Mid Course Work

Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
After completing this Chapter, the students are expected
to:
• Define anthropology and describe its basic
concerns and subject matter;
• Describe the different sub-fields of anthropology;
• Explain how and why sociocultural anthropology
as a science emerged;
• Appreciate the contributions and applications of
anthropology in personal and professional lives;
and
• Compare and contrast anthropology with other
related behavioral or social sciences.
1.1. What is Anthropology?

The term anthropology is a combination of two words
derived from Greek language: anthropos and logos.
The term anthropos is equivalent to the word mankind or
human being, while logos means study or science. So
1
putting the two words together, anthropology is the

study or science of mankind or humanity. The following
are two important, simple, definitions of anthropology:
Box 1.1. A simple definition of anthropology

Anthropology is the study or science of mankind
or humanity
• Anthropology is the study of humanity.

• Anthropology is a broad scientific discipline
dedicated to the comparative study of humans as
a group, from its first appearance on earth to its
present stage of development.
In a more specific term, anthropology is science which:

• Investigates the strategies for living that are
learned and shared by people as members of
human social groups;
• Examines the characteristics that human beings
share as members of one species (homo
sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live
in different environments; and
2
• Analyzes the products of social groups: material

objects (tools, cloths, houses, etc) and non-
material creations (beliefs, values, practices,
institutions, etc). (World Book Encyclopedia.
Vol.1 PP. 545-548)
It should further be stressed that anthropology focuses

on (1) the origin of humans, (2) the evolutionary
development of humans, (3) human physical, bio-
chemical and cultural variations, and (4) the material
possessions and cultural heritages of humans.
Anthropology seeks to explain how and why people are

both similar and different through examination of our
biological and cultural past and comparative study of
contemporary human societies (Howard and Dunaif-
Hattis, 1992:3). Howard and Dunaif-Hattis (1992) further
note that:
Anthropology’s ultimate goal is to develop an
integrated picture of humankind—a goal that
encompasses an almost infinite number of
questions about all aspects of our existence. We
ask, for example, what makes us human? Why
do some groups of people tend to be tall and
3
lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky?

Why do some groups of people practice
agriculture, while others hunt for a living?
Anthropologists are interested in all things
human. (P.3)
Anthropology has a strong affinity with natural sciences

as well. In fact, anthropology is well known by that
aspect of it which is mainly concerned with the
biological/ physical dimensions of mankind as a
biological being in group context. Hence, it may be
inappropriate to say that anthropology is only a social
science. It is also a natural science, not in the sense that
it deals with the natural phenomenon or man as an
individual entity per se, but in the sense that one of its
main interests is to study man and man's behavior as a
product of the natural processes, and in the context of
the animal kingdom (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995).
1.1.1. Misconceptions about Anthropology

There are a number of misconceptions associated with
anthropology due to lack of appropriate awareness of its
nature. The following are some of the misconceptions
4
(adapted from lectures by my undergraduate

anthropology instructor):
One misconception about anthropology is related to

the area of its study. It is said that anthropology is
limited to the study of "primitive" societies. Indeed,
most of the works done by anthropologists during
early periods focused on isolated, "primitive", small-
scale societies. However, anthropologists nowadays
study the advanced, complex societies as well.
Another misconception is that anthropologists only

study the rural people and rural areas. True, most of
the works conducted focused on rural areas. But
now, anthropologists are also interested in the study
of urban people and urban areas. There is a distinct
sub-discipline devoted to the study of urban
societies -urban anthropology-which focuses on
small-scale society in a complex city.
It is claimed that anthropologists are only interested

in the study of far away, remote exotic communities
living isolated from the influences of modernization.
True, most anthropologists go to fieldwork to an
5
isolated people in a distant corner. But now

anthropologists are interested in home anthropology,
studying anthropology at home, i.e., in one's own
society.
It is also said that the purpose of anthropology is to

study in order to keep and preserve primitive,
defunct cultural practices in museums and
anthropologists are advocates of defunct, obsolete
culture. True, when anthropologists study "primitive"
society, they study the culture of the people, to
reconstruct it, to give meaning to the peculiar
behaviors of people. However, anthropologists do
not defend "primitiveness"; they play a great role in
bringing about positive change and development in
the lives of people.
6
Box 1.2. Four misconceptions about

anthropology
1. Anthropology is limited to the study of
"primitive" societies.
2. Anthropologists only study the rural people
and rural areas.
3. Anthropologists are only interested in the
study of far away, remote exotic communities
living isolated from the influences of
modernization.
4. Anthropology wants to keep and preserve
primitive, defunct cultural practices in
museums and anthropologists are advocates
of defunct, obsolete culture.
1.2 Brief Historical Overview of Anthropology

The facts of the incredibly diverse and at the same time
essentially similar nature of humans over time and
space have intrigued curious-minded people over the
century. The history of anthropological thought is replete
with many and varied ideas, some of which often were
wild extremes resulting from ethnocentric attitudes.
Before anthropology attained the status of scientific
7
discipline curious-minded persons from ancient to

medieval times have speculated a lot about the issues
and problems that concern anthropologists today
(Hodgen, 1964). That is, the present academic
anthropology has its roots in the works and ideas of the
great ancient and Medieval Greek, Roman, and Hebrew
philosophers and social thinkers. These people were
interested in the nature, origin and destiny of man, and
the morality and ethics of human relationships
While the roots of (socio-cultural) anthropology can be

generally traced through the history of western culture
as far back as ancient Greek social philosophical
thinking, the discipline did not emerge as distinct field of
study until the mid-nineteenth century. Anthropology as
an academic discipline was born during the 19th century
(see The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Macropedia).
Vol. 27 PP.326-331).
Anthropology as academic discipline was born out of the

intellectual atmosphere of that is called the
Enlightenment, which is the eighteenth century social
philosophical movement that emphasized human
progress and the poser of reason, and based on
8
Darwinian Theory of Evolution (Scupin and DeCorse,

