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Dry Mature Fine Tailings as Oil Sands Reclamation Substrates for Three Native
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Article  in  Journal of Environmental Quality · June 2014

DOI: 10.2134/jeq2013.10.0415

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 Published June 20, 2014
Journal of Environmental Quality
Dry Mature Fine Tailings as Oil Sands Reclamation Substrates
for Three Native Grasses
Gabriela L. Luna Wolter and M. Anne Naeth*
Abstract
Mature fine tailings (MFT) are a by-product of oil sands mining
that must be reclaimed through capping or use as a reclamation
substrate. Some chemical and physical properties of MFT make
it inhospitable for plant growth, such as high concentrations
of sodium, sulfate, chloride, and hydrocarbons. A greenhouse
study assessed whether substrates of various mixes of dry MFT,
overburden sand, and peat mineral soil mix (PMM) and caps of
forest floor organic material (LFH) and PMM would support the
emergence and growth of three native grass species commonly
used in land reclamation. Select vegetation properties were
monitored for 16 wk in the greenhouse; select chemical and
physical substrate properties were determined in the laboratory.
Elymus trachycaulus was more tolerant of dry MFT than Agrostis
scabra and Festuca saximontana. Mean aboveground and
belowground biomass were more than twice as high on substrates
with <60% MFT than on 100% MFT. Aboveground biomass was
two to four times greater with capping than without and 30%
greater on LFH than PMM caps. Cover and density followed
similar trends. Belowground biomass on capped substrates was
at least double that on uncapped substrates. Aboveground
biomass was almost doubled with the use of fertilizer. High
concentrations of hydrocarbons and exchangeable ions were
associated with reduced plant growth and health. Results from
this study show that capping, amendments, and fertilizer may
improve the reclamation potential of dry MFT.
Copyright © American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America,
and Soil Science Society of America. 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA.
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publisher.
J. Environ. Qual.
doi:10.2134/jeq2013.10.0415
Received 10 Oct. 2014.
*Corresponding author (anne.naeth@ualberta.ca).
TECHNICAL REPORTS
Waste Management
I ndustry produces large amounts of waste materials
and is regulated to dispose of these materials to reduce envi-
ronmental impact. The use of waste materials, such as waste
rock (Drozdowski et al., 2012), tailings (Reid and Naeth, 2005a,
2005b), sewage (Drozdowski et al., 2012; Reid and Naeth
2005a, 2005b), biosolids (Gardner et al., 2012), manure, and
wood shavings (Cohen-Fernández and Naeth, 2013), in land
reclamation is a growing worldwide practice. These materials
have been used as primary substrates, in substrate mixes, and as
amendments to enhance degraded soils or to modify soil chemi-
cal and physical properties.
The oil sands industry generates approximately 5000 m3 of
waste material per 1000 m3 of synthetic crude oil daily; 2500 m3 of
this waste material is associated with fluid fine tailings and mature
fine tailings (MFT) (Majid and Sparks, 1999). Approximately
750 million m3 of MFT has accumulated in tailings ponds in
the Alberta oil sands region (Smith, 2011). These tailings are
composed of water, clay, sand, and hydrocarbon residuals. Over
time, heavy materials settle to the bottom, and water rises to the
top. The middle layer is MFT, consisting of 20 to 40% solids
suspended in water. Recent regulatory changes require reduced
production of fluid fine tailings and faster reclamation than was
acceptable in the past.
Suncor Energy Inc. has developed the tailings reduction
operations (TRO) technology to produce dry MFT (Mamer,
2011). Mature fine tailings is dredged from tailings ponds,
mixed with a polymer flocculent to bind clay particles, and
poured in thin layers onto sand beaches, where water drains and
is collected for reuse; within weeks the MFT dries. Relative to
traditional tailings, dry MFT has reduced volume and storage
space requirements, increased trafficability in a shorter period of
time, and increased potential for reclamation to a dry landscape.
Dry MFT is currently expected to be capped (a layer of material
over the MFT) during reclamation.
The use of TRO is expected to shorten tailings reclamation
from 30 to 10 yr. However, there is a large gap between
developing a trafficable surface with low environmental risk to
the establishment of a sustainable vegetation cover similar to
that of locally common forest. Although innovation in tailings
G.L. Luna Wolter, Biota, Gestión y Consultorías Ambientales Ltda.7 Av. Miguel
Claro 1224, Santiago de Chile; M.A. Naeth, 855C General Services Building, Dep.
of Renewable Resources, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G 2H1.
