 
 Transient flow through long pipes
Transient flow through long pipes
• The increased pressure will produce a pressure 
wave that will travel back and forth in the 
pipeline until it is dissipated because of friction 
and flow conditions have become steady again
• This time when the flow conditions have 
become steady again, let us call it t1.
• So the flow regimes can be categorized into 
S th fl i b t i di t
1. Steady flow for  t<t0
2 Transient flow for 
2. Transient flow for t0<t<t1
3. Steady flow for  t>t1
 Valve Closure in Pipeline
Valve Closure in Pipeline

V2 V

• Sudden valve closure at t = 0 causes change in 
discharge at the valve
discharge at the valve
• What will make the fluid slow down?
I t t h ill i Infinite Force
• Instantaneous change will require _________
• Impossible to stop all the fluid instantaneously
 Transients: Distributed System
Transients: Distributed System
• Tools
– Conservation of mass
– Conservation of momentum
Conservation of momentum
– Conservation of energy
• We
We’d
d like to know
like to know
– Pressure change
• rigid walls
rigid walls
• elastic walls
– Propagation speed of pressure wave
– Time history of transient
 Transient flows through long pipes
• Assume that the flow velocity at the downstream end is 
changed from V to V+ΔV, thereby changing the pressure 
from p to p+Δp
• The change in pressure will produce a pressure wave 
g p p p
that will propagate in the upstream  direction
•

• The speed of the wave be a 
The speed of the wave be a
• The unsteady flow situation can be transformed into 
steady flow by assuming the velocity reference system
steady flow by assuming the velocity reference system 
move with the pressure wave 
 Pressure change due to velocity 
change
h

HGL

V0 V0 + ΔV

a
unsteady flow steady flow

velocity V0 V0 + ΔV V0 + a V0 + ΔV + a

density ρ0 ρ0 + Δρ ρ0 ρ0 + Δρ
pressure P0 P0 + ΔP P0 P0 + ΔP
 Momentum Equation
Momentum Equation

HGL

V0 V0 + ΔV
1 a 2
M1 + M 2 = W + Fp + Fp + Fss
1 2

M 1 x + M 2 x = Fp + Fp Mass conservation
1x 2

M 1 x = − ρ1V12 A1 M 2 x = ρ 2V22 A2 ρ1V1 A1 = ρ 2V2 A2

ρ1V1 A1 (V2 − V1 ) = p1 A1 − p2 A2 A1 ≅ A2
ρ1V1ΔV = − Δp Δp = p2 - p1
 Magnitude of Pressure Wave
Magnitude of Pressure Wave

V0 V0 + ΔV
1 a 2

ρ1V1ΔV = −Δp
V1 = V0 + a a >> V0

Δp = − ρaΔV Δp = gΔH

− a ΔV
ΔH = I
Increase iin V causes a _______
d
decrease iin HGL.
HGL
g
 Jukowsky’ss relation
Jukowsky relation

Δv ⋅ a
ΔH = −
g
22 April 2013 21
 Jukowsky’ss relation
Jukowsky relation

××
××
=
ΔQ 4 a H
ΔH 2
D π g
ΔH a×4
= 2 = tan α
ΔQ D × π × g α

Q
ΔH a
= = tan α
ΔV g

22 April 2013 22
 Propagation Speed:
Ri id W ll
Rigid Walls
V0 V0 + ΔV
ρ0 ρ0 + Δρ

a
A(V0 + a ) ρ 0 = A(V0 + a + ΔV )( ρ 0 + Δρ ) Conservation of mass

⎡ ρ0 ⎤
ΔV = (V0 + a ) ⎢ − 1⎥ Solve for ΔV
⎢⎣ ρ 0 + Δρ ⎥⎦

⎡ Δρ ⎤
ΔV = −(V0 + a ) ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ρ 0 + Δρ ⎥⎦
 Propagation Speed:
Rigid Walls
d ll
V0 V0 + ΔV
ρ0 ρ0 + Δρ

