Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Euclidean Plane and Its Relatives: A Minimalistic Introduction
Euclidean Plane and Its Relatives: A Minimalistic Introduction
Anton Petrunin
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of
this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
http://www.createspace.com/4122116
ISBN-13: 978-1481918473
ISBN-10: 1481918478
Contents
Introduction 6
Prerequisite. Overview.
1 Preliminaries 9
What is the axiomatic approach? What is a model? Met-
ric spaces. Examples. Shortcut for distance. Isometries,
motions and lines. Half-lines and segments. Angles. Reals
modulo 2·π. Continuity. Congruent triangles.
Euclidean geometry
2 The Axioms 20
The Axioms. Lines and half-lines. Zero angle. Straight
angle. Vertical angles.
3 Half-planes 25
Sign of angle. Intermediate value theorem. Same sign lem-
mas. Half-planes. Triangle with the given sides.
4 Congruent triangles 32
Side-angle-side condition. Angle-side-angle condition.
Isosceles triangles. Side-side-side condition.
5 Perpendicular lines 36
Right, acute and obtuse angles. Perpendicular bisector.
Uniqueness of perpendicular. Reflection. Perpendicular is
shortest. Angle bisectors. Circles. Geometric construc-
tions.
3
4 CONTENTS
7 Triangle geometry 55
Circumcircle and circumcenter. Altitudes and orthocenter.
Medians and centroid. Bisector of triangle. Incenter.
Inversive geometry
8 Inscribed angles 60
Angle between a tangent line and a chord. Inscribed angle.
Inscribed quadrilaterals. Arcs.
9 Inversion 67
Cross-ratio. Inversive plane and circlines. Ptolemy’s iden-
tity. Perpendicular circles. Angles after inversion.
Non-Euclidean geometry
10 Absolute plane 77
Two angles of triangle. Three angles of triangle. How to
prove that something can not be proved? Curvature.
11 Hyperbolic plane 86
Conformal disk model. The plan. Auxiliary statements.
Axioms: I, II, III, IV, h-V.
12 Geometry of h-plane 97
Angle of parallelism. Inradius of triangle. Circles, horo-
cycles and equidistants. Hyperbolic triangles. Conformal
interpretation.
Incidence geometry
Additional topics
19 Area 152
Solid triangles. Polygonal sets. Definition of area. Vanish-
ing area and subdivisions. Area of solid rectangles, paral-
lelograms and triangles. Area method. Area in absolute
planes and spheres.
Index 163
Prerequisite
The students has to be familiar with the following topics.
⋄ Elementary set theory: ∈, ∪, ∩, \, ⊂, ×.
⋄ Real numbers: intervals, inequalities, algebraic identities.
⋄ Limits, continuous functions and Intermediate value theorem.
⋄ Standard functions: absolute value, natural logarithm, expo-
nent. Occasionally, trigonometric functions are used, but these
parts can be ignored.
⋄ Chapter 13 use matrix algebra of 2×2-matrices.
⋄ To read Chapter 15, it is better to have some previous experience
with scalar product, also known as dot product.
⋄ To read Chapter 17, it is better to have some previous experience
with complex numbers.
6
CONTENTS 7
Overview
We use so called metric approach introduced by Birkhoff. It means
that we define Euclidean plane as a metric space which satisfies a
list of properties. This way we minimize the tedious parts which are
unavoidable in the more classical Hilbert’s approach. At the same time
the students have chance to learn basic geometry of metric spaces.
In the Chapter 1 we give all definitions necessary to formulate the
axioms; it includes metric space, lines, angle measure, continuous maps
and congruent triangles.
Euclidean geometry is discussed in the chapters 2–7. In the Chap-
ter 2, we formulate the axioms and prove immediate corollaries. In
the chapters 3–6 we develop Euclidean geometry to a dissent level. In
Chapter 7 we give the most classical theorem of triangle geometry;
this chapter included mainly as an illustration.
In the chapters 8–9 we discuss geometry of circles on the Euclidean
plane. These two chapters will be used in the construction of the model
of hyperbolic plane.
In the chapters 10–12 we discuss non-Euclidean geometry. In Chap-
ter 10, we introduce the axioms of absolute geometry. In Chapter 11
we describe so called conforlal disc model. This is a construction of
hyperbolic plane, an example of absolute plane which is not Euclidean.
In the Chapter 12 we discuss geometry of the constructed hyperbolic
plane.
Chapters 13 and 14 discuss so called incidence geometry, it includes
affine and projective geometries.
The last few chapters contain additional topics: Spherical geome-
try, Projective model, Complex coordinates, Geometric constructions
and Area. The proofs in these chapters are not completely rigorous.
Disclaimer
I am not doing history. It is impossible to find the original reference
to most of the theorems discussed here, so I do not even try. Most
of the proofs discussed in the book appeared already in the Euclid’s
Elements and the Elements are not the original source anyway.
Recommended books
⋄ Kiselev’s textbook [5] — a classical book for school students.
Should help if you have trouble to follow my book.
⋄ Moise’s book, [10] — should be good for further study.
8 CONTENTS
Acknowlegments.
I would like to thank Matthew Chao for thoughtful reading and cor-
recting dozens of mistakes.
Chapter 1
Preliminaries
9
10 CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARIES
What is a model?
Euclidean plane can be defined rigorously the following way.
Define a point in the Euclidean plane is a pair of real numbers
(x, y) and define the distance between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
by the following formula.
p
(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 ).
Metric spaces
The notion of metric space provides a rigorous way to say “we can
measure distances between points”. That is, instead of (i) on page 9,
we can say “Euclidean plane is a metric space”.
1.1. Definition. Let X be a nonempty set and d be a function which
returns a real number d(A, B) for any pair A, B ∈ X . Then d is
called metric on X if for any A, B, C ∈ X , the following conditions
are satisfied.
(a) Positiveness:
d(A, B) > 0.
(b) A = B if and only if
d(A, B) = 0.
(c) Symmetry:
d(A, B) = d(B, A).
(d) Triangle inequality:
Examples
⋄ Discrete metric. Let X be an arbitrary set. For any A, B ∈ X ,
set d(A, B) = 0 if A = B and d(A, B) = 1 otherwise. The metric
d is called discrete metric on X .
⋄ Real line. Set of all real numbers (R) with metric defined as
def
d(A, B) == |A − B|.
AB or dX (A, B);
12 CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARIES
the later is used only if we need to emphasize that A and B are points
of the metric space X .
For example, the triangle inequality can be written as
AC 6 AB + BC.
for any A, B ∈ X .
A bijective distance-preserving map is called an isometry.
Two metric spaces are called isometric if there exists an isometry
from one to the other.
The isometry from a metric space to itself is also called motion of
the space.
1.10. Exercise. How many points M on the line (AB) for which we
have
1. AM = M B ?
2. AM = 2·M B ?
Angles
Our next goal is to introduce angles and angle measures; after that
the statement “we can measure angles” will become rigorous; see (iii)
on page 9.
An ordered pair of half-lines which B
start at the same point is called angle.
An angle formed by two half-lines [OA)
and [OB) will be denoted as ∠AOB. In
this case the point O is called vertex of
the angle. α
O A
Intuitively, the angle measure tells
how much one has to rotate the first half-
line counterclockwise so it gets the position of the second half-line of
the angle. The full turn is assumed to be 2·π; it corresponds to the
angle measure in radians.
The angle measure of ∠AOB is denoted as ∡AOB; it is a real
number in the interval (−π, π]. The notations ∠AOB and ∡AOB
look similar, they also have close but different meanings, which better
not to be confused. For example, the equality
∠AOB = ∠A′ O′ B ′
∡AOB = ∡A′ O′ B ′
means only equality of two real numbers; in this case O may be distinct
from O′ .
Here is the first property of angle measure which will become a
part of the axiom.
Given a half-line [OA) and α ∈ (−π, π] there is unique half-line
[OB) such that ∡AOB = α.
15
For example
1
−π ≡ π ≡ 3·π and 2 ·π ≡ − 23 ·π.
then
for any integer n. But “≡” does not in general respect multiplication
by non-integer numbers; for example
1
π ≡ −π but 2 ·π 6≡ − 12 ·π.
Continuity
The angle measure is also assumed to be continuous. Namely, the
following property of angle measure which will become a part of the
axiom.
The function
∡ : (A, O, B) 7→ ∡AOB
is continuous at any triple of points (A, O, B) such that O 6= A and
O 6= B and ∡AOB 6= π.
To explain this property we need to extend the notion of continuity
to the functions between metric spaces. The definition is a straight-
forward generalization of the standard definition for the real-to-real
functions.
Further X and Y be two metric spaces and dX , dY be their metrics.
A map f : X → Y is called continuous at point A ∈ X if for any
ε > 0 there is δ > 0 such that if dX (A, A′ ) < δ then
The same way one may define a continuous map of several variables.
Say, assume f (A, B, C) is a function which returns a point in the space
Y for a triple of points (A, B, C) in the space X . The map f might be
defined only for some triples in X .
Assume f (A, B, C) is defined. Then we say that f continuous at
the triple (A, B, C) if for any ε > 0 there is δ > 0 such that
Congruent triangles
Our next goal is to give a rigorous meaning for (iv) on page 9. To
do this, we introduce the notion of congruent triangles so instead of
“if we rotate or shift we will not see the difference” we say that for
triangles side-angle-side congruence holds; that is, if two triangles are
congruent if they have two pairs of equal sides and the same angle
measure between these sides.
An ordered triple of distinct points in a metric space X , say A, B, C
is called triangle and denoted as △ABC. So the triangles △ABC and
△ACB are considered as different.
Two triangles △A′ B ′ C ′ and △ABC are called congruent (briefly
△A′ B ′ C ′ ∼
= △ABC) if there is a motion f : X → X such that
△A′′ B ′′ C ′′ ∼
= △ABC.
∼ △ABC then AB = A′ B ′ , BC = B ′ C ′
Note that if △A′ B ′ C ′ =
′ ′
and CA = C A .
For discrete metric, as well some other metric spaces the converse
also holds. The following example shows that it does not hold in the
Manhattan plane.
Example. Consider three points A = (0, 1), B = (1, 0) and C =
= (−1, 0) on the Manhattan plane (R2 , d1 ). Note that
On one hand A
△ABC ∼
= △ACB.
△ABC ≇ △BCA.
1M 1
is a midpoint of A and B if d1 (A, M ) = d1 (B, M ) = ·d (A, B).
2 1
19
Chapter 2
The Axioms
The Axioms
Summarizing the above discussion, let us give an axiomatic system of
the Euclidean plane.