Assigned to Associate Editor Keith Goyne.
Abbreviations: CCME, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment; LFH,
forest floor organic material; MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, overburden sand; PMM,
peat mineral soil mix; TRO, tailings reduction operations.
processing technology has resulted in geotechnical solutions, Germination rates were 74, 88, and 78% for the E. trachycaulus,
it is unknown whether these solutions provide appropriate A. scabra, and F. saximontana seed lots, respectively.
reclamation options. The main environmental concerns of Substrates were hand mixed in 20-L pails and randomly
MFT are phytotoxic organic compounds and inorganic ions, assigned to 15-cm-diameter, 15-cm-deep pots with drainage holes.
including hydrocarbons (naphthenic acids, benzene, toluene, Pots were filled within 2 cm of the top with substrate and capping
ethylbenzene, xylene), and high concentrations of sodium, treatments. Caps were placed on top of the mixes to a depth of 5
sulfate, and chloride (FTFC, 1995). Excessive salt can adversely cm. Filled pots were thoroughly watered, left for 24 h, and then
affect plant physiological activity and can cause tissue injury seeded with 30 seeds per pot (10 seeds from each grass species).
(Kozlowski et al., 1991). Petroleum hydrocarbons, specifically Greenhouse conditions were 21°C by day (14 h) and 15°C at night
those with high-molecular-weight recalcitrant fractions, can be (10 h) to approximate Fort McMurray growing season conditions.
hydrophobic and may affect plant growth (Gurska et al., 2009). Pots were watered every day for the first 4 wk and then as required
Research to date has focused on dry MFT physical properties, to keep the substrate from drying. The experiment ran for 16 wk.
dewatering potential, and aquatic toxicity (Fuhr et al., 1993).
Information on plant establishment on dry MFT is limited, Vegetation Assessment
although some research on conventional MFT shows that plant Each species was assessed in each pot to determine emergence,
(mainly woody species) survival and growth was compromised growth, and survival. Each week, emerging and dead plants were
by high salt concentrations, with peat amendment significantly counted. Plant health was determined monthly by assigning each
improving substrate electrical conductivity, cation exchange pot a health index value representative of all plants in the pot. A
capacity, organic carbon and nitrogen, microbial abundance and value of 1 was dead (<10% live green), 2 was mostly dying (<25%
diversity, and therefore plant growth (Li and Fung, 1998, 2001). live green), 3 was half dying and half healthy (>50% live green), 4
Research under controlled greenhouse conditions is required was mostly healthy (>75% live green), and 5 was healthy with no
before large-scale field reclamation with dry MFT. Because an necrosis or chlorosis (>90% live green).
important part of reclamation is revegetation, plant response to At the end of the experiment, plants were clipped at ground
dry MFT must be determined with and without improvement level (aboveground biomass) and sorted into species. Roots
of physical and chemical properties through use of amendments. (belowground biomass) were removed from the soil and washed
This initial research was conducted to determine if dry MFT could under gently running water. Biomass was oven dried at 105°C
be amended to support growth of selected native plant species to constant weight and weighed. Aboveground biomass was
with potential for use in oil sands reclamation. Overburden sand determined in all 300 pots; belowground biomass was determined
(OS) and peat mineral soil mix (PMM) amendments, as well as in three replicates of each capping and fertilizer treatment in the
forest floor organic materials (LFH) and PMM capping layers, five MFT mixes with highest aboveground biomass (84 pots).
were hypothesized to improve physical and chemical conditions
of the MFT substrate to make it more receptive for revegetation. Soil Analyses
Fertilizer was hypothesized to improve plant production. Before potting, three samples of each substrate were taken
and composited for chemical laboratory analyses. These analyses
Materials and Methods would provide information on initial growing conditions, the most
Substrate Treatments and Plant Species difficult time for plant establishment in this type of reclamation.