1995).
According to Howard and Dunaif-Hattis (1992:362):

By the late 1870s, anthropology was beginning
to emerge as a profession. A major impetus for
its growth was the expansion of western colonial
powers and their consequent desire to better
understand the peoples living under colonial
domination. In the United States, for example,
the government sought information on Native
American peoples who were being subdued and
placed on reservations. As the tribes were
subdued, anthropologists were employed to help
devise means to administer these people. …
[H]owever, many anthropologists were motivated
by the desire to record local customs before they
disappeared and were forgotten…. Anthropology
became a profession primarily in museums,
During the 1870s and 1880s many museums
devoted to the study of humankind were founded
in Europe, North America and South America….
Anthropology’s link with museums influenced its
development throughout the late nineteenth and
9
early twentieth centuries… Professionalization

during the latter part of nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries made great breakthroughs in
the quality and quantity of ethnographic
research….
Early anthropologists mainly studied small communities

in technologically simple societies. Such societies are
often called by various names, such as, traditional, non-
industrialized or simple societies. Anthropologists of the
early 1900s emphasized the study of social and cultural
differences among human groups. Here, many of the
indigenous peoples of the non-western world and their
social and cultural features were studied in detail and
documented. This approach is called ethnography. By
the mid-1900, however, anthropologists attempted to
discover universal human patterns and the common bio-
psychological traits that bind all human beings. This
approach is called ethnology. Ethnology aims at the
comparative understanding and analysis of different
ethnic groups across time and space (Kottak, 2002;
Scupin and DeCorse, 1995).
10
Box 1.3. Difference between ethnography and

ethnology
Ethnography: description of the culture of a certain
group of people.
Ethnology: Anthropological attempt to discover
universal human patterns and the common bio-
psychological traits that bind all human beings.
1.3. Subject Matter and Scope of Anthropology

The subject matter of anthropology is very vast. The
subject covers all aspects of human ways of life and
culture, as humans live in a social group relationship.
Discovering the meaning, nature, origin, and destiny of
humanity is one of the key concerns of anthropology.
According to the present stage of scientific knowledge
attained in anthropology, the term humanity or mankind
is a very difficult term to define. Anthropologists seem to
be unsure whether humanity is absolutely dichotomous
with other lower forms of animals. Some may even tend
to regard humanity and non-humanity as something that
is best understood in the form of continuum. This sense
of continuum may be particularly in terms of time scale.
Thus, the farther we go in time backwards, the narrower
11
becomes the difference between humanity and non-

humanity.
It has now become a generally accepted fact in

anthropology, although no full evidences are
forthcoming, that humanity is a product of the
evolutionary processes, and that humans have evolved
from their closest living primates (Bryan, 1997; Behe,
1996).
Anthropology is interested in some of the following

questions and issues about humans:
• Where did human species come from (i.e. what
are the origins of mankind)?
• Were human beings created in the image and
likeness of God, or were they just the products of
millions of years of the natural, evolutionary
process?
• In what ways does man differ from other animal
species?
• How did mankind arrive at the present stage of
biological, intellectual, and cultural development?
12
Is there a common human nature, and if so, what

is it like?
• In what ways do humans who live in various
times and places differ?
• How can we explain why cultures vary?
Such and many other related questions are the
concerns of anthropology.
Anthropologists try to know and explain about the

technological, economic, political and intellectual
development of humanity. They attempt to discover the
extent to which different human populations vary in their
biological and social characteristics and to understand
why these differences exist.
Anthropologists are, for example, interested to know and

explain why a pregnant woman in Gumuz goes to a
bush to give birth during labor, how the Nuer practice
birth control methods and why they put horizontal line
marks on their forehead, or why the Wolayta put a
circular body mark on their cheek while the Tigreans put
a cross mark on their foreheads, etc.
13
Although anthropologists investigate the distinctive

features of different cultures, they also study the
fundamental similarities among people throughout the
world (Scupin and De Corse, 1995). They try to find out
what factors account for the similarities in certain beliefs,
practices and institutions that are found across cultures.
They grapple with explaining why cultural universals
exist. Are these cultural similarities results of diffusion
(i.e., a certain material culture or non-material culture
created in a certain society diffuses to other societies
through contact, war, trade, etc)? Or are they due to
independent creation (i.e., certain cultural items created
by two or more societies without one copying from the
other)? Anthropologists have debated taking different
sides while attempting to answer these questions.
1.4. Distinguishing Features of Anthropology

We may identify five distinguishing marks of
anthropology:
1. Its Broad Scope

The main distinguishing characteristic of anthropology,
the thing that makes it different from the many other
fields that also include people as their subject mater is
14
its broad scope. A good way to emphasize this broad

scope is to say that anthropologists are interested in all
human beings, whether living or dead, ''primitive'' or ''
civilized'' and that they are interested in many different
aspects of humans, including their skin color, family
lives, marriages, political systems, tools, personality
types, and languages. No place or time is too remote to
escape the anthropologist's notice. No dimension of
human kind, from genes to art styles, is outside the
anthropologist's attention (Kottak, 1994, 2002; Howard
and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992)
2. Its Unique Approaches