20
21
B ′ ∈ [AB), C ′ ∈ [AC)
AB ′ = k·AB, AC ′ = k·AC
then
This set of axioms is very close to the one given by Birkhoff in [3].
From now on, we can use no information about Euclidean plane
which does not follow from the five axioms above.
[OA) = [OA′ ).
Zero angle
2.4. Proposition. ∡AOA = 0 for any A 6= O.
∡AOB ≡ −∡BOA.
Straight angle
If ∡AOB = π, we say that ∠AOB is a straight angle. Note that by
Proposition 2.6, if ∠AOB is a straight angle then so is ∠BOA.
We say that point O lies between points A and B if O 6= A, O 6= B
and O ∈ [AB].
2.7. Theorem. The angle ∠AOB is straight if and only if O lies
between A and B.
△AOB ∼
= △BOA′ .
23
2.9. Exercise. Show that three distinct points A, O and B lie on one
line if and only if
2·∡AOB ≡ 0.
2·∡AOB ≡ 2·∡AOC.
Vertical angles
A pair of angles ∠AOB and ∠A′ OB ′ is called vertical if the point O
lies between A and A′ and between B and B ′ at the same time.
2.11. Proposition. The vertical angles have equal measures.
24 CHAPTER 2. THE AXIOMS
Proof. Assume that the angles ∠AOB and ∠A′ OB ′ are vertical.
Note that the angles ∠AOA′ and ∠BOB ′ are straight. Therefore
∡AOA′ = ∡BOB ′ = π.
It follows that
A′
B 0 = ∡AOA′ − ∡BOB ′ ≡
≡ ∡AOB + ∡BOA′ − ∡BOA′ − ∡A′ OB ′ ≡
O
B′ ≡ ∡AOB − ∡A′ OB ′ .
A
Hence the result follows.
Half-planes
Sign of angle
⋄ The angle ∠AOB is called positive if 0 < ∡AOB < π;
⋄ The angle ∠AOB is called negative if ∡AOB < 0.
Note that according to the above definitions the straight angle as
well as zero angle are neither positive nor negative.
3.1. Exercise. Show that ∠AOB is positive if and only if ∠BOA is
negative.
3.3. Exercise. Assume that the angles ∠AOB and ∠BOC are posi-
tive. Show that
if ∠COA is negative.
25
26 CHAPTER 3. HALF-PLANES
P Qt = (1 − t)·P Q + t·P Q′ .
Q Q′ P Q0 = Q, Q1 = Q′
3.7. Lemma. Assume [XY ] does not intersect (P Q) then the angles
∠P QX and ∠P QY have the same sign.
The proof is nearly identical to the one
above. X
Half-planes
3.8. Proposition. The complement of a line (P Q) in the plane can
be presented in the unique way as a union of two disjoint subsets called
half-planes such that
(a) Two points X, Y ∈ / (P Q) lie in the same half-plane if and only
if the angles ∠P QX and ∠P QY have the same sign.
(b) Two points X, Y ∈ / (P Q) lie in the same half-plane if and only
if [XY ] does not intersect (P Q).
Further we say that X and Y lie on one side from (P Q) if they lie
in one of the half-planes of (P Q) and we say that P and Q lie on the
opposite sides from ℓ if they lie in the different half-planes of ℓ.
Proof. Let us denote by H+ (correspondingly
H− ) the set of points X in the plane such
that ∠P QX is positive (correspondingly neg-
ative).
According to Theorem 2.7, X ∈ / (P Q) if
H+
and only if ∡P QX 6= 0 nor π. Therefore H+
and H− give the unique subdivision of the
Q H− P
complement of (P Q) which satisfies property
(a).
Now let us prove that the this subdivision depends only on the
line (P Q); that is, if (P ′ Q′ ) = (P Q) and X, Y ∈
/ (P Q) then the
angles ∠P QX and ∠P QY have the same sign if and only if the angles
∠P ′ Q′ X and ∠P ′ Q′ Y have the same sign.
28 CHAPTER 3. HALF-PLANES
∡ZAC + ∡CAB ≡ π.
B A Z
Therefore ∠CAB has the same sign as ∠ZAC
which in turn has the same sign as ∡ABC = ∡ZBC.
Repeating the same argument for ∠BCA and ∠CAB, we get the
result.
X C
B′
A′
Y
Q P A B
29
3.14. Exercise. Assume that the points X and Y lie on the oppo-
site sides from the line (P Q). Show that the half-line [P X) does not
interests [QY ).
can serve as the angle measure; that is, the axioms hold if one changes
everywhere ∡ to ∡.˜
Show that ∡ and ∡ ˜ are the only possible angle measures on the
plane.
Show that without Axiom IIIc, this is not longer true.
a 6 b 6 c.
Then all three triangle inequalities for △ABC hold if and only if
c 6 a + b.
3.18. Corollary. Fix a real number r > 0 and two distinct points A
and B. Then for any real number β ∈ [0, π], there is unique point Cβ
such that BCβ = r and ∡ABCβ = β. Moreover, the map β 7→ Cβ is
a continuous map from [0, π] to the plane.
Congruent triangles
Side-angle-side condition
Our next goal is to give conditions which guarantee congruence of two
triangles. One of such conditions is Axiom IV, it is also called side-
angle-side congruence condition or briefly SAS congruence condition.
Angle-side-angle condition
△ABC ∼
= △A′ B ′ C ′ .
Note that for degenerate triangles the statement does not hold, say
consider one triangle with sides 1, 4, 5 and the other with sides 2, 3, 5.
Proof. According to Theorem 3.11, either
B′
∡ABC ≡ ∡A′ B ′ C ′ ,
➊
∡CAB ≡ ∡C ′ A′ B ′
or
∡ABC ≡ −∡A′ B ′ C ′ ,
➋
A′ C ′ C ′′ ∡CAB ≡ −∡C ′ A′ B ′ .
32
33
Isosceles triangles
A triangle with two equal sides is called isosceles; the remaining side
is called base of isosceles triangle.
4.2. Theorem. Assume △ABC is an isosceles triangle with the base
[AB]. Then
∡ABC ≡ −∡BAC.
Moreover, the converse holds if △ABC is nondegenerate.
The following proof is due to Pappus of C
Alexandria.
Proof. Note that
∡CAB ≡ −∡CBA.
Side-side-side condition
4.4. SSS condition. △ABC ∼
= △A′ B ′ C ′ if
△A′ B ′ C ′′ ∼
= △ABC.
∡A′ C ′′ C ′ ≡ −∡A′ C ′ C ′′ ,
∡C ′ C ′′ B ′ ≡ −∡C ′′ C ′ B ′ .
By addition
∡A′ C ′ B ′ ≡ −∡A′ C ′′ B ′ .
Applying Axiom IV again, we get ➌.
C
4.5. Advanced exercise. Let M be the
midpoint of side [AB] of a triangle △ABC
and M ′ be the midpoint of side [A′ B ′ ] of
B′ A′ a triangle △A′ B ′ C ′ . Assume C ′ A′ = CA,
C ′ B ′ = CB and C ′ M ′ = CM . Prove that
△A′ B ′ C ′ ∼
= △ABC.
A B
4.6. Exercise. Let △ABC be an isosceles
triangle with the base [AB] and the points A′ ∈
[BC] and B ∈ [AC] be such that CA′ = CB ′ . Show that
′
Show that f is the identity; that is, f (X) = X for any point X on
the plane.
Chapter 5
Perpendicular lines
Perpendicular bisector
Assume M is the midpoint of the segment [AB]; that is, M ∈ (AB)
and AM = M B.
The line ℓ passing through M and perpendicular to (AB) is called
perpendicular bisector to the segment [AB].
5.2. Theorem. Given distinct points A and B, all points equidistant
from A and B and no others lie on the perpendicular bisector to [AB].
36
37
∡AM P ≡ ±∡BM P.
Uniqueness of perpendicular
5.5. Theorem. There is one and only one line which pass through a
given point P and perpendicular to a given line ℓ.
According to the above theorem, there
is unique point Q ∈ ℓ such that (QP ) ⊥ ℓ. P
This point Q is called foot point of P on ℓ.
Proof. If P ∈ ℓ then both, existence and
uniqueness, follow from Axiom III. A B
ℓ
Existence for P 6∈ ℓ. Let A, B be two dis-
tinct points of ℓ. Choose P ′ so that AP ′ =
= AP and ∡P ′ AB ≡ −∡P AB. According
to Axiom IV, △AP ′ B ∼ = △AP B. Therefore P′
AP = AP ′ and BP = BP ′ .
38 CHAPTER 5. PERPENDICULAR LINES
m
the perpendicular bisector to [P P ′ ]. Q Q′
Assume m ⊥ ℓ and m ∋ P . Then m ℓ
a perpendicular bisector to some segment
[QQ′ ] of ℓ; in particular, P Q = P Q′ .
Since ℓ is perpendicular bisector to P′
[P P ′ ], we get P Q = P ′ Q and P Q′ = P ′ Q′ . Therefore
P ′ Q = P Q = P Q′ = P ′ Q′ .
Reflection
Assume a point P and a line (AB) are given. To find the reflection
P ′ of P in (AB), one drops a perpendicular from P onto (AB), and
continues it to the same distance on the other side.
According to Theorem 5.5, P ′ is uniquely determined by P .
Note that P = P ′ if and only if P ∈ (AB).
P′ ∡BAP ′ ≡ −∡BAP.
39
∡Q′ P ′ R′ ≡ −∡QP R.
∡AP ′ R′ ≡ −∡AP R.
∡Q′ P ′ R′ ≡ −∡QP R.
5.8. Exercise. Show that any motion of the plane can be presented
as a composition of at most three reflections.
Applying the exercise above and Corollary 5.7, we can divide the
motions of the plane in two types, direct and indirect motions. The
motion m is direct if
∡Q′ P ′ R′ = ∡QP R
for any △P QR and P ′ = m(P ), Q′ = m(Q) and R′ = m(R); if instead
we have
∡Q′ P ′ R′ ≡ −∡QP R
for any △P QR then the motion m is called indirect.
5.9. Exercise. Let X and Y be the reflections of P through the lines
(AB) and (BC) correspondingly. Show that
∡XBY ≡ 2·∡ABC.
40 CHAPTER 5. PERPENDICULAR LINES
Perpendicular is shortest
5.10. Lemma. Assume Q is the foot point of P on line ℓ. Then
PX > PQ
P X = P ′ X and P Q = P ′ Q = 12 ·P P ′
ℓ Q X
Note that ℓ meets [P P ′ ] at the point Q only. There-
fore by the triangle inequality and Exercise 4.7,
P X + P ′X > P P ′.