Methods were according to Carter and Gregorich (2008) unless
Substrate, amendments, and capping materials, readily available
otherwise noted. Sodium adsorption ratio, pH, and electrical
on site for oil sands reclamation, were from the Suncor Energy Inc.
conductivity were determined in 1:2 soil:water saturated paste.
mine site near Fort McMurray, Alberta. Dry MFT was produced
Total carbon was determined by combustion, and total organic
from the TRO process. Overburden sand had been removed before
and inorganic carbon were determined by acid digestion and
oil sands mining. The PMM was approximately 60% organic peat
combustion. Cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations
with 40% mineral soil. Forest floor (LFH) was an organic mix of
litter (L), fragmented and fermented litter (F), and humus (H). Ten Table 1. Amended dry mature fine tailings substrates used in the
substrates were evaluated, including eight MFT mixes with varying experiment.
proportions of OS and PMM, a 100% dry MFT control, and Volume
a potting soil reference (Table 1). Caps were LFH and PMM. A Substrates†
Dry MFT OS PMM
polyolefin-coated fertilizer with 7% ammonia nitrogen, 7% nitrate ——————— % ———————
nitrogen, 14% available phosphorus (P2O5), and 14% soluble MFT (100) 100 0 0
potash (K2O) was applied to the surface of half the pots at a rate of MFT:OS (80:20) 80 20 0
0.15 g pot-1 after seeding. Each treatment was replicated five times MFT:OS (60:40) 60 40 0
for a total of 300 pots (5 replicates × 10 MFT mixes × 3 caps × 2 MFT:OS (40:60) 40 60 0
fertilizer treatments) in a complete randomized block design. MFT:OS (20:80) 20 80 0
Three native grasses common in reclamation were used: MFT:OS:PMM (80:15:5) 80 15 5
slender wheat grass [Elymus trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex MFT:OS:PMM (80:10:10) 80 10 10
Shinners or Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte], tickle grass MFT:OS:PMM (60:25:15) 60 25 15
(Agrostis scabra Willd.), and rocky mountain fescue (Festuca MFT:OS:PMM (40:30:30) 40 30 30
saximontana Rydb.). Germination tests were performed on
† MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, overburden sand; PMM, peat mineral soil
seeds before the experiment to ascertain if seeds were viable. mix.

Journal of Environmental Quality

were determined with barium chloride extraction, total nitrogen Relationships among vegetation and soil chemical
by combustion, and total organic nitrogen by Kjeldahl procedure. properties were determined by principal components analysis,
Available nitrate, phosphate, and potassium were determined by correspondence, and redundancy analysis (Legendre and
modified Kelowna extraction. Available sulfate was determined by Gallagher, 2001). Data were standardized before analysis and
calcium chloride extraction and inductively coupled plasma atomic transformed to comparable scales, with variables contributing
emission spectroscopy. Chloride in saturated paste was determined equally to the analysis. Constrained ordination analysis was
by colorimetric analysis (APHA 4500). Available chloride, performed using one response matrix (plant biomass, cover, or
chlorate, and chloride were determined by ion chromatography density) and one explanatory matrix (soil available nutrients,
(USEPA 300). Wettability was determined by molarity of ethanol exchangeable ions, salinity, or hydrocarbons).
droplet water repellency (Ashworth, 2002). Total extractable
hydrocarbons and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene were Results and Discussion
determined by gas chromatography (CCME, 2001a). Polycyclic Plant Response to Substrate, Capping, and Fertilizer
aromatic hydrocarbons were determined by gas chromatography
Plants emerged, grew, and survived in all treatments regardless
and mass spectrometry (USEPA Method 3540/8270).
of substrate, caps, or fertilizer. Mean plant performance was
Methods for soil physical analyses were according to Carter
generally best in substrates with ≤60% MFT. Aboveground
and Gregorich (2008). Particle size distribution (sand, silt, clay)
biomass was greatest in MFT:OS:PMM 40:30:30, which was not
was determined by hydrometer. Falling head method was used to
significantly different from that in 20:80, 40:60, and 60:25:15
determine hydraulic conductivity in acrylic columns (40 cm long, 10
and was significantly greater (almost two times) than 100, 80:20,
cm in diameter, and 78.5 cm2 in area). Three columns per MFT mix
80:15:5, 80:10:10, and 60:40 (Fig. 1). Cover was significantly
were used. Columns were weighed after draining to determine field
greater in MFT:OS:PMM 60:25:15 and 40:30:30 than in all
capacity. Bulk density was determined by oven drying and porosity,
other substrates (Table 2). Plant density was significantly highest
with particle size assumed to be 2.65 Mg m-3. Water retention
in 40:30:30, potting soil, 60:40, and 20:80 (14 plants per pot)
curves were developed using pressure extraction. Mature fine tailings
relative to the other treatments (10 or 11 plants per pot) (Table
mix samples were collected from three random locations in the pots
3). Belowground biomass was significantly lowest, with ≥80%
after the experiment ended and were composited for analysis. Three
MFT (approximately 0.25 g per pot) than with less MFT or
replications per MFT mix were used for each pressure of 0.01, 0.03,
potting soil (approximately 0.5 g per pot) (Table 3).