I. Anthropology is Holistic: Studying one aspect of the
ways of life of a group of people by relating it to other
complex related aspects of life.
II. Anthropology is Relativistic: Anthropology tries to
study and explain a certain belief, practice or
institution of a group of people in its own context. It
does not make value judgment, i.e., declaring that
‘this belief or practice is good’ or ‘that is bad.’
III. Anthropology is Comparative: Anthropology studies
certain aspects of the culture of a group of people by
comparing it across societies and different times; i.e.,
15
the present with the past, the modern with the

traditional, etc.
3. Emphasis on Insiders' View: Anthropologists

focus on how the people themselves understand
about their world, how a particular group of people
explains about the world, etc. This is what
anthropologists call emic perspective.
4. The Micro-focus: This is another distinguishing

mark of anthropology. Anthropology focuses on
small-scale society or community. The kinds of
social groups or communities anthropologists study,
whether they are in traditional or modern world, are
usually small scaled in their social organization,
economic and political structure, and tend to be
homogenous in their overall character.
5. Its Method of Research: The hallmarks of

anthropology are qualitative research methods such
as extended fieldwork, focus- group discussion,
participant observation, in-depth and key
informant interviews. Although these methods are
now practiced in other behavioral sciences as well,
16
no other discipline seems to be so associated with

and employs such methods as anthropologists.
Box 1.4. Distinguishing features of anthropology

1. Its broad scope
2. Its unique approaches: Holism, relativism and
comparativism
3. Emphasis on insider’s view
4. The micro-focus
5. Its methods of research: emphasis on extended
field work
1.5. Sub-fields of Anthropology

As indicated earlier, the interests and subject- matter of
anthropology are wide-ranging. This broad discipline is
usually divided in four main sub-fields. These are:
physical anthropology, sociocultural anthropology,
linguistic anthropology and archaeological
anthropology. Sometimes, applied anthropology is
added as a fifth sub-field. A brief discussion of the four
major sub-fields is as follows.
17
1.5.1. Physical Anthropology

Physical anthropology is the branch of anthropology
most closely related to the natural sciences, particularly
biology; that is why it is often called biological
anthropology (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Howard and
Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). It studies the biological dimensions
of human beings, including biological evolution, the
physical variations between contemporary populations,
and the biology and behavior of non-human primates.
Physical anthropology itself is further divided into three
special fields of study: paleoanthropology, primatology
and anthropometry.
Paleoanthropology: is a subspecialty in physical

anthropology which is interested in the search for fossil
remains from prehistoric times to trace the development
of outstanding human physical, social and cultural
characteristics. Paleoanthropology is the study of
human evolution through analysis of fossil remains.
Paleoanthropologists use a variety of sophisticated
techniques to date, clarify and compare fossil bones to
determine the links between modern humans and their
biological ancestors (ibid. p3)
18
Despite the highly acclaimed Darwinian theory of human

origins, that humans are evolved from lower life forms, it
may be appropriate to state that many writers in the
evolutionary circle argue that there are limits to fossil
evidences and paleoanthropology has many problems
to tackle (Behe, 1996). As Bryan (1995) suggests, the
great theory of Darwinian Evolution rests on so little
evidence. Paleoanthropologists are aware of this
limitation but textbook accounts of origins of human
beings tend to neglect them.
Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of

primates, that is, the animals that most closely
resemble human beings in terms of physiological and
anatomical structure, is an important field in physical
anthropology. Primatologists observe primates such as
gorillas, chimpanzees, gibbons, and orangutans in their
natural habitats to ascertain the similarities and
differences between these other primates and humans
(ibid, same page).
Primatological research helps us understand what

human beings share with other animals, what makes
19
them part of the natural world and their unique

characteristics (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992).
Anthropometry: The study of human variations within

and among different populations in time and space,
human ecology, population genetics, etc make up the
central concerns of this sub-branch of physical
anthropology. These physical differences may be in
terms of blood types, skin colors, skull shape, facial
shape, hair texture, and the like. Anthropometry shades
some light on how differing physical characteristics have
helped human groups adapt different geographical
environments. Population genetics, the study of
biological inheritance plays an important role in
anthropometry, what is sometimes termed as biological
anthropology (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Howard and
Dunaif-Hattis, 1992).
The investigation of human variations among living

populations has led to the application of the knowledge
in solving practical problems. The development of a
specialty known as forensic anthropology is one of the
results of these attempts. Forensic anthropology is the
identification of human skeletal remains for medical and
20
legal purposes. Forensic anthropologists work often with

other forensic specialists in aiding criminal
investigations. Forensic anthropologists attempt to
determine the sex, age at death, ancestral background,
and stature of the deceased individual. Using this
knowledge, forensic anthropologists identify crash
victims, war causalities, homicide victims, and skeletal
remains in unmarked graves (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis,
1992; Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Kotttak, 2002).
1.5.2. Sociocultural Anthropology

This is also often called social anthropology or cultural
anthropology. It is concerned with the social and cultural
dimensions of the living peoples (Pritchard 1995); and
with the description and analysis of people’s lives and
traditions (Podolefsky and Brown, 1997). Socio-cultural
anthropology studies the social, symbolic or non-
material and material lives of contemporary and
historically recent human societies, taking the concept of
culture central to its goal (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis,
1992).
Cultural anthropologists conduct studies of living

peoples, most often by visiting and living among a
21
particular people for an extended period of time, usually

a year or longer (Keesing 1981). They conduct fieldwork
among the people they study and describe the results of
their investigations in the form of books and articles
called ethnographies. Cultural anthropology is also
concerned with making generalizations about, and
seeking explanations for, similarities and differences
among the world's people. Those who conduct
comparative studies to achieve these theoretical goals
are called ethnologists. Thus, two important aspects of
social/cultural anthropology are ethnography and
ethnology. The former is more of empirical study or
description of the culture and ways of lives of a
particular group of people, while the latter is more of a
theoretical study of the similarities and differences
among the human groups of the world, past or present.
There are many other specialized fields of study in