P′
Hence the result follows.
BC > AB.
Angle bisectors
If ∡ABX ≡ −∡CBX then we say that line (BX) bisects angle ∠ABC,
or line (BX) is the bisector of ∠ABC. If ∡ABX ≡ π − ∡CBX then
the line (BX) is called external bisector of ∠ABC.
Note that bisector and external bisector are uniquely defined by
the angle.
Note that if ∡ABA′ = π; that is, if
exte tor
C
bise
or
∡XBA + ∡XBC ≡ π.
Hence the result follows.
42 CHAPTER 5. PERPENDICULAR LINES
Circles
Given a positive real number r and a point O, the set Γ of all points
on distant r from O is called circle with radius r and center O.
We say that a point P lies inside Γ if OP < r and if OP > r, we
say that P lies outside Γ.
5.14. Exercise. Let Γ be a circle and P ∈ / Γ. Assume a line ℓ is
passing through the point P intersects Γ at two distinct points X and
Y . Show that P is inside Γ if and only if P lies between X and Y .
A segment between two points on Γ is called chord of Γ. A chord
passing through the center is called diameter.
5.15. Exercise. Assume two distinct circles Γ and Γ′ have a common
chord [AB]. Show that the line between centers of Γ and Γ′ forms a
perpendicular bisector to [AB].
5.16. Lemma. A line and a circle can have at most two points of
intersection.
m
ℓ
A B C
5.17. Exercise. Show that two distinct circles can have at most two
points of intersection.
In consequence of the above lemma, a line ℓ and a circle Γ might
have 2, 1 or 0 points of intersections. In the first case the line is called
secant line, in the second case it is tangent line; if P is the only point
of intersection of ℓ and Γ, we say that ℓ is tangent to Γ at P .
Similarly, according Exercise 5.17, two circles might have 2, 1 or 0
points of intersections. If P is the only point of intersection of circles
Γ and Γ′ , we say that Γ is tangent to Γ at P .
43
OO′ = r + r′ or OO′ = |r − r′ |.
|r − r′ | 6 OO′ 6 r + r′ .
Geometric constructions
The ruler-and-compass constructions in the plane is the construction
of points, lines, and circles using only an idealized ruler and compass.
These construction problems provide a valuable source of exercises in
geometry which we will use further in the book. In addition, Chap-
ter 18 is devoted completely to the subject.
The idealized ruler can be used only to draw a line through given
two points. The idealized compass can be used only to draw a circle
with given center and radius. That is, given three points A, B and
O we can draw the set of all points on distant AB from O. We may
also mark new points in the plane as well as on the constructed lines,
circles and their intersections (assuming that such points exist).
44 CHAPTER 5. PERPENDICULAR LINES
Construction.
1. Construct the circle with center at A
which is passing through B.
P 2. Construct the circle with center at B
A which is passing through A.
M 3. Mark both points of intersection of these
circles, label them by P and Q.
4. Draw the line (P Q).
B 5. Mark the point of intersection of (P Q)
Q and [AB]; this is the midpoint.
Typically, you need to proof that the con-
struction produce what was expected. Here is
a proof for the example above.
Proof. According to Theorem 5.2, (P Q) is the perpendicular bisector
to [AB]. Therefore M = (AB) ∩ (P Q) is the midpoint of [AB].
Parallel lines
In consequence of Axiom II, any two distinct lines ℓ and m have either
one point in common or none. In the first case they are intersecting;
in the second case, ℓ and m are said to be parallel (briefly ℓ k m); in
addition, a line is always regarded as parallel to itself.
6.1. Proposition. Let ℓ, m and n be the lines in the plane. Assume
that n ⊥ m and m ⊥ ℓ. Then ℓ k n.
45
46 CHAPTER 6. PARALLEL LINES AND SIMILAR TRIANGLES
D ℓ Z
Choose Z ∈ [P Q) such that
PZ PD
= .
PQ PR
Then by Axiom V, (ZD) ⊥ (P D); that is, Z ∈ ℓ ∩ s, a contradiction.
Similar triangles
Two triangles △A′ B ′ C ′ and △ABC are similar (briefly △A′ B ′ C ′ ∼
∼ △ABC) if their sides are proportional, that is,
➊ A′ B ′ = k·AB, B ′ C ′ = k·BC and C ′ A′ = k·CA
47
Remarks.
⋄ According to 3.11, in the above three equalities the signs can be
assumed to me the same.
⋄ If △A′ B ′ C ′ ∼ △ABC with k = 1 in ➊, then △A′ B ′ C ′ ∼ =
∼
= △ABC.
⋄ Note that “∼” is an equivalence relation. That is,
(i) △ABC ∼ △ABC for any △ABC.
(ii) If △A′ B ′ C ′ ∼ △ABC then
△ABC ∼ △A′ B ′ C ′
△A′′ B ′′ C ′′ ∼ △ABC.
AB = k·A′ B ′ , AC = k·A′ C ′
Pythagorean theorem
A triangle is called right if one of its angles is right. The side opposite
the right angle is called the hypotenuse. The sides adjacent to the
right angle are called legs.
6.10. Theorem. Assume △ABC is a right triangle in the Euclidean
plane with right angle at C. Then
AC 2 + BC 2 = AB 2 .
and
➌ AD + BD = AB.
In particular
AD AC BD BC
➍ = and = .
AC AB BC BA
Let us rewrite identities ➍ on an other way:
AC 2 + BC 2 = AB·(AD + BD) = AB 2 .
Angles of triangle
Proof. First note that if △ABC is degenerate then the equality follows
from Lemma 2.7. Further we assume that △ABC is nondegenerate.
50 CHAPTER 6. PARALLEL LINES AND SIMILAR TRIANGLES
C Set
γ α = ∡CAB,
L K β = ∡ABC,
±γ γ = ∡BCA.
α β α β
A M B We need to prove that
➎ α + β + γ ≡ π.
and
It remains to show that we can not have “−” in ➏. In this case the
same argument as above gives
α + β − γ ≡ π.
2·α ≡ 0.
A
6.14. Exercise. Let △ABC be a non-
degenerate triangle. Assume there is a
point D ∈ [BC] such that (AD) bisects
∠BAC and BA = AD = DC. Find the
angles of △ABC.
Transversal property
If a line t intersects each line ℓ and m at one point then we say that
t is a transversal to ℓ and m. On the diagram below, line (CB) is a
transversal to (AB) and (CD).
➐ 2·(∡ABC + ∡BCD) ≡ 0.
Equivalently
in the first case A and D lie on the opposite sides of (BC), in the
second case A and D lie on the same sides of (BC).
52 CHAPTER 6. PARALLEL LINES AND SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Parallelograms
A quadrilateral is an ordered quadruple of distinct points in the plane.
A quadrilateral formed by quadruple (A, B, C, D) will be denoted as
ABCD.
Given a quadrilateral ABCD, the four segments [AB], [BC],
[CD] and [DA] are called sides of ABCD; the remaining two seg-
ments [AC] and [BD] are called diagonals of ABCD.
6.21. Exercise. Show for any quadrilateral ABCD in the Eu-
clidean plane we have
Proof. Since (AB) k (CD), the points C and D lie on the same side
from (AB). Whence ∠ABD and ∠ABC have the same sign.
Analogously, ∠CBD and ∠CBA have the
same sign. B A
Since ∡ABC ≡ −∡CBA, we get that the
angles ∠DBA and ∠DBC have opposite signs;
that is, A and C lie on the opposite sides of
(BD).
According to Transversal property (6.18),
AB = CD = BC = DA.
Method of coordinates
The following exercise is important; it shows that our axiomatic defi-
nition agrees with the model definition described on page 11.
54 CHAPTER 6. PARALLEL LINES AND SIMILAR TRIANGLES
0 < a 6 b 6 c 6 a + c,
Triangle geometry
55
56 CHAPTER 7. TRIANGLE GEOMETRY
∡B ′ A′ M = ∡BAM.
∡A′ B ′ M = ∡ABM. M
A′ M B′M 1
= = .
AM BM 2
B′M 1
= .
BM 2
Repeating the same argument for vertices B and C we get that all
medians [CC ′ ] and [BB ′ ] intersect in M .
Bisector of triangle
7.7. Lemma. Let △ABC be a nondegenerate triangle in the Eu-
clidean plane. Assume that the bisector of ∠BAC intersects [BC] at
the point D. Then
AB DB
➊ = .
AC DC
A
Proof. Let ℓ be the line through C parallel to
(AB). Note that ℓ ∦ (AD); set E = ℓ ∩ (AD).
Note that B and C lie on the opposite sides of
C B (AD). Therefore by Transversal property (6.18),
D
➋ ∡BAD = ∡CED.
∡ADB = ∡EDC.
7.8. Exercise. Prove an analog of Lemma 7.7 for the external bisec-
tor.
Incenter
7.9. Theorem. The angle bisectors of any nondegenerate triangle
intersect at one point.
The point of intersection of bisectors is called incenter ; it is usually
denoted as I. The point I lies on the same distance from each side, it
is the center of a circle tangent to each side of triangle. This circle is
called incircle and its radius is called inradius of the triangle.
59
More exercises
7.10. Exercise. Assume that bisector at one vertex of a nondegener-
ate triangle bisects the opposite side. Show that the triangle is isosce-
les.
Inscribed angles
➊ 2·∡QXY ≡ ∡XOY.
Equivalently,
∡QXY + ∡Y XO ≡ ± π2 .
Therefore
60
61
Inscribed angle
P
We say that triangle is inscribed in the
circle Γ if all its vertices lie on Γ.
8.2. Theorem. Let Γ be a circle with
center O in the Euclidean plane, and O
X, Y be two distinct points on Γ. Then X
△XP Y is inscribed in Γ if and only if
➋ 2·∡XP Y ≡ ∡XOY.
Equivalently, if and only if
Y
∡XP Y ≡ 21 ·∡XOY or ∡XP Y ≡ 21 ·∡XOY + π.
XY ′ ·ZX ′ ·Y Z ′ = X ′ Y ·Z ′ X ·Y ′ Z.
Inscribed quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral ABCD is called inscribed if all the points A, B, C
and D lie on a circle or a line.
8.11. Theorem. A quadrilateral ABCD in the Euclidean plane is
inscribed if and only if
➌ 2·∡ABC + 2·∡CDA ≡ 0.
2·∡CDA ≡ 0
➍ 2·∡ABC ≡ ∡AOC.
➎ 2·∡CDA ≡ ∡COA.