0.1, 0.33, and 1.5 MPa. Gravimetric water content was calculated
Capping generally had a positive effect on plant response
by dividing mass of water lost during drying by oven dry weight.
variables. Aboveground biomass was significantly greater on
These properties were assessed at the end of the experiment because
capped than on uncapped treatments, as depicted for the five
physical properties were hypothesized to be mainly limiting as plants
highest biomass treatments (Fig. 2). The LFH caps were generally
develop roots and have higher water and nutrient requirements.
associated with significantly greater biomass than PMM caps
Statistical Analyses (at least double). Plant density and cover followed similar
trends (Tables 2, 3). Belowground biomass was not significantly
Data analyses were conducted with statistical
package R (version 2.13.0). A probability of 0.05
was used, and specific p values were reported. All
data were tested for normality and homogeneity of
variance with the Shapiro-Wilk test.
Plant density, cover, and aboveground biomass
data were analyzed with three-way nonparametric
ANOVA after verifying that non-normal
distribution and unequal variances could not be
normalized by common transformations. Fixed
factors were MFT mixes, capping, and fertilizer.
Analyses were performed with permutational
multivariate ANOVA (PERMANOVA v.1.6)
(Anderson 2001). Analysis was based on Bray-
Curtis dissimilarities distance (Bray and Curtis,
1957). A total of 10,000 permutations were used
in all tests. A pairwise test with PERMANOVA
was performed to analyze multiple comparisons for
factors with significant differences. Water retention
data were analyzed with two-way nonparametric
ANOVA with fixed factors of MFT mixes, and
pressures were determined with permutational
multivariate ANOVA. Hydraulic conductivity Fig. 1. Mean aboveground biomass (g pot−1) for three plant species on mature fine
data were analyzed by Kruskal-Wallis one-way tailings (MFT) mixes without capping at the end of the experiment. Different letters
ANOVA on ranks (Kruskal and Wallis, 1952) using indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 among MFT mixes. OS, overburden sand;
PMM, peat mineral soil mix. Error bars are SEM.
SigmaPlot 12.
www.agronomy.org • www.crops.org • www.soils.org
Table 2. Mean plant cover in dry mature fine tailings treatments at the Table 3. Mean plant density and biomass in response to dry mature
end of the experiment. fine tailings substrate, capping, and fertilizer in dry mature fine tailings
treatments at the end of the experiment.
Mean plant cover
Treatments† Aboveground Belowground
No cap LFH‡ PMM Treatment† Density‡
biomass biomass
——————— % pot ———————
-1
plant pot-1 ————— g pot-1 —————
MFT (100) 23b (7)§ 65b (10) 47 (5)
MFT (100) 10b (1.20)§ 0.32b (0.06) 0.33ab (0.04)
MFT:OS (80:20) 18b (4) 67b (6) 46 (6)
MFT:TS (60:40) 13a (0.81) 0.37ab (0.05) 0.31ab (0.07)
MFT:OS (60:40) 20b (3) 88a (7) 53 (4)
MFT:TS (20:80) 14a (0.71) 0.46a (0.02) 0.49a (0.05)
MFT:OS (40:60) 20b (3) 87a (5) 53 (4)
MFT:TS:PMM (80:10:10) 11b (1.29) 0.23b (0.03) 0.18b (0.06)
MFT:OS (20:80) 22b (4) 79ab (5) 60 (4)
MFT:TS:PMM (40:30:30) 14a (0.87) 0.47a (0.06) 0.45a (0.04)
MFT:OS:PMM (80:15:5) 17b (4) 73ab (7) 54 (4)
Potting soil 14 (0.79) 0.57 (0.57) 1.17 (0.21)
MFT:OS:PMM (80:10:10) 20b (3) 60b (9) 49 (5)
MFT:OS:PMM (60:25:15) 25ab (6) 78ab (8) 59 (5)
No cap 12b (1.13) 0.15c (0.03) 0.20b (0.04)
MFT:OS:PMM (40:30:30) 35a (5) 84ab (7) 56 (3)
LFH (forest soil) 12b (1.02) 0.64a (0.08) 0.46a (0.04)
Potting soil (100) 55 (5) 80 (4) 69 (4)
Peat mineral mix 14a (0.89) 0.45b (0.06) 0.40a (0.07)
† MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, overburden sand; PMM, peat mineral
mix.