a
Δp = − ρ 0 (V0 + a )ΔV momentum

⎡ Δρ ⎤
ΔV = −(V0 + a ) ⎢ ⎥ mass
⎢⎣ ρ 0 + Δρ ⎥⎦

⎡ Δρ ⎤
Δp = ρ 0 (V0 + a ) ⎢2
⎥ V0 << a Δρ << ρ 0
⎢⎣ ρ 0 + Δρ ⎥⎦
Δp = a 2 Δρ Need a relationship between pressure and density!
 Propagation Speed:
Ri id W ll
Rigid Walls
Δp
K = definition of bulk modulus of elasticity
Δρ ρ
Δp K
a =
2
a=
Δρ ρ
Example:
Find the speed of a pressure wave in a water pipeline
assuming rigid walls
walls.
K = 2.2 GPa ρ = 1000 Kg/m 3 (for water)
2 2 x 109
2.2
a = = 1480 m/s speed of sound in water
1000
Cairo University - Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Pipelines and Pumping

Station Design
IHD 443

Prof. Amgad Elansary
p
April 2013
Wave Propagation
Wave Propagation

Lecture 11
 Wave Propagation
Wave Propagation
Simplified model
Simplified model
• No friction
• Instantaneous valve closure
l l

BUT
• Elastic pipe walls
Elastic pipe walls
• Compressible liquid

28
 Water Hammer

p AB:
Consider a longg ppipe
• Connected at one end to a reservoir containing water at
a height H from the center of the pipe.
• At the other end of the pipe, a valve to regulate the
flow of water is provided.
• The kinetic energy of the water moving through the
pipe is converted into potential energy stored in the
water and the walls of the pipe through the elastic
deformation of both.
• The
Th water isi compressedd andd theh pipe
i material
i l is
i
stretched.
• The
Th following
f ll i figure
fi illustrates
ill t t the th formation
f ti andd
transition of the pressure wave due to the sudden
closure of the valve
Prressure hhead Pressure variation over time
Pressure variation over time

ΔH

reservoir
level

Neglecting head loss!

time
4L 8L 12L
a a a
Pressure variation at valve: velocity head and friction losses neglected
 Water Hammer

Pipe burst during commissioning tests of

150 km, 1.6 m Diam. Pipe
Control valve closed too early
 Water Hammer

Check valve closure caused

severe pipe motion
 Basic equations of transients
• The flow and pressures in a water distribution 
system do not remain constant but fluctuate
system do not remain constant but fluctuate 
throughout the day

• Two time scales on which these fluctuations 
occur:
1. daily cycles
2. transient fluctuations  
 Basic equations of transients
• Continuity equation: applying the law of conservation 
of mass to the control volume (x1 and x2)
∂
x2

∫x ∂t ( ρA)dx +( ρAV ) 2 − ( ρAV )1 = 0

1

• By
By dividing throughout by Δx as it approach zero, the 
dividing throughout by Δx as it approach zero, the
above equation can be written as 
∂ ∂
( ρA) + ( ρAV ) = 0
∂t ∂x
• Expanding and rearranging various terms, using 
expressions for total derivatives, we obtain
i f t t l d i ti bt i
1 dρ 1 dA ∂V
+ + =0
ρ dt A dt ∂x
 Basic equations of transients
• Now we define the bulk modulus of elasticity, K, of a 
dp
fluid as K=
dρ
ρ
dρ ρ dp
• This can be written as
Thi b i =
dt K dt
• Area of pipe, A = π R 2, where R is the radius of the pipe.
Area of  pipe,               , where R is the radius of the pipe. 
dA / dt = 2πRdR / dt
Hence                                  dε = dR / R
dA dε
= 2A
• In terms of strain this may be written as
I t f t i thi b itt dt dt
pr dσ
• Now using hoop stress, we obtain 
g p σ=
e
E=
dε
dε D dp
=
dt 2eE dt
 Basic equations of transients
• Following the above equations one can write,
1 dA D dp
=
A dt eE dt

• Substituting these equations into continuity equation and 
simplifying the equation yields
∂V 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ dp
+ ⎢1 + ⎥ =0
∂x K ⎣ eE / DK ⎦ dt
K/ρ
a2 =
• Let us define                                 , where a is wave speed
1 + ( DK ) / eE
with which pressure waves travel back and forth
with which pressure waves travel back and forth.