Arcs
A subset of a circle bounded by two points is called a circle arc.
More precisely, let Γ be a circle and A, B, C be distinct points on
Γ. The subset which includes the points A, C as well as all the points
on Γ which lie with B on the same side from (AC) is called circle arc
ABC.
For the circle arc ABC, the points A
A and C are called endpoints. Note that
there are two circle arcs of Γ with the
given endpoints.
B X A half-line [AX) is called tangent to
Γ arc ABC at A if the line (AX) is tangent
to Γ and the points X and B lie on the
C
same side from the line (AC).
If B lies on the line (AC), the arc
ABC degenerates to one of two following a subsets of line (AC).
⋄ If B lies between A and C then we define the arc ABC as the
segment [AC]. In this case the half-line [AC) is tangent to the
arc ABC at A.
⋄ If B ∈ (AC)\[AC] then we define the arc ABC as the line (AC)
without all the points between A and C. If we choose points X
and Y ∈ (AC) such that the points X, A, C and Y appear in
the same order on the line then the arc ABC is formed by two
half-lines in [AX) and [CY ). The half-line [AX) is tangent to
the arc ABC at A.
⋄ In addition, any half-line [AB) will be regarded as an arc. This
degenerate arc has only one end point A and it assumed to be
tangent to itself at A.
The circle arcs together with the degenerate arcs will be called
arcs.
65
∡ADC = ∡ABC
or D coincides with A or C.
By Exercise 3.12, the first identity holds then B and D lie on one
side of (AC); that is, D belongs to the arc ABC. If the second identity
holds then the points B and D lie on the opposite sides from (AC), in
this case D does not belong to the arc ABC.
∡ABC + ∡CAX ≡ π.
2·∡ABC + 2·∡CAX ≡ 0.
Therefore either
Inversion
67
68 CHAPTER 9. INVERSION
OA·OA′ = OB·OB ′ = r2 .
B′
Therefore
OA OB
= .
O OB ′ OA′
A′ A Clearly
The converse to the above exercise also holds. Namely, given pos-
itive real number k 6= 1 and two distinct points P and P ′ in the
Euclidean plane the locus of points X such that PP′X X = k forms a
circle which is called circle of Apollonius. In this case P ′ is inverse of
P in the circle of Apollonius.
9.4. Exercise. Let A′ , B ′ , C ′ be the images of A, B, C under in-
version in the incircle of △ABC. Show that the incenter of △ABC is
the orthocenter of △A′ B ′ C ′ .
Cross-ratio
The following theorem gives some quantities expressed in distances or
angles which do not change after inversion.
9.6. Theorem. Let ABCD and A′ B ′ C ′ D′ be two quadrilaterals
in the Euclidean plane such that the points A′ , B ′ , C ′ and D′ are
inversions of A, B, C, and D correspondingly.
Then
(a)
AB·CD A′ B ′ ·C ′ D′
= ′ ′ ′ ′.
BC ·DA B C ·D A
69
(b)
∡ABC + ∡CDA ≡ −(∡A′ B ′ C ′ + ∡C ′ D′ A′ ).
(c) If the quadrilateral ABCD is inscribed then so is A′ B ′ C ′ D′ .
Analogously,
BC OC CD OC DA OA
= , = , = .
B′C ′ OB ′ C ′ D′ OD′ D′ A′ OD′
Therefore
AB B ′ C ′ CD D′ A′ OA OB ′ OC OD′
· · · = · · · = 1.
A′ B ′ BC C ′ D′ DA OB ′ OC OD′ OA
Hence (a) follows.
(b). According to Lemma 9.2,
∞∈Γ ⇐⇒ O ∈ Γ′ .
9.10. Exercise. Show that for any pair of tangent circles in the inver-
sive plane there is an inversion which sends them to a pair of parallel
lines.
Ptolemy’s identity
Here is one application of inversion, which we include as an illustration
only; we will not use it further in the book.
9.12. Theorem. Let ABCD be an inscribed quadrilateral in the
Euclidean plane. Assume that the points A, B, C and D appear on
the circline in the same order. Then
Perpendicular circles
Assume two circles Γ and Ω intersect at two points say X and Y .
Let ℓ and m be the tangent lines at X to Γ and Ω correspondingly.
Analogously, ℓ′ and m′ be the tangent lines at Y to Γ and Ω.
From Exercise 8.18, we get that ℓ ⊥ m if and only if ℓ′ ⊥ m′ .
We say that circle Γ is perpendicular to circle Ω (briefly Γ ⊥ Ω)
if they intersect and the lines tangent to the circle at one point (and
therefore both points) of intersection are perpendicular.
Similarly, we say that circle Γ is perpendicular to a line ℓ (briefly
Γ ⊥ ℓ) if Γ ∩ ℓ 6= ∅ and ℓ perpendicular to the tangent lines to Γ at
one point (and therefore both points) of intersection. According to
Lemma 5.18, it happens only if the line ℓ pass through the center of
Γ.
Now we can talk about perpendicular circlines.
73
9.17. Corollary. Let P and Q be two distinct points inside the circle
Ω in the Euclidean plane. Then there is unique circline Γ perpendicular
to Ω which pass through P and Q.
9.22. Exercise. Assume you have two tools, first produce a circline
which pass through given three points and the second produces inversion
of given point in the given circle.
Assume that a point P does not lie on two circles Ω1 , Ω2 . Using
only the two tools above, construct a circline Γ which pass through P
and perpendicular to both Ω1 and Ω2 .
75
C2 B2
C2′ X2
B2′ A
Y2
A′ X1
B1′
Y1
C1′ B1
C1
∡Y1 A′ Y2 ≡ −(∡C1′ B1′ A′ + ∡A′ B2′ C1′ ) − (∡C1′ B2′ C2′ + ∡C2′ A′ C1′ ).
By Theorem 9.6(b),
Absolute plane
Let us remove Axiom V from our axiomatic system, see pages 20–21.
This way we define a new object called absolute plane or neutral plane.
(In the absolute plane, the Axiom V may or may not hold.)
Clearly any theorem in absolute geometry holds in Euclidean ge-
ometry. In other words, Euclidean plane is an example of absolute
plane. In the next chapter we will show that besides the Euclidean
plane there are other examples of absolute plane.
Many theorems in Euclidean geometry hold in absolute geometry.
In this book, the Axiom V was used for the first time in the proof of
uniqueness of parallel line in Theorem 6.2. Therefore all the statements
before Theorem 6.2 also hold in absolute geometry.
It makes all the discussed results about half-planes, signs of angles,
congruence conditions, perpendicular lines and reflections true in ab-
solute plane. If in the formulation of a statement above you do not
see words “Euclidean plane” or “inversive plane”, it means that the
statement holds in absolute plane and the same proof works.
Let us give an example of theorem in absolute geometry, which
admits a simpler proof in Euclidean geometry.
10.1. Theorem. Assume that triangles △ABC and △A′ B ′ C ′ have
right angles at C and C ′ correspondingly, AB = A′ B ′ and AC = A′ C ′ .
Then △ABC ∼ = △A′ B ′ C ′ .
77
78 CHAPTER 10. ABSOLUTE PLANE
Note that the Theorem 8.11 can not be applied in the above exer-
cise; it use Theorems 8.1 and 8.2; which in turns use Theorem 6.13.
Note that in the Euclidean plane, the above exercise follows from
ASA and the theorem on sum of angles of triangle (6.13). However,
Theorem 6.13 can not be used here since its proof use Axiom V. Later,
in theorem Theorem 12.5, we will show that Theorem 6.13 does not
hold in absolute plane.
10.7. Exercise. Assume that point D lies between the vertices A and
B of triangle △ABC in the absolute plane. Show that
CD < CA or CD < CB.
Note that
⋄ (CX) bisects ∠BCB ′
⋄ (CX) is the perpendicular bisector of [BB ′ ].
⋄ A and B lie on the same side from (CX) if and only if
From Exercise 5.3, A and B lie on the same side from (CX) if and
only if AB < AB ′ . Hence the result follows.
The following proof is due to Legendre [7], earlier proofs were due
to Saccheri [12] and Lambert [6].
Proof. Let △ABC be the given triangle. Set
△ABC = △A1 A0 C1 ∼
=
∼
= △A2 A1 C2 ∼
=
...
∼
= △An An−1 Cn .
➊ α + β + δ = π.
= △A2 C2 C3 ∼
△A1 C1 C2 ∼ = ... ∼
= △An−1 Cn−1 Cn .
n·c = A0 An 6
6 A0 C1 + C1 C2 + · · · + Cn−1 Cn + Cn An =
= a + (n − 1)·d + b.
In particular,
1
c6d+ n ·(a + b − d).
Since n is arbitrary positive integer, the later implies
c 6 d.
γ 6 δ.
Note that Theorem 10.9 sates that, defect of any triangle in ab-
solute plane has to be nonnegative. According to Theorem 6.13, any
triangle in Euclidean plane has zero defect.
82 CHAPTER 10. ABSOLUTE PLANE
Curvature
In a letter from 1824 Gauss writes:
The assumption that the sum of the three angles is less
than π leads to a curious geometry, quite different from
1 The oldest surviving letters were the Gauss letter to Gerling 1816 and yet more
for any spherical triangle △ABC. In other words, the sphere of radius
R has positive curvature k = R12 .
Chapter 11
Hyperbolic plane
86
87
11.3. Exercise. Show that h-segment [P Q]h coincides with the Eu-
clidean segment [P Q] if and only if the line (P Q) pass through the
center of the absolute.
The plan
We defined all the h-notions needed in the formulation of the axioms
I–IV and h-V. It remains to show that all these axioms hold; this will
be done by the end of this chapter.
89
Once we are done with the proofs, we get that the model provides
an example of absolute plane; in particular Exercise 11.5 can be proved
the same way as Theorem 5.5.
Most importantly we will prove the “if”-part of Theorem 10.12.
Indeed, any statement in hyperbolic geometry can be restated in
the Euclidean plane using the introduced h-notions. Therefore if the
system of axioms I–IV and h-V leads to a contradiction the so does
the system axioms I–V.
Auxiliary statements
11.6. Lemma. Consider h-plane with unit circle as the absolute. Let
O be the center of absolute and P be an other h-point. Denote by P ′
the inversion of P in the absolute. √
Then the circle Γ with center P ′ and radius 1/ 1 − OP 2 is per-
pendicular to the absolute. Moreover O is the inversion of P in Γ.
Proof. According to Theorem 9.14 the map sends the absolute to itself.
Note that the points on Γ do not move, it follows that points inside of
absolute remain inside after the mapping and the other way around.