With fertilizer 12 (0.36) 0.22a (0.04) 0.45a (0.07)
‡ Forest floor organic material.
Without fertilizer 13 (0.35) 0.12b (0.02) 0.26b (0.05)
§ Values are mean (±SE) (n = 300 pots). Different letters within columns
indicate significant differences at p < 0.05. † LFH, forest floor organic material; MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, over-
burden sand; PMM, peat mineral mix.
different with peat or LFH caps, which were both at least double ‡ Aboveground biomass, n = 300; belowground biomass, n = 96.
that of uncapped treatments. § Values are mean (±SE). Different letters within columns, within caps or
Aboveground biomass was significantly greater with fertilizer or MFT substrate sections, indicate significant differences at p
< 0.05. Potting soil was not included in the statistical analysis.
fertilizer than without (Table 3). Belowground biomass was also
significantly greater with fertilizer than without. Plant density and ion exclusion mechanisms. Redfield (2004) found a positive
was not affected by fertilizer (Table 3). Interactions between correlation between plant injury, measured by electrolyte leakage,
MFT mixes and fertilizer were not significant. Interactions and increased concentrations of sodium and boron in roots, sodium
between capping and fertilizer were significant. Although capping and sulfur in stems, and sulfur and boron in leaf tissue.
materials contained nutrients important to plant growth, during
the experiment decomposition and nutrient release would be Substrate Properties and Plant Growth Relationships
low or unlikely to result from the LFH or PMM. Mature fine tailings were of lower overall chemical quality
Species responded differently to treatments, as expected based than OS or PMM (Table 4). Mature fine tailings had high
on their salt tolerance. All species had reduced plant
health in high-proportion MFT treatments without
caps (health categories 2 and 3; brown leaf tips and
stunted growth most commonly observed) relative to
healthier plants in substrates with <60% MFT (health
categories 4 and 5). Agrostis scabra emergence was very
low, even in potting soil (21–30%). Elymus trachycaulus
and F. saximontana consistently emerged (75–90%)
and established at high densities with high biomass
across MFT mixes and capping treatments, although F.
saximontana plants declined in health and density over
the course of the experiment. Aboveground biomass
was significantly greater for E. trachycaulus than for
A. scabra in all of the top five MFT substrates (Fig. 3).
When comparing these species, it is important to keep
in mind that A. scabra has inherently smaller biomass
than either of the other two species.
Elymus trachycaulus is adapted to saline soils
(Tilley et al., 2011), whereas F. saximontana and A.
scabra have low salt tolerance (Dudley et al., 2011).
Other researchers found that other plant species could
grow and survive in oil sands tailings, particularly with
amendment (Redfield et al., 2003; Renault et al., 2004;
Naeth et al., 2011). They attributed reduced growth Fig. 2. Mean aboveground biomass (g pot−1) for three plant species on mature fine
and plant injury to hypoxia due to low porosity, which tailings (MFT) mixes with capping of forest floor organic material (LFH) and peat
mineral soil mix (PMM) at the end of the experiment. Different letters indicate
could increase salt effects, affecting metabolic processes significant differences at p < 0.05 in capping treatments. Error bars are SEM.

Journal of Environmental Quality

hydrocarbon concentrations; higher molecular
weight hydrocarbon fractions F2 and F3 exceeded
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment
(CCME) quality guidelines for fine soils in
agricultural, residential, parkland, and industrial
lands (CCME, 2001b) by 8 and 3 times, respectively.
Of nine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons analyzed,
seven were in MFT, and all were approximately
nine times greater than CCME guidelines for fine
soils in agricultural land (CCME, 2006). Benzene
was approximately 14 times greater than CCME
guidelines for fine soils in agricultural, residential,
parkland, and industrial lands; ethylbenzene was
approximately twice as high.