• Substituting this expression we get the following continuity 
g p g g y
equation ∂p + V ∂p + ρa 2 ∂V = 0
∂t ∂x ∂x
 Propagation Speed:
El ti W ll
Elastic Walls

V0 V0 + ΔV
ρ0 ρ0 + Δρ

K a
a = D Additional parameters
ρ0 D = diameter of pipe
e = thickness of thin walled pipe
E = bulk
b lk modulus
d l off elasticity
l ti it for
f pipe
i
K ρ0 effect of water compressibility
a=
K D
1+ effect of pipe elasticity
E e
 Propagation Speed: Elastic Walls
Propagation Speed: Elastic Walls
Example:
Example: 
How long does it take for a pressure wave to 
travel 500 m after a rapid valve closure in a 1 m
travel 500 m after a rapid valve closure in a 1 m 
diameter, 1 cm wall thickness, steel pipeline? The 
initial flow velocity was 5 m/s
initial flow velocity was 5 m/s. 
E for steel is 200 GPa
What is the increase in pressure?
Pressure wave velocity: Elastic Pipeline
y p
E = 200 GPa
D=1m
e = 1 cm

K ρ0 2.2 x109 1000

a= a = 9
= 1020 m/s
KD 2.2 x10 1
1+ 1+
E e 200 x109 0.01
0.5 s to travel 500 m
− aΔV − (1020 m/s)(-5 m/s)
ΔH = = = 520 m
g 9.8m/s 2
Δp = ρgΔH
Δp = (1000 kg/m 3 )(9.8 m/s 2 )(520 m) = 5.1 MPa = 740 psi
Wave speed
Wave speed 1
a=
ρ ⋅ ( K1 + eD⋅E )

22 April 2013 41
Valve Closure
Valve Closure
The Maximum pressure created by the water hammer
 Analysis of Water Hammer Phenomenon

The pressure rise due to water hammer depends upon:

(a) The velocity of the flow of water in pipe,
(b) The length of pipe,
(c) Time taken to close the valve,
((d)) Elastic pproperties
p of the material of the ppipe.
p
The following cases of water hammer will be considered:
• Gradual closure of valve
valve,
• Sudden closure of valve and pipe is rigid, and
• Sudden closure of valve and ppipe
p is elastic.
• The time required for the pressure wave to travel from the
valve to the reservoir and back to the valve is:
2L
t=
Where: a
L = length of the pipe (m)
a = speed of pressure wave, celerity (m/sec)

• If the valve time of closure is tc , then

¾ If tc f 2 L the closure is considered gradual
a
2L
¾ If tc ≤ the closure is considered sudden
a
 Critical Time
Critical Time
• Critical
Critical time = 2L/a
time = 2L/a
• Valve or pump closure should be greater than 
critical
• The last 20% of valve closure most critical. 
V d
Very dependent on type of valve.
d f l
 Exercise 4
Exercise 4
• There is a flow of 30 l/sec. in a 1000 m. long 
pipeline dia 200 mm. At the outlet there is a 
i li di 200 At th tl t th i
two speed valve with closing time of 1.5 or 6 
sec. What is the pressure rise at the valve 
p
when it is closed. Consider the 4 cases.
Steel pipe PVC pipe
Closing time
a=1050 m/s a=300 m/s

1 5 sec
1.5

6.0 sec

47
 Exercise 4
Exercise 4
• There is a flow of 30 l/sec. in a 1000 m. long 
pipeline dia 200 mm. At the outlet there is a 
i li di 200 At th tl t th i
two speed valve with closing time of 1.5 or 6 
sec. What is the pressure rise at the valve 
p
when it is closed. Consider the 4 cases.
Steel pipe PVC pipe
Closing time
a=1050 m/s a=300 m/s

1 5 sec
1.5 ~102
102 mwc ~30
30 mwc

? Less than 102

6.0 sec ~30 mwc
mwc

48
Sudden Valve Closure
dd l l
 Sudden Valve Closure
• Wave Speed Calculations
– Ranges from 300m/sec for PVC pipes up to 1400m/s for 
steel pipes.
l i
– Depends on Fluid properties, Pipe material, and longitudinal 
restraint allowance
D: Pipe Diameter
e: Pipe Wall Thickness
K: Bulk Modulus E: Young’s Modulus
ρ: Fluid
Fl id D
Density
it C: Pipe Restraint Case
μ: Poisson’s Ratio