Part (a) follows from 9.7 and 9.24.
90 CHAPTER 11. HYPERBOLIC PLANE
OA = OB = 1,
A O P B P A = 1 + x,
P B = 1 − x.
In particular,
AP ·BO 1+x
y = ln = ln .
P B·OA 1−x
Taking exponent of left and right hand side and applying obvious
algebra manipulations we get
ey − 1
x= .
ey + 1
91
P Qh + QRh = P Rh .
Hence ➊ follows.
Let P be an h-point and ρ > 0. The set of all h-points Q such that
P Qh = ρ is called h-circle with center P and h-radius ρ.
11.12. Lemma. Any h-circle is formed by a Euclidean circle which
lies completely in h-plane.
More precisely for any h-point P and ρ > 0 there is a ρ̂ > 0 and a
point P̂ such that
P Qh = ρ ⇐⇒ P̂ Q = ρ̂.
Axiom I
Evidently h-plane contains at least two points. Therefore to show
that Axiom I holds in h-plane we need to show that h-distance defined
on page 88 is a metric on h-plane; that is, the conditions (a)–(d) in
Definition 1.1 hold for h-distance.
The following claim says that h-distance meets the conditions (a)
and (b).
11.14. Claim. Given h-points P and Q, we have P Qh > 0 and
P Qh = 0 if and only if P = Q.
P Qh + QRh > P Rh .
Moreover, the equality holds if and only if P , Q and R lie on one h-line
in the same order.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that RPh > P Qh >
0 and R is the center of absolute.
Denote by ∆ the h-circle with center P and h-radius P Qh . Let S
and T be the points of intersection of (RP ) and ∆.
Since P Qh 6 RPh , by Lemma 11.11 we can assume that the points
R, S, P and T appear on the h-line in the same order.
Set ρ = P Qh . According to Lemma 11.12, ∆ is a Euclidean circle;
denote by P̂ its Euclidean center. Note that P̂ is the (Euclidean)
midpoint of [ST ].
By the Euclidean triangle inequality
➋ RT = RP̂ + P̂ Q > RQ
∆
and the equality holds if and only if T = Q. S P̂ T
By Lemma 11.10,
R P
1 + RT Q
RTh = ln
1 − RT
1 + RQ
RQh = ln .
1 − RQ
RTh = RPh + P Qh .
Axiom II
Note that once the following claim is proved, Axiom II follows from
Corollary 9.17.
11.17. Claim. A subset of h-plane is an h-line if and only if it forms
a line for h-distance in the sense of Definition 1.8.
AX
ι(X) = ln .
XB
Note that ι : ℓ → R is a bijection.
Further, if X, Y ∈ ℓ and the points A, X, Y and B appear on [AB]
in the same order then
AY AX AY ·BX
ι(Y ) − ι(X) = ln − ln = ln = XYh ;
YB XB Y B·XB
that is, any h-line is a line for h-metric.
We proved that any h-line is a line for h-distance. The converse
follows from Claim 11.16.
Axiom III
Note that the first part of Axiom III follows directly from the definition
of h-angle measure defined on page 88. It remains to show that ∡h
satisfies the conditions IIIa, IIIb and IIIc on page 20.
The following two claims say that ∡h satisfies IIIa and IIIb.
11.18. Claim. Given an h-half-line [OP ) and α ∈ (−π, π] there is
unique h-half-line [OQ) such that ∡P OQ = α.
95
∡h : (P, Q, R) 7→ ∡P QR
∡h P QR ≡ −∡h P ′ OR′ .
Axiom IV
The following claim says that Axiom IV holds holds in the h-plane.
11.21. Claim. In the h-plane, we have △h P QR ∼
= △h P ′ Q′ R′ if and
only if
Since
QPh = QPh′ and QRh = QRh′ ,
Lemma 11.10 implies that the same holds for the Euclidean distances;
that is,
QP = QP ′ and QR = QR′ .
By SAS, there is a motion of Euclidean plane which sends Q to itself,
P to P ′ and R to R′
Note that the center of absolute is fixed by the corresponding mo-
tion. It follows that this motion gives also a motion of h-plane; in
particular the h-triangles △h P QR and △h P ′ QR′ are h-congruent.
Axiom h-V
Finally we need to check that the Axiom h-V on page 82 holds; that
is, we need to prove the following claim.
11.22. Claim. For any h-line ℓ and any h-point P ∈ / ℓ there are at
least two h-lines which pass through P and have no points of intersec-
tion with ℓ.
center of absolute.
The remaining part of proof can be
guessed from the picture
P ℓ
11.23. Exercise. Show that in the h-
plane there are 3 mutually parallel h-
m
Geometry of h-plane
Angle of parallelism
Let P be a point off an h-line ℓ. Drop a perpendicular (P Q)h from P
to ℓ with foot point Q. Let ϕ be the least angle such that the h-line
(P Z)h with |∡h QP Z| = ϕ does not intersect ℓ.
The angle ϕ is called angle of parallelism of P to ℓ. Clearly ϕ
depends only on the h-distance s = P Qh . Further ϕ(s) → π/2 as
s → 0, and ϕ(s) → 0 as s → ∞. (In the Euclidean geometry the angle
of parallelism is identically equal to π/2.)
If ℓ, P and Z as above then the
h-line m = (P Z)h is called asymptot-
ically parallel to ℓ. In other words,
two h-lines are asymptotically parallel
if they share one ideal point. (In hyper- P ℓ
bolic geometry the term parallel lines
is often used for asymptotically paral-
lel lines; we do not follow this conven-
tion.)
Given P 6∈ ℓ there are exactly two
asymptotically parallel lines through P
to ℓ; the remaining parallel lines to ℓ through P are called ultra parallel.
97
98 CHAPTER 12. GEOMETRY OF H-PLANE
On the diagram, the two solid h-lines passing through P are asymp-
totically parallel to ℓ; the dotted h-line is ultra parallel to ℓ.
P Qh = 12 · ln 1+cos ϕ
1−cos ϕ .
OXh = ln 1+cos ϕ
1−cos ϕ .
ZX ·ZP = ZB 2 ;
P Qh = QXh =
= 21 ·OXh =
= 21 · ln 1+cos ϕ
1−cos ϕ .
99
Inradius of h-triangle
1
12.2. Theorem. Inradius of any h-triangle is less than 2· ln 3.
Proof. First note that any triangle in h-plane lies in an ideal triangle;
that is, a region bounded by three pairwise asymptotically parallel
lines.
A proof can be seen in the picture. B
Consider arbitrary h-triangle △h XY Z.
Denote by A, B and C the ideal points C
of the h-half-lines [XY )h , [Y Z)h and Z
[ZX)h . X
It should be clear that inradius of Y
the ideal triangle ABC is bigger than
inradius of △h XY Z.
Applying an inverse if necessary, we
can assume that h-incenter (O) of the
ideal triangle is the center of absolute. A
Therefore, without loss of generality, we may assume
1 + cos π3
OQh = 12 · ln =
1 − cos π3
1
1+ O
= 12 · ln 2
= C Q
1
1− 2
= 12 · ln 3.
Hyperbolic triangles
12.5. Theorem. Any nondegenerate hyperbolic triangle has positive
defect.
Proof. Note hat if ABh = A′ Bh′ then the theorem follows from ASA.
Assume contrary. Without loss of general-
A′
ity we may assume that ABh < A′ Bh′ . There-
fore we can choose the point B ′′ ∈ [A′ B ′ ]h such
that A′ Bh′′ = ABh .
Choose an h-half-line [B ′′ X) so that
B ′′
C ′′ B′ ∡h A′ B ′′ X = ∡h A′ B ′ C ′ .
According to Exercise 10.5, (B ′′ X)h k (B ′ C ′ )h .
C′
By Pasch’s theorem (3.10), (B ′′ X)h inter-
sects [A C ]h . Denote by C ′′ the point of intersection.
′ ′
Conformal interpretation
Let us give an other interpretation of the h-distance.
12.8. Lemma. Consider h-plane with absolute formed by the unit
circle centered at O. Fix a point P and let Q be an other point in the
h-plane. Set x = P Q and y = P Qh then
2
lim y = .
x→0 x 1 − OP 2
of h-metric.
1 1 2
The value λ(P ) = 2 ·(1 − OP ) can be interpenetrated as the speed
limit at the given point P . In this case the h-distance is the minimal
time needed to travel from one point of h-plane to the other point.
Proof. If P = O, then according to
Lemma 11.10 Γ
1+x
y ln 1−x
➍ = →2
x x
O P P′
as x → 0.
If P 6= O, denote by P ′ the inver- Q
sion of P in the absolute. Denote by Γ Q′
the circle with center P ′ perpendicular
to the absolute.
According to Main Observation
11.7 and Lemma 11.6 the inversion in Γ is a motion of h-plane which
sends P to O. In particular, if we denote by Q′ the inversion of Q in
Γ then OQ′h = P Qh .
Set x′ = OQ′ According to Lemma 9.2,
x′ OP ′
= ′ .
x P Q
Since P ′ is the inversion of P in the absolute, we have P O·OP ′ = 1.
Therefore
x′ OP ′ 1
→ ′ =
x P P 1 − OP 2
as x → 0.
Together with ➍, it implies
y y x′ 2
= ′· →
x x x 1 − OP 2
104 CHAPTER 12. GEOMETRY OF H-PLANE
as x → 0.
Here is an application of the lemma above.
12.9. Proposition. The circumference of an h-circle of h-radius r
is
2·π· sh r,
where sh r denotes hyperbolic sine of r; that is,
def er − e−r
sh r == .
2
Before we proceed with the proof let us discuss the same problem
in the Euclidean plane.
The circumference of the circle in the Euclidean plane can be de-
fined as limit of perimeters of regular n-gons inscribed in the circle as
n → ∞.
Namely, let us fix r > 0. Given a positive integer n consider
△AOB such that ∡AOB = 2·π n and OA = OB = r. Set xn = AB.
Note that xn is the side of regular n-gon inscribed in the circle of
radius r. Therefore the perimeter of the n-gon is equal to n·xn .
The circumference of the circle with
B radius r might be defined as the limit
n→∞
2·π
n
r (This limit can be taken as the defini-
O A
tion of π.)
In the following proof we repeat the
same construction in the h-plane.
Proof. Without loss of generality we
can assume that the center O of the cir-
cle is the center of absolute.
By Lemma 11.10, the h-circle with h-radius r is formed by the
Euclidean circle with center O and radius
er − 1
a= .
er + 1
Denote by xn and yn the Euclidean and hyperbolic side lengths of
the regular n-gon inscribed in the circle.