Other studies found that crude oil–contaminated
soils were phytotoxic to plants; this phytotoxicity
increased with number of aromatic rings and
affected plant growth (Baker, 1970; Baek et al.,
2004; Reynoso-Cuevas et al., 2008). Hydrocarbons
can decrease transpiration and photosynthesis
and increase respiration of plants (Baker, 1970).
In our study, treatments with the lowest biomass Fig. 3. Mean aboveground biomass (g pot−1) by plant species of best performing
were associated with highest concentrations of mature fine tailings (MFT) mixes at Day 112. Different letters indicate significant
differences at p < 0.05 in plant species. Error bars are SEM.
hydrocarbons.
Sodium adsorption ratio averaged 23.8 in MFT, to many species, and high salt concentrations can reduce soil
high enough to be detrimental to numerous plant species based on microbial communities and natural attenuation of hydrocarbons
soil quality criteria for reclamation guidelines, although electrical (Foght et al., 2005). Sodium is not considered essential to plants
conductivity was low (1.47 dS m-1) (Alberta Agriculture, Food and could be toxic at elevated concentrations depending on
and Rural Development, 1987). Mature fine tailings were plant species and concentrations in soil. Some of these elements
alkaline (pH 8.08) and contained greater concentrations of in soil solution, such as sodium, sulfate, and chloride, could
sodium, chloride, and sulfate than OS, PMM, and LFH (Table increase plant susceptibility to osmotic and specific ion injury
4). Saline and high pH conditions are phytotoxic or limiting
Table 4. Chemical properties of dry mature fine tailings, overburden sand, peat mineral soil mix, and forest floor organic material before the
greenhouse experiment
Element Dry MFT† OS PMM LFH
Available nitrate, mg kg-1 4.43 (0.30)‡ bdl§ 3.44 (0.73) 2.75 (0.12)
Available phosphorus, mg kg-1 bdl bdl bdl 19.16 (0.34)
Available potassium, mg kg-1 78.17 (2.79) bdl 84.20 (9.53) 149.00 (3.08)
Available sulfate, mg kg-1 52.57 (1.62) 11.08 (0.25) 139.60 (14.33) 3.58 (0.32)
Hydrogen ion activity, pH 8.08 (0.04) 7.876 (0.06) 6.72 (0.02) 5.99 (0.02)
Cation exchange capacity 3.17 (0.13) bdl 29.14 (1.82) 13.12 (0.29)
Electrical conductivity, dS m-1 1.47 (0.02) 0.3054 (0.01) 1.17 (0.02) 0.46 (0.01)
Sodium adsorption ratio 23.77 (0.52) 2.196 (0.06) 0.69 (0.01) 0.13 (0.01)
Exchangeable calcium, mg L-1 9.13 (0.58) 18.22 (0.48) 212.40 (7.12) 81.14 (2.41)
Exchangeable magnesium, mg L-1 3.53 (0.20) 4.26 (0.16) 35.16 (1.33) 19.50 (0.42)
Exchangeable potassium, mg L-1 7.37 (0.33) 5.82 (0.27) 5.66 (0.24) 22.48 (0.65)
Exchangeable sodium, mg L-1 333 (4.67) 40.06 (1.09) 41.40 (0.79) 4.80 (0.62)
Exchangeable chloride, mg L-1 121.83 (5.23) bdl bdl 28.60 (1.66)
Exchangeable sulfate, mg L-1 386.67 (8.44) 91.64 (2.85) 457.40 (19.38) 41.42 (9.67)
F1 hydrocarbons, mg kg-1 10.0¶
F2 hydrocarbons, mg kg-1 1072.3 (183.2)
F3 hydrocarbons, mg kg-1 9860.0 (1566.8)
F4 hydrocarbons, mg kg-1 4686.7 (723.8)
Total extractable hydrocarbons, mg kg-1 15,633.3 (2468.9)
† LFH, forest floor organic material; MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, overburden sand; PMM, peat mineral mix.
‡ Values are mean (±SE).
§ bdl, below detection limit.
¶ Only dry mature fine tailings had detectable hydrocarbons.

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and nutritional disorders and cause reduction in plant survival
and growth (Grattan and Grieve, 1999). Salts rising to the
surface were observed as a white powder in all treatments but
disappeared after 32 d. Plant health and development during
this period did not show any direct relationship to these salts.