social or cultural anthropology. Some of these include:
anthropology of art, medical anthropology,
urban/rural/economic anthropology, political
anthropology, development anthropology, anthropology
of religion, legal anthropology, demographic
22
anthropology, ecological anthropology, psychological

anthropology, ethnomusicology, etc.
1.5.3. Archaeological Anthropology

Archaeology studies the ways of lives of past peoples by
excavating and analyzing the physical remains they left
behind. Artifacts are the material remains of human
societies (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). Archeologists
also study ecofacts, the footprints on the ecology by the
past societies. This helps reveal the way human
societies interacted with their local ecosystems. Tools,
ornaments, pottery, animal bones, human skeletal
material, and evidence of how people lived in the distant
past are collected, and systematically analyzed.
Archeological anthropology has three major goals: 1)

classifying and sequencing material culture; 2)
reconstructing ancient ways of life; and 3) explaining
and delineating cultural processes (Howard and Dunaif-
Hattis, 1992).
23
Some branches of study in archeology include:
Prehistoric archeology: Prehistoric archeology

investigates human prehistory; that is the periods of time
in a region before the art of writing developed. Many
anthropological archeologists study societies that did not
leave behind any written records. Prehistoric archeology
uses material remains to reconstruct prehistoric life
ways; it also studies contemporary peoples whose styles
of life are analogous and or comparable to those of
ancient peoples. For example, by studying the ways of
life of present hunter and gatherer societies, prehistoric
archeologists can gain insights into the ways in which
the ancient foraging peoples lived (Ibid. P. 11)
Ethnoarcheology: This may be regarded as an aspect

of prehistoric archeology. It is an approach to
ethnographic analogy in which archeologists make their
own observation of the contemporary cultures rather
than relying on information provided by cultural
anthropologists.
Historical archaeology: uses the evidence provided by

excavated remains to enhance our understanding of
24
historic peoples; that is, peoples who had writing and

about whom written records are available. Historical
archeologists study sites dating from historic times.
Much of the work of historical archeologists has been to
help preserve historical sites (Ibid. p12).
Classical archeology: Is an aspect of historic

archeology; it deals primarily with the ancient
civilizations and empires of Europe and the Middle East,
including Egypt, Greece, Roman and Persia, Axum, etc.
There are several other specialized areas of study and

research in archeology such as industrial archeology,
underwater archeology, marine archeology, cognitive
archeology, experimental archeology, biblical
archeological, cultural resource management, and so
on.
1.5.4. Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists
describe and analyze the sound patterns, combinations
of sounds, meanings and structure of sentence in
human languages (Kottak, 1994). They also attempt to
determine how two or more languages are related.
Historically, modern linguists are especially interested in
25
whether all human languages share any universal

common feature. Some recent work suggests that
human infants are born with knowledge of a set of
generalized rules that allow them to discover the specific
rules of language around them and to formulate new
sentences by applying these rules.
The terms linguistic anthropology anthropological

linguistics, and ethnolinguistics are often used
interchangeably in the linguistic anthropology literature.
However, the more preferred term is linguistic
anthropology. It is defined as “the study of speech and
language within the context of anthropology…. It is the
study of language as a cultural resource and speaking
as a cultural practice.” (Durnati, 1997:1).
Linguistic anthropology usually focuses on unwritten

languages (i.e., those languages which have no form of
writing, languages used by indigenous peoples of the
non-western societies). It is especially concerned with
relations between language and other aspects of human
behavior and thought. Linguistic anthropologists might
describe and analyze a language so far unknown to
linguistic science. The branch of linguistic anthropology,
26
called sociolinguistics is interested in how the

language is used in various social contexts. For
example, what speech style must one use with people of
higher social standing? How does a local political leader
use language to earn people's allegiance? What can the
naming of various parts of the natural and social
environment tell as about people's perception of their
environments?
A second important branch called historical linguistics

focuses on the comparison and classifications of
different languages to discern the historical links
between them. This historical linguistic research is
particularly useful in tracing the migration routes of
various societies through time (Scupin and De Corse,
1995).
Another branch, called structural linguistics, studies

the structure of linguistic patterns. Structural linguists
compare grammatical patterns and other linguistic
elements to find out how contemporary languages are
similar to and different from one another.
27
1.5.5. Applied Anthropology

Applied anthropology, the application of
anthropological knowledge, methods and approaches to
the solving of human problems, is often now seen as a
fifth major branch of anthropology, although it is not
well-established as the traditionally known four fields.
Applied anthropology involves the use of data gathered
in other subfields of anthropology in an endeavor to
tackle contemporary societal problems. Anthropologists
have increasingly become concerned with practically
dealing with human problems (Bodley, 1996; Podolefsky
and Brown, 1993). The problems may include:
environmental, technological, economic, social, political
or cultural. Applied anthropologist now work in quite
many areas of relevance such as education, mass
medical, medicine, development, business, agriculture,
crime and urban poverty, etc (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995; Kottak, 2002).
28
Box 1.5. Major branches and specializations in

anthropology
• Five major branches of anthropology: physical
anthropology, Sociocultural anthropology,
archeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology
and applied anthropology
• Specializations in physical anthropology:
primatology, paleoanthropology, anthropometry,
population genetics, forensic anthropology
• Specializations in sociocultural anthropology:
medical anthropology, urban anthropology,
anthropology of religion, ecological anthropology,
demographic anthropology, development
anthropology, economic anthropology, etc
• Specializations in archeological anthropology:
historical archeology, prehistoric archeology,
Ethnoarcheology, classic archeology, underwater
archeology, biblical archeology, cultural resource
management, etc
• Specializations in linguistic anthropology:
sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, structural
linguistics, etc
29
1.6. Contributions of Anthropology