Note that xn → 0 as n → ∞. By Lemma 12.8,
yn 2
lim = .
n→∞ xn 1 − a2
105
Affine geometry
Affine transformations
A bijection of Euclidean plane to itself is called affine transformation
if it maps any line to a line.
We say that three points are collinear if they lie on one line. Note
that affine transformation sends collinear points to collinear; the fol-
lowing exercise gives a converse.
13.1. Exercise. Assume f is a bijection from Euclidean plane to
itself which sends collinear points to collinear points. Show that f is
an affine transformation.
In other words, you need to show that f maps noncollinear points
to noncollinear.
Affine geometry studies so called incidence structure of Euclidean
plane. The incidence structure is the data about which points lie on
which lines and nothing else; we can not talk about distance angles and
so on. One may also say that affine geometry studies the properties
of Euclidean plane which preserved under affine transformations.
13.2. Exercise. Show that affine transformation sends parallel lines
to the parallel lines.
106
107
13.5. Exercise. Use ruler and parallel tool to construct the center of
given circle.
Matrix form
Since the lines are defined in terms of metric; any motion of Euclidean
plane is also an affine transformation.
On the other hand, there are affine transformations of Euclidean
plane which are not motions.
13.6. Theorem. Consider Euclidean plane with coordinate system;
let us use the column notation for the coordinates; that is, we will write
( xy ) instead of (x, y).
A map β from the plane to itself is affine transformation if and
only if
β : ( xy ) 7→ ac db · ( xy ) + ( wv )
➊
f (1) = 1,
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y),
f (x·y) = f (x)·f (y)
108 CHAPTER 13. AFFINE GEOMETRY
➋ f (0) = 0.
Further
0 = f (0) = f (x) + f (−x).
Therefore
Further
Since
f (m) = f ( m
n )·f (n)
we get
f(m
n) =
m
n
➎ a 6 0 =⇒ f (a) 6 0.
Proof. Since affine transformation sends lines to lines, we get that each
axes is mapped to itself.
According to Exercise 13.2, parallel lines are mapped to parallel
lines. Therefore we get that horizontal lines mapped to horizontal
lines and vertical lines mapped to vertical. In other words,
(x)
γ ( xy ) = fh(y) .
a b
Proof of Theorem 13.6. Recall that matrix c d is invertible if
a b
det c d = a·d − b·c 6= 0;
( xy ) 7→ a·d−b·c
1 d −b
x−v
➏ · −c a · y−w .
➐ p·x + q·y + r = 0,
110 CHAPTER 13. AFFINE GEOMETRY
On inversive transformations
Recall that inversive plane is Euclidean plane with added a point at
infinity, denoted as ∞. We assume that any line pass through ∞. The
term circline stays for circle or line;
The inversive transformation is bijection from inversive plane to
itself which sends circlines to circlines. Inversive geometry can be de-
fined as geometry which circline incidence structure of inversive plane;
that is we can say which points lie on which circlines.
13.10. Theorem. A map from inversive plane to itself is an inversive
transformation if and only if it can be presented as a composition of
inversions and reflections.
111
α′′′ : ( xy ) 7→ 10 db · ( xy )
for an invertible matrix 10 db . Since the point (0, 1) maps to the unit
circle we get
b2 + d2 = 1.
Since the point ( √12 , √12 ) maps to the unit circle we get
(b + d)2 = 1.
It follows
α′′′ : ( xy ) 7→ 1 0
· ( xy ) ;
0 ±1
that is, either α′′′ is the identity map or reflection the x-axis.
Note that the homothety χ is a composition of two inversions in
concentric circles. Hence the result follows.
Now assume P = α(∞) 6= ∞. Consider an inversion β in a circle
with center at P . Note that β(P ) = ∞; therefore β ◦ α(∞) = ∞.
Since β is inversive, so is β ◦ α. From above we get that β ◦ α is a
composition of reflections and inversions therefore so is α.
Projective geometry
113
114 CHAPTER 14. PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
Euclidean space
Let us repeat the construction of metric d2 (page 11) in the space.
We will denote by R3 the set of all triples (x, y, z) of real numbers.
Assume A = (xA , yA , zA ) and B = (xB , yB , zB ) are arbitrary points.
Define the metric on R3 the following way
def p
AB == (xA − xB )2 + (yA − yB )2 + (zA − zB )2 .
Perspective projection
Consider two planes Π and Π′ in the Euclidean space. Let O be a
point which does not belong neither to Π nor Π′ .
Consider the perspective projection from Π to Π′ with center at O.
The projection of P ∈ Π is defined as the point P ′ ∈ Π′ which lies on
the line (OP ).
115
Projective transformations
A bijection from real projective plane to itself which sends lines to
lines is called projective transformation.
Projective and affine geometries study incidence structure of Eu-
clidean and real projective plane correspondingly. One may also say
that projective geometry studies the properties of real projective plane
which preserved under projective transformations.
Note that any affine transformation defines a projective transfor-
mation on the corresponding real projective plane. We will call such
projective transformations affine; these are projective transformations
which send the ideal line to itself.
The perspective projection discussed in the previous section gives
an example of projective transformation which is not affine.
14.2. Theorem. Any projective transformation can be obtained as a
composition of an affine transformation and a perspective projection.
Desargues’ theorem
Loosely speaking, any statement in projective geometry can be formu-
lated using only terms collinear points, concurrent lines.
Here is a classical example of a theorem in projective geometry.
14.3. Desargues’ theorem. Consider three concurrent lines (AA′ ),
(BB ′ ) and (CC ′ ) in the real projective plane. Set
X = (BC) ∩ (B ′ C ′ ),
Y = (CA) ∩ (C ′ A′ ),
Z = (AB) ∩ (A′ B ′ )
∡OAB ≡ ∡OA′ B ′ .
BB ′ = CC ′ = AA′ .
A′ B′ C′ C ′ B′ A′
Pappus’s theorem can be proved the same way as Desargues’ the-
orem.
Idea of the proof. Applying a perspective projection, we can assume
that X and Y lie on the ideal line. It remains to show that Z lies on
the ideal line.
In other words, assuming that (AB ′ ) k (A′ B) and (AC ′ ) k (A′ C),
we need to show that (BC ′ ) k (B ′ C).
14.5. Exercise. Finish the proof of Pappus’s theorem using the idea
described above.
Duality
Let us fix a bijection between the set of lines and the set of points of
the plane. Given a point P let us denote by lower case letter p the
corresponding line. Also the other way around, given a line s we will
denote upper case letter S the corresponding point.
The bijection between points and lines is called duality 1 if
P ∈s ⇐⇒ p ∋ S.
q r b
D a P Q
p
E s
B
f S d
C
F A e R
c
Dual configurations.
14.6. Exercise. Show that Euclidean plane does not admit a duality.
➊ ṙ ⊂ Ṡ ⇐⇒ Ṙ ⊃ ṡ
Axioms
Note that the real projective plane described above satisfies the fol-
lowing set of axioms.
I. Any two distinct points lie on a unique line.
II. Any two distinct lines pass through a unique point.
III. There exist at least four points of which no three are collinear.
Let us take these three axioms as a definition of projective plane; so
the real projective plane discussed above becomes a particular example
of projective plane.
14.12. Exercise. Show that any line in projective plane contains at
least three points.
121
n2 + n + 1.
(c) Show that in any finite projective plane the number of points
coincides with the number of lines.
The number n in the above exercise is called order of finite pro-
jective plane. For example Fano plane has order 2. Here is one of the
most famous conjecture in finite geometry.
14.15. Conjecture. The order of a finite projective plane is the
power of a prime.
Chapter 15
Spherical geometry
for real numbers a, b, c and d such that at least one of the numbers
a, b or c is not zero. Equivalently plane can be defined as a subset of
Euclidean space which is isometric to to Euclidean plane.
Sphere in the space is the direct analog of circle in the plane. For-
mally, sphere with center O and radius r is the set of points in the
space which lie on the distance r from O.
Let A and B be two points on the unit sphere centered at O. The
spherical distance from A to B (briefly ABs ) is defined as |∡AOB|.
122
123
In the spherical geometry, the role of lines play the great circles;
that is, the intersection of the sphere with a plane passing through O.
Note that the great circles do not form lines in the sense of Defini-
tion 1.8. Also any two distinct great circles intersect at two antipodal
points. In particular, the sphere does not satisfy the axioms of absolute
plane.
Pythagorean theorem
Here is an analog of Pythagorean Theorems (6.10 and 16.8) in spherical
geometry.
15.1. Theorem. Let △s ABC be a spherical triangle with right angle
at C. Set a = BCs , b = CAs and c = ABs . Then
In the proof we will use the notion of scalar product which we are
about to discuss.
Let A and B be two points in Euclidean space. Denote by vA =
= (xA , yA , zA ) and vB = (xB , yB , zB ) the position vectors of A and B
correspondingly. The scalar product of two vectors vA and vB in R3
is defined as
def
➊ hvA , vB i == xA ·xB + yA ·yB + zA ·zB .
where
q q
|vA | = x2A + yA
2 + z2 ,
A |vB | = x2B + yB
2 + z2 .
B
z
Now, assume the points A and B lie on
C
the unit sphere in R3 centered at the origin.
In this case |vA | = |vB | = 1. By ➊ we get B A
➋ cos ABs = hvA , vB i.
O x
Proof. Since the angle at C is right, we can y
choose coordinates in R3 so that vC = (0, 0, 1),
124 CHAPTER 15. SPHERICAL GEOMETRY
Stereographic projection
Consider the unit sphere Σ centered at the origin (0, 0, 0). This sphere
can be described by equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1.
Denote by Π the xy-plane; it
is defined by the equation z = 0. N
Clearly Π runs through the center P
of Σ.
Denote by N = (0, 0, 1) the
“North Pole” and by S = (0, 0, −1)
be the “South Pole” of Σ; these are O
the points on the sphere which have P′
extremal distances to Π. Denote by
Ω the “equator” of Σ; it is the inter-
section Σ ∩ Π.
For any point P 6= S on Σ, con- S
sider the line (SP ) in the space.
The plane through
This line intersects Π in exactly one
′ P , O and S.
point, say P . We set in addition
′
that S = ∞.
The map P 7→ P ′ is called stereographic projection from Σ to Π
from the South Pole. The inverse of this map P ′ 7→ P is called stereo-
graphic projection from Π to Σ from the South Pole.
The same way one can define stereographic projections from the
North Pole N .
Note that P = P ′ if and only if P ∈ Ω.