Case (a): Fixed from one end

Case (b): Totally Fixed
C
Case ((c):
) Fl
Flexible
ibl jjoints
i t
 Sudden Valve Closure
• Wave Speed Calculations
D: Pipe Diameter
e: Pipe Wall Thickness
K: Bulk Modulus
E: Young’s Modulus
ρ: Fluid Density
C: Pipe Restraint Case
μ: Poisson’s Ratio

For Thick Walled pipes D/e

/ < 40
 Time History of Pressure Wave
(
(Water Hammer))
• The time historyy of the ppressure wave for a specific
p
point on the pipe is a graph that simply shows the
relation between the pressure increase ( Δ P ) and
time during
d ring the propagation of the water
ater hammer
pressure waves.
• For example, considering point “A” just to the left of the
valve.
valve

Time history for pressure at point “A”

A (after valve closure)

• Note: friction (viscosity) is neglected.

neglected
The time historyy for point
p “M” ((at midpoint
p of the p
pipe)
p )

Note: friction (viscosity) is neglected.

 point B ((at a distance x from the reservoir )
The time historyy for p

t*(2L/
*(2L/
1 C)
Note: friction (viscosity) is neglected .

This is a general graph where we can substitute any value

for x (within the pipe length) to obtain the time history for
that point.
point
 Water hammer pressure head
• Applying the water
h
hammer f
formulas
l
we can determine ΔH A =
ΔP
the energy gradient γ
Due to
li andd the
line h water
hydraulic gradient hammer

line for the pipe H

system under steady
A
flow condition.
Water Hammer Pressure in a Pipeline
p

So the total pressure at any point M after closure (water hammer) is

PM = PM ,before closure + Δ P
or
H M = H M ,before closure + Δ H
 practice friction effects are considered and hence a
In real p
damping effect occurs and the pressure wave dies out, i.e.;
energy is dissipated.

Damping effect of friction

t*(2L/C)

the time history for pressure at point “A”

when
h ffriction
i ti (viscosity)
( i it ) is
i included
i l d d
 The phenomenon

Pressure wave propagates with wave velocity a

If valve closing time is smaller than the run time of the wave to the
reflection point and back the surge is called Joukowski surge
7
x 10 Druck am letzten Knoten gegen Zeit
1.5

Pressure vs. time at valve 0.5

Damping of amplitude
0
through friction

-0.5

-1

-1.5
50 100 150 200 250 300
 Sudden Valve Closure
• Considering Friction

When considering
Friction, effect of Line
Packing and Wave
attenuation appears
especially in long
pipelines

The produced
pressure wave
Dampens
p with time
Example 1
Solution
 Note

In water hammer analysis the time history of pressure

oscillation in the pipe line is determined. Because of the
friction effect the oscillation gradually dies out

To keep the water hammer pressure within manageable

limits, valves are commonly design with closure times
considerably greater than 2L/a
63
 Example
p
A cast iron pipe with 20 cm diameter and 15 mm wall
thickness is carrying water from a reservoir.
reservoir At the end of
the pipe a valve is installed to regulate the flow. The
following data are available:

e = 0.15 mm (absolute roughness) ,

L = 1500 m (length of pipe),
Q = 40 l/sec
l/ (design
(d i flow)
fl ) ,
K = 2.1 x 109 N/m2 (bulk modulus of water),
E = 2.1 x 1011 N/m2 (modulus of elasticity of cast iron),
ε = 0.25 (Poisson’s ratio),
ρ = 1000 kg/m3
T = 150 C.
 Find Δ P , Δ H , fc , and fL due to the water hammer
produced forf the following
f i cases:
a) Assuming rigid pipe when tc = 10 seconds, and tc = 1.5 seconds.
b) Assuming elastic pipe when tc = 10 seconds, and tc = 1.5
seconds, if:
1. the pipe is free to move longitudinally,
2 the
2. h pipei is
i anchored
h d at both
b h ends d andd throughout
h h its
i
length,
3. the ppipe
p has expansion
p jjoints.
c) Draw the time history of the pressure wave for the case (b-3) at:
1. a point just to the left of the valve, and
2 a distance
2. di t x = 0.35
0 35 L from
f the
th reservoir.
i
d) Find the total pressure for all the cases in (b-3).
 How fast is the pressure wave?
How fast is the pressure wave?
• Wave speed based on two things
Wave speed based on two things
– Bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid, usually 
water.
water
– Bulk modulus of elasticity of the pipe walls.
 How to compute surge pressures
How to compute surge pressures

a
Δ h =
Δh = change in pipe pressure head
* Δ v a = wave speed
g = speed of gravity
g Δv=changeinvelocity
Δv = change in velocity