The contributions of anthropology may be categorized in
to the following (World Book Encyclopedia 1994, Vol. 1,
Howard and Dunaif-Hattis 1992; Aoyagi, 1999):
1. Anthropology gives us an insight into different ways

and modes of life of a given society, to understand
the logic behind and justification for human activities
and behavior.
2. Anthropology also helps us understand our own
ways of lives. Many aspects of our lives seem to us
normal, so we don't know the logic behind. Eating
injera, for example, is assumed to be normal to
those whose staple (main) food item is injera. By
studying anthropology, we look into ourselves
through the others' ways of lives. As we study
anthropology, we encounter a different way of lives
from ourselves, and hence we get opportunity to
appreciate and understand ourselves.
3. Anthropology helps us fight against prejudices and

discriminations. It helps us fight against
ethnocentrism; the attitude that one's own culture
and one's own way of life is the center of the world
30
and the best of all. This arises from ignorance about

other ethnic groups and their ways of lives.
4. Anthropology is also used as a tool for development.

Applied anthropology, here, is the application of
anthropological knowledge and research results in
the solution of some social problems or in the
implementation of project plans.
In addition to the aforementioned points, we may

substantiate the contributions of anthropology as
follows:
1. Because of its broad scope, anthropology allows us

to understand the biological, technological and
cultural development of humanity over long period of
time in human evolution.
2. Because of its comparative approach to humanity,
anthropology allows us to separate what is unique to
our way of life from what is general to all people.
3. Because of its relativistic approach, anthropology
helps us to be more sensitive and appreciative of
cultural diversity and variability. It helps us to avoid
some of the misunderstanding that commonly arises
31
when individuals of different cultural traditions come

into contact. Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism by
instilling an appreciation of cultural diversity.
Anthropology can help us be aware that when we
interact with people from other cultural traditions,
their actions are not always intended to mean what
we take them to mean, and therefore much
miscommunication can be avoided. Health workers
involved in health care provision in various cultural
settings will find it very helpful if they develop this
mentality.
4. Anthropologists bring a holistic approach to national

and international development agencies.
5. Anthropologists use their expertise in particular

subjects to formulate practical ways of coping with
immediate social problems. Medical anthropologists,
for example, investigate the interrelationship
between human health, nutrition, and cultural beliefs
and practices.
32
In general, anthropology more than any other sciences,

can reveal the alternative ways of living developed by
diverse segments of humanity.
Before closing this section, it is important to note why

health/ medical sciences students need to take a course
in sociocultural anthropology. The following are some of
the arguments for the necessity of such a course:
1. Health, disease and illness are as much
sociocultural in their nature as they are physical.
2. So far, despite certain steps being taken, the

dominant trend in the medical/ health sciences
training is to highly focus on the biomedical and
ecological dimensions of health and disease.
However, given the bio-psycho-social nature of
human being and health, this is very partial. This
restricted approach to health disease does not
provide the students with appropriate and whole
picture about the issue. Such highly narrow focus in
the training of heath professionals and design of
health policies and strategies is not appropriate.
33
3. In the objective realties of developing societies such

as Ethiopia human health and wellbeing are deeply
linked to sociocultural factors such as the
entrenched poverty, the roles of traditional values
and institutions in shaping people’s worldviews
about health and disease.
1.7. The Relationship between Anthropology

and Other Disciplines
1.7.1. Similarity between Anthropology and Other

Disciplines
Anthropology is similar with other social sciences as to
its subject matter. All the social sciences such as
sociology, psychology, political sciences, economics,
history, etc, study, in one way or another, the human
society and its ways of lives. Anthropology greatly
overlaps with other disciplines that study human society.
For example, anthropological field workers are likely to
collect information on a society's agriculture, leadership
patterns, and beliefs about the universe (physical world),
music and art forms. They might find it useful to be
acquainted with the works of economists, geographers,
34
CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES AND RESEARCH
METHODS IN SOCIOCULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Learning Objectives
After completing this Chapter, students will be able to:
• Describe the main perspectives or theories in
socio-cultural anthropology;
• Understand the forces that shaped the
development of anthropological theories; and
• Describe the main characteristics and types of
anthropological research methods
2.1. Theories in Sociocultural Anthropology

It may be appropriate here to define what a theory is. “A
theory is a statement or statements of how and why
specific facts are related” (Macionis, 1997: 15) Scupin
and DeCorse (1995) define a theory as a set of
interconnected hypotheses that offer general
explanations for natural or social phenomena.
38
It should also be noted that the terms “perspectives” and

“schools of thought” are often used interchangeably with
the term “theory”.
Below is a brief discussion of the emergence and

development of major anthropological theories in terms
of their basic premises, explanatory power and
weaknesses.
2.1.1. Evolutionism
This theory may also be termed as the theory of cultural
or sociocultural evolution (Zanden, 1990). Evolutionism
dominated anthropological thinking mainly during the
latter part of 19th century. In fact, some argue that the
growth of anthropology as a science is tied up with the
development of the doctrine of evolution; neither could
have developed with out the other (Calverton, 1931).
The 19th century evolutionary theory in anthropology had
especially two prominent proponents, who developed
what is termed as unilineal evolution. These were
Edward B. Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan. Unilineal
evolution is the view that societies evolve in a single
direction toward complexity, progress and civilization. It
39
was interested in enplaning why societies are at similar

or different stages of evolution and development.
Developments in Darwinian evolution also helped a lot