126 CHAPTER 15. SPHERICAL GEOMETRY
Central projection
Let Σ be the unit sphere centered at the origin which will be denoted
as O. Denote by Π+ the plane described by equation z = 1. This plane
is parallel to xy-plane and it pass through the North Pole N = (0, 0, 1)
of Σ.
Recall that north hemisphere of Σ, is the subset of points (x, y, z) ∈
∈ Σ such that z > 0. The north hemisphere will be denoted as Σ+ .
Given a point P ∈ Σ+ , consider half-line [OP ) and denote by P ′
the intersection of [OP ) and Π+ . Note that if P = (x, y, z) then
P ′ = ( xz , yz , 1). It follows that P 7→ P ′ is a bijection between Σ+ and
Π+ .
The described map Σ+ → Π+ is called central projection of hemi-
sphere Σ+ .
127
a = BCs , b = CNs , c = N Bs ,
s = B′C ′, t = C ′ N, u = N B′.
Show that
tg a
s= cos b , t = tg b, u = tg c.
for △s N BC.
The following exercise is analogous to Exercise 16.4 in hyperbolic
geometry.
15.10. Exercise. Let △s ABC be a nondegenerate spherical triangle.
Assume that the plane Π+ is parallel to the plane passing through A,
B and C. Denote by A′ , B ′ and C ′ the central projections of A, B
and C.
(a) Show that the midpoints of [A′ B ′ ], [B ′ C ′ ] and [C ′ A′ ] are central
projections of the midpoints of [AB]s , [BC]s and [CA]s corre-
spondingly.
(b) Use part (a) to show that medians of spherical triangle intersect
at one point.
Chapter 16
Projective model
128
129
16.2. Lemma. Let (P Q)h be an h-line with the ideal points A and
B. Then P̂ , Q̂ ∈ [AB].
Moreover
2
AQ̂·B P̂ AQ·BP
➊ = .
Q̂B· P̂ A QB·P A
AQ̂·B P̂
P Qh = 21 · ln .
Q̂B· P̂ A
⋄ A, B, P ′ ∈ Γ,
⋄ [AB] is a diameter of Γ,
⋄ (AB) = Π ∩ Λ,
⋄ P̂ ∈ [AB]
⋄ (P ′ P̂ ) ⊥ (AB).
Since [AB] is the diameter of Γ, by Corollary 8.6, the angle ∠AP ′ B
is right. Hence △AP̂ P ′ ∼ △AP ′ B ∼ △P ′ P̂ B. In particular
AP ′ AP̂ P ′ P̂
′
= = .
BP ′
P P̂ B P̂
Therefore
2
AP ′
AP̂
➌ = .
B P̂ BP ′
def AQ·BP
P Qh == ln =
QB·P A
! 21
AQ̂·B P̂
= ln =
Q̂B· P̂ A
AQ̂·B P̂
= 12 · ln .
Q̂B· P̂ A
Projective model
The following picture illustrates the map P 7→ P̂ described in the
previous section. If you take the picture on the left and apply the map
P 7→ P̂ , you get the picture on the right. The picture on the right gives
a new way to look at the hyperbolic plane, which is called projective
model. One may think of the map P 7→ P̂ as about translation from
one language to the other.
the picture. For example all the intersecting h-lines on the picture are
perpendicular. There are two useful exceptions
⋄ If O is the center of absolute then
∡h AOB = ∡AOB.
∡h OAB = ∡OAB = ± π2 .
16.7. Exercise. Use projective model to find the inradius of the ideal
triangle.
➎ ch c = ch a· ch b.
where ch denotes hyperbolic cosine; that is, the function defined the
following way
def ex +e−x
ch x == 2 .
Note that
Y
1+t
b = 21 · ln ;
1−t
therefore
21 21
1+t 1−t
1−t + 1+t
ch b = =
➏ 2
1
=√ .
1 − t2
and
21 21
1+u 1−u
1−u + 1+u
ch c = =
➐ 2
1
=√ .
1 − u2
Let X and Y are the ideal points of (BC)h . Applying the Pythag-
orean theorem (6.10) again, we get
p
CX = CY = 1 − t2 .
Therefore √
1 1 − t2 + s
a= 2· ln √
1 − t2 − s
and
√ 12 √ 12
√1−t +s
2
√1−t −s
2
1−t2 −s
+ 1−t2 +s
ch a = =
√ 2
➑ 1 − t2
=√
1 − t2 − s 2
√
1 − t2
=√
1 − u2
Finally note that ➏+➐+➑ implies ➎.
Bolyai’s construction
Assume we need to construct a line asymptotically parallel to the given
line through the given point. The initial configuration is given by three
points, say P , A and B and we need to construct a line through P
which is asymptotically parallel to ℓ = (AB).
Note that ideal points do not lie in the h-plane, so there is no way
to use them in the construction.
The following construction was given by Bolyai. We assume that
you know a compass-and-ruler construction of the perpendicular line to
the given line through the given point; see the solution of Exercise 5.23.
16.9. Bolyai’s construction.
1. Construct the line m through P which perpendicular to ℓ. Denote
by Q the foot point of P on ℓ.
2. Construct the line n through P which perpendicular to m.
135
Complex coordinates
Complex numbers
Informally, a complex number is a number that can be put in the form
➊ z = x + i·y,
where x and y are real numbers and i2 = −1.
The set of complex numbers will be further denoted by C. If x, y
and z as in ➊, then x is called the real part and y the imaginary part
of the complex number z. Briefly it is written as
x = Re z and y = Im z.
On the more formal level, a complex number is a pair of real num-
bers (x, y) with addition and multiplication described below. The
formula x + i·y is only a convenient way to write the pair (x, y).
def
(x1 + i·y1 ) + (x2 + i·y2 ) == (x1 + x2 ) + i·(y1 + y2 );
def
(x1 + i·y1 )·(x2 + i·y2 ) == (x1 ·x2 − y1 ·y2 ) + i·(x1 ·y2 + y1 ·x2 ).
Complex coordinates
Recall that one can think of Euclidean plane as the set of all pairs of
real numbers (x, y) equipped with the metric
p
AB = (xA − xB )2 + (yA − yB )2
136
137
Euler’s formula
Let α be a real number. The following identity is called Euler’s for-
mula.
If you know power series for sine, cosine and exponent, the following
might also convince that ➌ is the right definition.
Note that
∡ZV W + ∡V W Z + ∡W ZV ≡ π
(v − u)·(z − w)
(v − w)·(z − u)
is real.
140 CHAPTER 17. COMPLEX COORDINATES
Möbius transformations
17.5. Exercise. Watch video “Möbius Transformations Revealed”
by Douglas Arnold and Jonathan Rogness. (It is 3 minutes long and
available on YouTube.)
The complex plane C extended by one ideal number ∞ is called
extended complex plane. It is denoted by Ĉ, so Ĉ = C ∪ {∞}
Möbius transformation of Ĉ is a function of one complex variable
z which can be written as
a·z + b
f (z) = ,
c·z + d
where the coefficients a, b, c, d are complex numbers satisfying a·d −
− b·c 6= 0. (If a·d − b·c = 0 the function defined above is a constant
and is not considered to be a Möbius transformation.)
In case c 6= 0, we assume that
and if c = 0 we assume
f (∞) = ∞.
Elementary transformations
The following three types of Möbius transformations are called ele-
mentary.
1. z 7→ z + w,
2. z 7→ w·z for w 6= 0,
3. z 7→ 1z .
The geometric interpretations. As before we will denote by O the
point with complex coordinate 0.
The first map z 7→ z + w, corresponds to so called parallel transla-
tion of Euclidean plane, its geometric meaning should be evident.
141
arg z = arg(1/z̄);
that is, if the points Z and Z ′ have complex coordinates z and 1/z̄ then
1
Z ′ ∈ [OZ). Clearly OZ = |z| and OZ ′ = |1/z̄| = |z| . Therefore Z ′ is
inversion of Z in the unit circle centered at O. Finally the reflection
of Z ′ in R, has complex coordinate z1 = (1/z̄).
17.6. Proposition. A map f : Ĉ → Ĉ is a Möbius transformation if
and only if it can be expressed as a composition of elementary Möbius
transformation.
a·z + b
f (z) = .
c·z + d
It is straightforward to check that
➎ f (z) = f4 ◦ f3 ◦ f2 ◦ f1 (z),
where
⋄ f1 (z) = z + dc ,
⋄ f2 (z) = z1 ,
⋄ f3 (z) = − a·d−b·c
c2 ·z,
⋄ f4 (z) = z + ac
if c 6= 0 and
⋄ f1 (z) = ad ·z,
⋄ f2 (z) = z + db ,
⋄ f3 (z) = f4 (z) = z
if c = 0.
(⇐). We need to show that composing elementary transformations,
we can only get Möbius transformations. Note that it is sufficient to
check that composition of a Möbius transformations
a·z + b
f (z) = .
c·z + d
with any elementary transformation is a Möbius transformations.
142 CHAPTER 17. COMPLEX COORDINATES
Complex cross-ratio
Given four distinct complex numbers u, v, w, z, the complex number
(u − w)·(v − z)
(v − w)·(u − z)
is called complex cross-ratio; it will be denoted as (u, v; w, z).
If one of the numbers u, v, w, z, is ∞, then the complex cross-ratio
has to be defined by taking the appropriate limit; in other words, we
assume that ∞ ∞ = 1. For example,
(u − w)
(u, v; w, ∞) = .
(v − w)
143
Schwarz–Pick theorem
The following theorem shows that the metric in the conformal disc
model naturally appears in other branches of mathematics. We do
not give a proof, but it can be found in any textbook on geometric
complex analysis.
Let us denote by D the unit disc in the complex plane centered at
0; that is, a complex number z belongs to D if and only if |z| < 1.
Let us use the disc D as h-plane in the conformal disc model; the
h-distance between z, w ∈ D will be denoted as dh (z, w).
A function f : D → C is called holomorphic if for every z ∈ D there
is a complex number s such that
for any z, w ∈ D.
Moreover if equality holds for one pair of distinct numbers z, w ∈ D
then it holds for any pair and f : D → D is a motion of the h-plane.
17.14. Exercise. Show that Schwarz lemma stated below follows from
Schwarz–Pick theorem.
Geometric constructions
Classical problems
Here we list couple of classical construction problems; each known for
more than thousand years. The solutions of the following two problems
are quite nontrivial.
18.1. Brahmagupta’s problem. Construct an inscribed quadri-
lateral with given sides.