4720 K = bulk modulus elasticity of fluid ( water = 300,000 psi)

a= E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material
1 + * * (1 − u 2 )
k D D = inside pipe diameter (in)
e = Pipe wall thickness (in)
E e u = Poission’s ratio (PVC = .45)
 Valve characteristics
Valve characteristics
• Valves
Valves do not change flow in proportion 
do not change flow in proportion
to their position!
• Some valves are very non‐linear
• Exact behaviour depends on system as 
Exact behaviour depends on system as
well as valve characteristic
Q
Cv = k .
ΔP
Valve characteristics
Valve characteristics
Valve characteristics
Valve characteristics
 Valve Characteristics
Valve Characteristics
R l i flow
Relative fl vs valve
l opening
i

100
90
80
70
m flow

60 Quick opening
p g
% maximum

50 Linear
40 Hyperbolic

30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% open
 Negative 
pressure wave

The negative pressure wave can

not become lower than the
vapour pressure of the fluid
fluid.
If the pressure falls below the
vapour pressure, a vapour bubble
is formed. The water column
separates from the valve.
valve
When the pressure increases
again the bubble collapses.
This phenomenon is called
cavitation.
cavitation
 What are the Maximum Allowable 
Pressures?
1 The pipeline shall have a pressure class rating greater than 
the static or working pressure plus surge at any point in the 
system.

2 For low pressure systems, “Pressure relief valves shall be 
large enough to pass the full pump discharge with a pipeline 
g g p p p g pp
pressure no greater than 50 percent above the permissible 
working head of the pipe.”

3 For high pressure systems, “Pressure relief valves shall be set 
to open at a pressure no greater than 5 psi above the 
p p g p
pressure rating of the pipe or the lowest pressure rated 
component in the system.
 Stresses in the ppipe
p wall
• After calculating the pressure increase due to the
water
t hammer,
h we can find
fi d the
th stresses
t in
i the
th pipe
i
wall:
PD
• Circumferential (hoop) stress “fc”: σ c =
2e p
PD
• L it di l stress
Longitudinal t “fL”:
” σ L=
4e p
where:
D = pipe inside diameter
ep = pipe wall thickness
P = P0 + Δ P = total pressure
= initial
i i i l pressure (before
(b f valve
l closure)
l )+
pressure increase due water hammer.
 Pressure Rating 
• Pressure  rating can changed based on hoop 
y
stress and number of cycles
 Pressure Rating Over Time
Pressure Rating Over Time
PVC PIPE Hoop Stress vs Cycles to Failure
PVC PIPE  Hoop Stress vs Cycles to Failure
10000
Hoop Stress (pssi)

1000
1000 10000 100000 540000 10000000 100000000

Cycles to Failure
 Example
• Compute the head increase due to instantaneous stoppage of 
C h h di d i f
water initially flowing at 5.0 fps in an 10 inch, 80 psi, PVC 
pieline, a = 860 f/sec
• If the static head at the point of stoppage is 55.0 psi, what is the 
total pressure acting on the pipe at the moment of stoppage?
• What is the hoop stress developed at the moment of stoppage?     
Hs=P*D/2*e
• If this Hoop stress will occur twice each day, and at each 
occurrence there are 8 stress cycles of this approximate 
y pp
magnitude, and if the irrigation season is 90 days long, how 
many years can this pipe be expected to last before failure due 
to stress cycles?
to stress cycles?
 Summary
• Actual
Actual surge analysis is generally much more 
surge analysis is generally much more
complicated than the simple example.
• The most practical method of solutions is to 
p
understand the available protection hardware and 
to install that equipment at enough locations and 
with reasonable settings
with reasonable settings.
• A fact of  life which makes this approach almost 
necessary is that irrigation systems tend to be
necessary is that irrigation systems tend to be 
added to or changed with time until they may 
only vaguely resemble the original design.