in shaping the evolutionary thinking of the early thinkers
such as Herbert Spencer, Henry Morgan, George
Frazer, among others, although evolutionary thinking
predates Darwinian ideas. A generally accepted view
about sociocultural evolution is that “it is the process of
change and development in human societies that results
cumulative change in their stores of cultural information”
(Lenski and Lenski, 1982: 60). The basic idea behind
evolutionism is that the history of humanity and its socio-
cultural systems have developed following unilineal
path, from simple to complex. The evolutionary
approach was applied to understand the development of
culture over time. The basic premise of this theory is that
Culture does appear to evolve in a way that is

similar in its process to that of biological
evolution. And over all, the development of
human society from most ancient times to the
present has been marked by persistent
40
progression from technological and societal

simplicity to complexity (Hammond, 1971: 394).
This theory contended “those societies [that were] able

to develop new social and cultural forms that facilitate a
more efficient adaptation to changing environmental
circumstances had a better chance of competing for
survival. Those that did not risked extinction” (ibid. p
392).
The 19th century evolutionary theory was criticized as an

ethnocentric one, which regarded western societies as
the center of civilization and others as inferior. It paved
the way for the colonization processes and racist
ideologies which latter dominated political thinking. Their
views were contradicting, much speculative and their
evidences were second hand (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995).
2.1.2. Diffusionism
Diffusionism developed in early part of 20th century; it
was also interested in explaining why societies are at
similar or different stages of development. This theory
41
maintained that societal change occurs when societies

borrow cultural traits from one another. Cultural
knowledge regarding technology, economy, religious
views, etc, diffuses or spreads from one society to
another. This may explain the similarities in cultural
features between societies. Some extreme line of
thought in this theory, called the British diffusionism,
argued that all sorts of civilization originated in Egypt
and spread to other societies. The weakness of this
theory, like evolutionism, was that it was ethnocentric in
its assumptions. The diffusionists believed that non-
western societies are inherently inferior, saying that
these peoples are not innovative in creating civilizations.
However, diffusionism has some validity in that it helps
to explain the emergence of classical civilizations such
as those in Egypt, Greece, and Rome (Howard and
Dunaif-Hattis, 1992; Scupin and DeCorse, 1995).
2.1.3. Historical Particualrism

This theory developed in early 20th century mainly in
reaction to unilineal evolution. An American
anthropologist, named Franz Boas, pioneered it. This
theory provided an alternative to the question of why
societal differences and similarities exist. Boas greatly
42
influenced the development of anthropology in the 20th

century. He strongly opposed the unilineal evolutionary
theory, and advanced the need for empirical field-based
ethnographic research to explain and understand each
society and culture in its historical contexts. Historical
Particualrism thus maintains that each society has its
own particular historical development. This view led to
the development of the idea of cultural relativism
(ibid.)
2.1.4. Functionalism
This perspective is one of the dominant theories both in
sociocultural anthropology and sociology. The theory
regards culture as an integrated whole (Howard and
Dunaif-Hattis, 1992), and tries to explain how the
relationships among the parts of society are created and
how these parts are functional (meaning having
beneficial consequences to the individual and the
society) and dysfunctional (meaning having negative
consequences). The theory sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity
and stability; it states that our social lives are guided by
social structure, which are relatively stable patterns of
social behavior (Macionis, 1997).
43
All social structures contribute to the operation of

society. Two dominant British anthropologists in
functionalism were Radcliff Brown and Bronslaw
Malinowski, representing two strands in the theory:
structural functionalism, which stresses the
preeminence of society and its structure over the
individuals, and how the various elements of the social
structure function to maintain social order and
equilibrium; and psychological functionalism, which
stresses individual needs to be met by society.
The weakness of functionalist theory was that it failed to

explain why societies different or similar. Functionalist
anthropology assumed an orderly world, paying little or
no attention to competition and conflict (Howard and
Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). The theory was ahistorical,
neglecting historical processes. (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995) The theory was also unable to explain social and
cultural change, as it viewed society as stable and
unchanging. Despite these weaknesses, functionalism
influenced a great deal of empirical research in
anthropology.
44
2.1.5. Culture and Personality

This perspective, also called psychological anthropology
has enjoyed dominance in the history the field,
particularly in the first half of 20th century. The
proponents of the culture and personality school
maintained that the various patterned aspects of culture
shape the personality of individuals within a given
society, and also personality once developed could in
turn affect the further development of culture (Hammond
1971). The theory is an outgrowth of the search for the
mechanism of cultural integration (Howard and Dunaif-
Hattis, Op cit).
The theory was influenced by and neo-Freudian

psychology, which emphasized the primacy of infantile
and early childhood experience in shaping the
personality. Following the development of this school,
many anthropologists attempted to study the national
characters (representative personality types) across
cultures. In so doing, anthropologists have employed the
psychological concepts such as conditioned stimuli and
responses, drives, rewards, punishments, conflicts,
dreams, ego systems, id impulses, attitudes, values,
cognitive orientations, ideas, etc (Clifton 1968). Early
45
influential contributors to the culture and personality

perspective such as Bronslaw Malinwoksi and Margaret
Mead attempted to show that psychological traits vary
widely across cultures; that societies instill different
values by training children differently. Adult personalities
reflect a culture’s child-rearing practices (Kottak, 1994).
2.1.6. Neo-functionalism
This theory is a variety of theories of conflict in
anthropology, which developed after the II World War. It
developed in response to the weakness in functionalist
anthropology in dealing with the issues of conflict,
competition and disequilibrium. Proponents of this
theory criticized functionalists for disregarding conflict as
an inherent part of social organization. Neo-
functionalists succeeded in bringing into light the issue
of conflicts and change, but they still failed to deal with
the issues of fundamental structural changes. Social
order was considered a given, rather than something be
explained (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis 1992).
2.1.7. Marxist Anthropology