The phytotoxic effects of salt may have been ameliorated over
time with the open drainage pots; however, concentrations
may have been limited during early stages of plant growth and
development, before leaching of salts.
Thus, the lower biomass in treatments with more MFT can
be partially explained by greater concentrations of hydrocarbons
and exchangeable ions, such as sodium and chloride. This
was supported by redundancy analysis, which showed that
chemical properties explained 51.2% of the plant response
parameters, with aboveground biomass negatively correlated
with hydrocarbon fractions and naphthenic acids. Cover and
density were negatively correlated with sodium adsorption ratio,
pH, and naphthenic acids.
Soil physical properties may also have affected plant response.
Mature fine tailings and OS were of sand texture. Peat mineral
soil mix and LFH were mainly organic materials, although the
40% mineral soil in the PMM was of sandy texture. Bulk density
of MFT mixes was 1.18 to 1.35 Mg m-3. The lowest values were
on 100% MFT, followed by MFT mixes amended with PMM;
the highest values were on MFT mixes amended with 60 to 80%
OS (Table 5). The lowest saturated hydraulic conductivity for
MFT mixes was in MFT:OS:PMM (80:10:10), and the highest
was in MFT:OS (20:80). The highest value was in the treatment
with the highest proportion of OS due to its coarse texture.
Rodger (2008) found hydraulic conductivities of peat mineral
soil mix in 10 and 20 cm depth of 1.2 × 10-11 and 2.3 × 10-12 m
s-1, respectively. In our study, PMM over sand material had lesser
values by one order of magnitude than lower material.
Field capacity showed a positive relationship with high
proportions of MFT in mixes and with the addition of PMM
and a negative relationship with OS; however, the interaction
among different rates of MFT, OS, and PMM showed high
variability on 60 to 80% MFT mixes (Table 5). At the initial
watering before seeding, MFT materials had low wettability.
Water pooled on top of the soil (even after 1 h) in 100% MFT
treatments and drained but did not wet soil in MFT treatments
mixed with OS. Chaikowsky (2003) found bulk densities of
reclamation soils (a mix of peat and mineral materials of a mined
area in the Athabasca Oil Sands) of 1.38 Mg m-3 with field
capacity and wilting points of 27.7 and 10.2%, respectively. The
OS bulk density was 1.18 Mg m-3 with field capacity, and wilting
points were 8.6 and 0.9% on a volume basis, respectively. Bulk
density of reclamation soil found by Chaikowsky (2003) was
similar to MFT:OS (40:60) and MFT:OS (20:80). However,
other values in our study were lesser in magnitude.
Water retention was much greater for PMM than MFT mixes
at low suction and was slightly less at high suction (Table 5).
Water-holding capacity (field capacity – wilting point) for MFT
mixes was less than those for PMM (5–11% for MFT mixes and
64% for PMM) (Table 5). High sand content (coarse texture
was associated with lowest gravimetric water content in contrast
to other mixes; MFT:OS, 20:80) had the lowest water-holding
capacity. Mixes with <60% MFT had <20% of gravimetric
water content even if they had organic matter as part of the mix
(Table 5). There were significant differences in gravimetric water
content and volumetric water content relative to MFT mixes,
PMM, and OS.
Field capacity had a positive relationship with high
proportions of MFT and addition of PMM and a negative
relationship with OS. Greater concentrations of organic matter
increased field capacity, whereas greater amounts of OS decreased
field capacity. There was greater variability among MFT
mixes in properties that could affect plant growth. Hydraulic
conductivity, combined with water retention, provides valuable
insight into the drainage and physical stability behavior of each
substrate. Therefore, treatments with smaller proportions of
MFT or PMM had greater drainage and poor physical stability
due to fine texture and organic matter content
Chemical and physical MFT properties affect plant growth.
Mature fine tailings had high concentrations of sulfate with
alkaline pH (Marschner, 2012). This interaction, combined with
high hydrocarbon concentration and exchangeable ions, could
change nutrient availability, affecting plant growth (Marschner,
2012). Physical differences in MFT substrates affect water and

Table 5. Mean properties of dry mature fine tailings treatments at the end of the experiment.