145
146 CHAPTER 18. GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
For example,
⋄ one can construct a regular 34-gon since 34 = 2·17 and 17 is a
Fermat prime;
⋄ one can not construct a regular 7-gon since 7 is not a Fermat
prime;
⋄ one can not construct a regular 9-gon; although 9 = 3·3 is a
product of two Fermat primes, these primes are not distinct.
The impossibility of these constructions was proved only in 19th
century. The method used in the proofs is indicated in the next section.
Constructable numbers
In the classical compass-and-ruler constructions initial configuration
can be completely described by a finite number of points; each line is
defined by two points on it and each circle is described by its center
and a point on it (equivalently, you may describe a circle by tree points
on it).
The same way the result of construction can be described by a
finite collection of points.
Choose a coordinate system, such that one of the initial points as
the origin (0, 0) and yet an other initial point has coordinates (1, 0). In
147
(x − xO )2 + (y − yO )2 = (xW − xO )2 + (yW − yO )2
(x − xA )·(yB − yA ) = (y − yA )·(xB − xA )
perpendicular ℓ through
√ D to (AB) (4) let C be an intersection of Γ
and ℓ. Then DC = a·b.
√
Taking 1 for a or b above we can produce a, a2 , 1b . Further com-
√
bining these constructions we can produce a·b = ( a·b)2 , ab = a· 1b . In
other words we produced a √ compass-and-ruler calculator, which can
do “+”, “−”, “·”, “/” and “ ”.
The discussion above gives a rough sketch of the proof of the fol-
lowing theorem:
Construction of polar
Assume Γ is a circle in the plane. Given point P consider two chords
[XX ′ ] and [Y Y ′ ] of Γ such that (XX ′ ) ∩ (Y Y ′ ) = P . Let Z = (XY ) ∩
(X ′ Y ′ ) and Z ′ = (XY ′ ) ∩ (X ′ Y ) and p = (ZZ ′ ). If P ∈ Γ we assume
that p is the tangent to Γ at P .
151
18.13. Claim. The line p = (ZZ ′ ) does not depend on the choice of
chords. Moreover P 7→ p is a duality (see page 118).
The line p is called polar of P with respect to Γ. The same way
the point P is called polar of the line p with respect to Γ.
We will not give a proof of this claim, but
will try to use it in the constructions.
Z
18.14. Exercise. Let p be the polar line of Y
point P with respect to circle Γ. Assume that Y′
p intersects Γ at points V and W . Show that Z′
the lines (P V ) and (P W ) are tangent to Γ. X X′ P
Come up with a ruler-only construction of
p
the tangent lines to the given circle through the
given point.
Area
Solid triangles
We say that a point X lies inside a nondegenerate triangle △ABC if
the following three condition hold:
⋄ A and X lie on the same side from the line (BC);
⋄ B and X lie on the same side from the line (CA);
⋄ C and X lie on the same side from the line (AB).
The set of all points inside △ABC and on its sides
C [AB], [BC], [CA] will be called solid triangle and de-
noted by ▲ABC.
A X
B 19.1. Exercise. Show that solid triangle is convex;
that is if X, Y ∈ ▲ABC then [XY ] ⊂ ▲ABC.
The notations △ABC and ▲ABC look similar, they also have
close but different meanings, which better not to be confused. Recall
that △ABC is an ordered triple of distinct points (see page 17), while
▲ABC is an infinite set of points.
In particular ▲ABC = ▲BAC; indeed any point which belong
to the set ▲ABC also belongs to the set ▲BAC and the other way
152
153
19.2. Definition. Two sets S and T in the plane are called congruent
(briefly S ∼
= T ) if T = f (S) for some motion f of the plane.
▲ABC ∼
= ▲A′ B ′ C ′ ,
△ABC ∼
= △A′ B ′ C ′ .
Polygonal sets
Elementary set on the plane is a set of one of the following three types:
⋄ one-point set;
⋄ segment;
⋄ solid triangle.
A set in the plane is called polygonal set if it
can be presented as a union of finite collection of
elementary sets.
A polygonal set is called degenerate if it can be
presented as union of finite number of one-point sets
and segments.
According to this definition, empty set ∅ is a polygonal set. Indeed,
∅ is a union of empty collection of elementary sets.
If X and Y lie on the opposite sides of the line (AB) then the
union of solid triangles ▲AXB ∪ ▲BY A is a polygonal set which
is called solid quadrilateral and denoted as AXBY . In particular,
we can talk about solid parallelograms, rectangles and squares in the
Euclidean plane.
154 CHAPTER 19. AREA
Definition of area
19.5. Claim. For any two polygonal sets P and Q, the union P ∪ Q
as well as the intersection P ∩ Q are also polygonal sets.
P ∪ Q = P1 ∪ · · · ∪ Pk ∪ Q1 ∪ · · · ∪ Qn .
Therefore P ∪ Q is polygonal.
Note that the union of all sets Pi ∩Qj forms P ∩Q.
Therefore in order to show that P ∩Q is polygonal,
it is sufficient to show that each Pi ∩ Qj is polygonal.
The diagram should suggest an idea of proof.
The following theorem defines the area as a function which returns
a real number for any polygonal set and satisfying certain conditions.
19.6. Theorem. For each polyhedral set P in the Euclidean plane
there is a real number s called area of P (briefly s = area P) such that
where K the solid square with unit side and the conditions
P 7→ area P.
155
area ∅ 6 area P.
That is
1 B1 ... Bn
area[AB] 6 n· area(ABCD)
area[AB] > 0.
∅ ⊂ {A} ⊂ [AB].
156 CHAPTER 19. AREA
Therefore
0 6 area{A} 6 area[AB] = 0.
Whence area{A} = 0.
By Proposition 19.8, the right hand side vanish. Hence the statement
follows.
We say that polygonal set P is subdivided into two polygonal sets
Q1 and Q2 if P = Q1 ∪ Q2 and the intersection Q1 ∩ Q2 is degenerate.
(Recall that the intersection Q1 ∩ Q2 has to be a polygonal set.)
19.10. Proposition. Assume polygonal set P is subdivided into two
polygonal set Q1 and Q2 . Then
area(Q1 ∩ Q2 ) = 0.
That is, the second identity in the Algebraic Lemma holds. The proof
of the third identity is analogues.
It remains to apply Algebraic lemma.
➌. △AA′ D ∼
= △BB ′ C
Indeed, since ABB ′ A′ and ABCD are parallelogram, by Lemma 6.22,
we have AA′ = BB ′ AD = BC. Further by Transversal property 6.18,
area(▲ABC) = 12 ·a·hA .
159
m
Since ABCD is a parallelogram, by Lemma 6.22
we have A B
AB = CD and BC = DA.
Therefore by SSS congruence condition, we have △ABC ∼
= △CDA.
In particular
area(▲ABC) = area(▲CDA).
Therefore, from above and Proposition 19.13,
area(▲ABC) = 12 · area(ABCD) =
= 12 ·hA ·a
Area method
Slim proofs using area are often used to impress students. We will
show couple of such examples in this section, but one should be aware
— these proofs are not truly elementary; to do these proofs, one pays
high price of introducing area..
Proof of the Pythagorean theorem via the area method. We need to
show that if a and b are legs and c is the hypotenuse of right triangle
then
a2 + b 2 = c2 .
Denote by ▲ the solid right triangle with legs a and b and by x
be the solid square with side x.
Let us construct two subdivisions of a+b .
1. Subdivide a+b into two solid
squares congruent to a and b and 4
solid triangles congruent to ▲, see the
left diagram.
2. Subdivide a+b into one solid
square congruent to c and 4 solid
right triangles congruent to ▲, see the
right diagram.
Applying Proposition 19.10 few times, we get.
Therefore
area a + area b = area c .
Since
area x = x2 ,
the statement follows.
AB DB
= .
AC DC
Applying Claim 19.22, we get C D B
area(▲ABD) BD
= .
area(▲ACD) CD
By Lemma 5.13 the triangles △ABD and △ACD have equal alti-
tudes from D. Applying Claim 19.22 again, we get
area(▲ABD) AB
= .
area(▲ACD) AC
area(▲ABX) = area(▲ACX).
19.24. Exercise. Build a proof of Theorem 7.5 via area method based
on the exercise above.
Namely, show that medians of nondegenerate triangle intersect at
one point and the point of their intersection divides each median in
the ration 1:2.
162 CHAPTER 19. AREA
Remark on area in
absolute planes and spheres
The theorem Theorem 19.6 will hold in the absolute planes and spheres
if the solid unit square K exchanged to a fixed nondegenerate polygonal
set. One has to make such change for good reason — hyperbolic plane
and sphere have no unit squares.
The set K in this case plays role of is unit measure for the area and
changing K will require conversion of area units.
According to the standard convention, the set K is
taken so that on small scales area behaves like area in
A D
the Euclidean plane. Say if Kn denotes the solid quadri-
1
lateral ABCD in the with right angles at A, B and C
n Kn and AB = BC = n1 then we may assume that
B 1
n
C ➎ n2 · area Kn → 1 as n → ∞.
This convention works equally well for spheres and absolute planes,
including Euclidean plane. In spherical geometry equivalently we may
assume that if r is the radius of the sphere then the area of whole
sphere is 4·π·r2 .
Index
∠, 14 area, 154
∞, 70 ASA congruence condition, 32
∡, 14 asymptotically parallel lines, 97
, 153
▲, 152 base, 33
, 52 between, 22
△, 17 bijection, 12
∼
=, 17, 153 bisector
≡, 15 angle bisector, 40
k, 45 external bisector, 40
⊥, 36 perpendicular bisector, 36
∼, 46
(P Q), [P Q), [P Q], 13 center, 42
(P Q)h , [P Q)h ,[P Q]h , 87 center of the pencil, 113
(u, v; w, z), 142 central projection, 126
centroid, 57
AA similarity condition, 47 ch, 133
absolute, 87 chord, 42
absolute plane, 77 circle, 42
absolute value, 137 circle of Apollonius, 68
acute circle arc, 64
angle, 36 circline, 70
triangle, 48 circumtool, 149
affine transformation, 106, 116 collinear, 106
altitude, 56 collinear points, 116
angle, 14 complex conjugate, 137
angle of parallelism, 97 concurrent, 113
negative angle, 25 conformal disk model, 86
obtuse angle, 36 conformal factor, 103
positive angle, 25 congruent
right angle, 36 sets, 153
straight angle, 22 congruent triangles, 17
vertical angles, 23 consistent, 83
angle measure, 20 convex set, 152
hyperbolic angle measure, 88 cross-ratio, 68
arc, 64 complex cross-ratio, 140, 142
163
164 INDEX
166