Marxist anthropological theory derives directly or
indirectly from the writings of Karl Marx. Basing some of
46
his ideas on the 19th century evolutionary thinking, Marx

stated that societies pas through different stages of
development. This theory is basically materialistic as it
assumes that the systems of producing material goods
influences and shapes society. Unlike functionalists who
stressed order, stability and equilibrium in society,
Marxist anthropology argued that society is in constant
struggle of social class conflicts among the dominant
and minority groups in society. Unlike neo-functionalists,
Marxist anthropologists “are concerned specifically with
the transformation of social orders and the relationships
between conflict and cultural evolution” ( Ibid. P.372).
Current Marxian anthropologists reject the unilineal
model of societal development suggested by Marx.
Some of Marx’s predictions regarding the socialist and

communist stages of societal development happened to
be wrong. Despite these shortcomings, Marxian
analytical approach is valid to understanding societal
development (Scupin and DeCorse 1995).
2.1.8. Cultural Ecology

The school of cultural ecology, also termed as neo-
evolutionism, attempts to explain the human condition
47
in relation to the environment. Broadly defined, cultural

ecology refers to “the dynamic interrelationship between
man and the material and cultural components of his
environment” (Hammond, 1971: 397). An extreme view
of this school argued that the environment determines
culture. However, anthropologists now reject the idea of
geographical determinism. The main idea behind the
modern school of cultural ecology is that each culture is
seen as a specific instance of patterned adaptation to a
specie environment; the dynamic interaction between
man and his environment is such that culture modifies
the environment and the latter also puts its limits to
human culture.
The cultural ecology perspective emphasizes how

human use of nature influences and is influenced by
social organization and cultural values (Kottak, 2002).
The strength of their theory is that it, unlike the 19th
century evolutionism, was not ethnocentric and racist; it
also did not assume that socio-cultural evolution toward
complexity is always equated with progress; some
aspects of small-scale societies are better than those of
complex societies. The theory, however, is criticized as
neglecting historical and political aspects; stressing the
48
environment; the theory tends to reduce human

behavior to simple adaptations to the external
environment (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995).
2.1.9. Cultural Materialism

The theory of cultural materialism may be regarded as
an outgrowth of neo-evolutionism or cultural ecology.
Anthropologist Marvin Harris mainly advanced it. The
theory states that the key factors in and determinants of
socio-cultural evolution are the infrastructures that
include technology, environment and material
conditions. As the infrastructure of a society changes,
the other aspects of society also change accordingly.
2.1.10. Structuralism
Structuralism is one of a new group of theories in
anthropology known as studies of cognitive structure.
This schools of thought, including structuralism,
ethnosciecne, and symbolic anthropology, give
attention to the cognitive or underlying mental structures
that provide order to culture. Structuralism, advanced by
its famous French structuralist anthropologist, Claude
Levi-Strauss, states that “the origin of universal
principles that order the ways in which we behave and
49
think about the world is to be found in the structure of

human thought.”(Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992:373).
The problem with this theory is that they view societies
as static and do not help very much in explaining
variation among societies. The theory treats culture as a
given order and fails to explain the adaptive dimensions
of culture.
2.1.11. Ethnoscience
The search for the underlying structural principles of
culture led specially in United States to a variety of
studies in cognitive structure known as ethnoscience.
This is sometimes referred to as cognitive
anthropology (Ibid. p.373). The focus of ethnosciecne
is to discover and describe the structural principles of
specific culture by detailed ethnographic data analysis.
Ethnoscientists are mainly interested in understanding
and describing how a specific people view their world;
what are the manner in which a specific people perceive
and structure their environment through language; and
the nature of the rules and principles that guide their
decision making (Ibid. p. 374).
50
2.1.12. Symbolic Anthropology

This theory focuses on the symbolic rather than material
aspect of culture. It is the study of culture through the
interpretation of the meaning of symbols, values and
beliefs in society. The theory disagrees with cultural
materialism in that many cultural symbols cannot be
reduced to the material conditions and adaptive
mechanism of a society (ibid. p 263). The cultural
symbols are autonomous of from the material forces.
The proponents of this theory regard cultural traditions

as texts to be interpreted and described by
ethnographers. The criticism leveled against symbolic
anthropology is that it focuses exclusively on cultural
symbols at the expense of other factors that may shape
human behavior and thought. Critics argue that symbolic
culture cannot be separately treated from other political,
economic, and socio-historical factors.
51
Table 2.1. Summary of theories in sociocultural anthropology

Ser no. Name of the What is it? What Strengths Weaknesses
theory does it state?
1. Unilineal Human society and The first systematic 1.Ethnocentric
evolutionism culture develop attempt to explain 2. Racist
gradually from simple why societies are 3. Armchair
to complex, primitive similar and different speculation
to “civilization”
2. Diffusionism Cultures change Useful in explain 1. Ethnocentric
through the spread of the development of 2. Assumed that
ides and traits from classic cultures non-western
centers of innovation societies are
to other areas inherently inferior
52
3. Historical Each culture is a Rejected racism; Did not take into