Bulk Hydraulic Field Wilting Water holding Gravimetric Volumetric
Treatments† Porosity
density conductivity capacity point capacity water content water content
Mg m-3 cm3 cm-3 1 × 10-05; m s-1 ———————— % ———————— ——— cm3 cm-3 ———
MFT (100) 1.18 (0.02)‡ 55.6 (0.71) 2.35 (0.26) 14.0 (0.9) 5.4 (1.00) 8.6 (1.2) 11.78bc (0.62) 10.14b (0.74)
MFT:OS (80:20) 1.24 (0.02) 53.3 (0.34) 0.66 (0.64) 11.8 (0.2) 4.4 (1.30) 7.4 (1.4) 9.85c (0.58) 9.30b (1.29)
MFT:OS (60:40) 1.29 (0.04) 54.5 (0.29) 0.50 (0.15) 12.1 (1.3) 4.7 (0.77) 7.3 (1.4) 10.92bc (0.50) 10.77b (0.56)
MFT:OS (40:60) 1.35 (0.02) 55.1 (1.59) 1.83 (0.28) 12.8 (2.8) 3.4 (0.98) 9.3 (1.8) 8.66c (0.85) 8.53b (0.96)
MFT:OS (20:80) 1.35 (0.05) 51.3 (0.15) 5.62 (0.97) 6.5 (0.6) 1.6 (0.17) 4.9 (0.5) 5.39d (0.55) 5.05c (0.83)
MFT:OS:PMM (80:15:5) 1.21 (0.01) 51.7 (0.31) 3.97 (0.10) 15.1 (0.8) 6.7 (1.25) 8.3 (1.4) 13.68b (0.54) 12.81ab 90.66)
MFT:OS:PMM (80:10:10) 1.19 (0.03) 49.2 (0.11) 9.14 (0.31) 13.7 (1.8) 5.4 (1.15) 8.2 (2.5) 11.10bc (0.85) 9.45b (1.13)
MFT:OS:PMM (60:25:15) 1.28 (0.01) 53.7 (0.13) 2.54 (0.79) 11.8 (1.0) 4.9 (0.95) 6.8 (1.9) 9.13c (0.70) 7.23b (0.86)
MFT:OS:PMM (40:30:30) 1.23 (0.05) 48.9 (0.33) 3.56 (0.72) 17.9 (2.6) 6.4 (1.32) 11.5 (3.8) 10.97bc (0.79) 8.51b (0.62)
PMM (100) 102.6 (4.0) 38.6 (1.41) 64.0 (2.8) 38.12a (0.32) 17.33a (0.93)
OS (100) 1.45e (0.08) 1.36d (0.10)
† MFT, mature fine tailings; OS, overburden sand; PMM, peat mineral soil mix.
‡ Values are mean (±SE) (n = 165). Different letters within columns indicate significant differences at p < 0.05. Values within the first six columns with no
letters, excluding PMM, were not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05.

Journal of Environmental Quality

oxygen content and water movement and therefore produce
reduction in water infiltration and roots and shoots biomass.
Reclamation Applications
Using waste materials from the oil sands industry, such
as mature fine tailings, as a reclamation substrate could help
to reduce the volume of MFT and other tailings in tailings
ponds. The use of dry MFT as a substrate could also reduce the
amount of capping material required. Results from this study
show that capping, amendments, and fertilizer may improve
the reclamation potential of MFT. The best treatments for
plant growth were those with ≤60% MFT, and the best mix was
MFT:OS:PMM (40:30:30), which showed promise for use of
MFT as a reclamation substrate and should be assessed with
more research, particularly in the field.
Mixed substrates with a balance of particle sizes may be the
best substrate for plant growth. After amending the MFT with
PMM, even OS could dilute the hydrocarbons and salts, which
appear to be a main limiting factor for plant growth and health.
Amendment could address some physical limitations of the
MFT by improving hydraulic conductivity and drainage and
thus nutrient and water retention. Capping MFT with LFH
or PMM can improve plant growth, particularly during early
stages of emergence, and development through enhanced water
retention and soil chemistry. Fertilizer is necessary for nutrient
provision before organic matter decomposition and nutrient
cycling.
This study confirmed the reclamation potential of E.
trachycaulus, which performed the best in MFT treatments.
Therefore, this plant species may be the main candidate for field
revegetation research. Agrostis scabra performed poorly and
should not be considered for field research with dry MFT.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by Suncor Energy Inc. and an MSc scholarship
from the Chilean National Council of Science and Technology
(CONICYT).
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