Particualrism unique entity, it has Promoted the idea account broader
to be studied and of cultural factors beyond a
documented in its relativism; helped particular culture.
historical context; ethnographic,
empirical research
grow.
4 Functionalism Society and culture Promoted empirical Ahistorical; did not
are integrated, ethnographic deal with change,
holistic entities research highly conflict; too much
focus on stability
and order.
5 Culture and Main cultural themes Promoted Too much focus on
personality shape individuals’ understanding of Neo-Freudian
53
character and the the personality and psychology

vice versa culture dynamics
6. Neo- A modification of Filled gaps in Takes social order
functionalism functionalist theory, functionalist theory; as a given fact;
explaining the issue accommodating the failed to deal with
of order in terms of issue of conflict and issues of
conflict and competition fundamental
competition structural changes
7. Marxist Society is in constant Valid to Some of its
anthropology struggle of social understanding assumptions and
class conflicts among societal predictions failed to
the dominant and development occur; neglecting
minority groups in issues of stability
society an unity
54
8. Cultural The dynamic Is not ethnocentric Neglecting

ecology interaction between and rejected historical and
culture and the unilineal evolution; political aspects;
ecology stated some of stressing the
small-scale cultures environment; the
are more useful theory tends to
and adaptive reduce human
behavior to simple
adaptations to the
external
environment
9. Cultural The key factors in Explains well how Too much focus on
materialism and determinants of the material forces material
socio-cultural help create and dimensions of
55
evolution are the change other non- society

infrastructures which material aspects
include technology,
environment and
material conditions
10. Structuralism The origin of Promotes the idea Views societies as
universal principles that human mind static and do not
that order the ways in and nature are help very much in
which we behave and fundamentally explaining variation
think about the world similar, the same among societies;
is to be found in the underlying treats culture as a
structure of human universal principles given order and
thought help people create fails to explain the
their culture and adaptive
56
order their lives dimensions of

culture
11. Ethnoscience Interested in Promotes the value Too much focus on
describing how a of ach people’s specific cultures;
specific people view own cognitive neglecting the
their world; what are understanding of material
the manner in which their world dimensions of
people perceive and culture
structure their
environment through
language; and the
nature of the rules
and principles that
guide their decision
57
making
12. Symbolic The study of culture Contributed Focuses
anthropology through the towards the idea exclusively on
interpretation of the that symbolic cultural symbols at
meaning of symbols, culture is important the expense of
values and beliefs in in its own right. other factors that
society may shape human
behavior and
thought.
58
UNIT
BASICS OF SOCIAL CULTURAL

ANTHROPOLOGY
2
CONTENTS
I. Meaning and Scope
· British and American Traditions
Introduction
II. Concept of Culture
· Definition of culture  From where did you acquire your
· Culture vis-a-vis Civilisation
· Material and Non-material Culture mother tongue?
 How did you learn to eat?
III. Concepts related to Culture  How did you learn to worship?
· Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
· Emic and Etic Culture
· Culture Trait and Culture Complex
All these are not inherited by birth,
· Enculturation but learned and acquired from one's family,
· Acculturation peer groups, schools or from other social
· Culture Shock
· Culture lag
groups. We learn many things from our
family, even before we step into the school
IV. Concept of Society
· Meaning and Definition or mix into the society. Though we all learn
· Culture and Society these things from our respective families,
· Community differences might exist amongst us in our
· Institution
· Association ways of worshipping, the types of food we
· Group prefer, dress pattern, settlement pattern and
V. Role and Status so on.
· Achieved and Ascribed Status
VI. Social Structure and Social Organisation
 Why do these differences exist amongst
us?
VII. Ethnography and Ethnology
· Ethnography We learn these differential ways of life
· Brief History of Ethnographic Studies from our family, community and society.
· Ethnology Anthropologists study family, community,
society and religion as social institutions.
They also study the role of these institutions
Unit- 2: Basics of Social Cultural Anthropology
play in the process of learning certain ways of life that are different from another. As human
beings, we all live in a society, each characterised by a distinct way of life, which we call
culture. Hence, there is no human society without culture nor is culture possible in the
absence of society. Yet, the concepts, society and culture are abstract in nature. After
studying this unit, we shall get a vivid picture of what constitutes a society and its culture.
I. Meaning and Scope of Social Cultural Anthropology
The Branch of Anthropology that concerns with the study of social institutions and
the social and cultural aspects of human life is known as Social Cultural Anthropology. Till
early 19th century, the term Social Cultural Anthropology was not popular. Almost everyone
who was interested in the study of 'primitive' people and their culture was known as
Ethnologist. In Britain the major focus of anthropological studies was social relationship or
social structure. But in America the early anthropologists gave importance to the
understanding of culture or the way of life. In both the countries there are Universities with
Social Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology as subjects. In India, which had been
influenced by both the British and the American traditions, the term Social Cultural (or
Social and Cultural or Socio-Cultural) Anthropology is used increasingly. Hence, the main
focus of study of Social Cultural Anthropology is on both social structure and culture.
However, in different places without much of a difference this is almost interchangeably
referred to as Social Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, Socio - Cultural Anthropology,
Social and Cultural Anthropology or Social Cultural Anthropology. Yet, all these studies on
how human beings live throughout the world are concerned with the similarities and
differences among the contemporary cultures and societies.
Familiarity with some of the definitions of Social Cultural Anthropology would help
you to make an understanding of its scope.
Definitions
 According to Piddington 'Social Anthropologists study the cultures of
contemporary primitive communities'.
 Charles Winick defines Social Anthropology as 'the study of social behaviour
especially from the point of view of the systematic and comparative study of
social forms and institutions'
 Encyclopedia Britannica defines Social Anthropology'as a social science engaged
in the comparative study of human societies'.
41
Textbook for Class XI - Anthropology
 Beals and Hoijer in their book 'Introduction to Anthropology' (1956) state that
'Cultural Anthropology studies the origin and history of Man's cultures, their
evolution and development and the structure and functioning of human
culture in every place and time'.
 M.J. Herskovits, in his book 'Man and His Works' (1955) points out that Cultural
en
Anthropology studies the way man has devised to cope with natural settings
and social milieu, and how bodies of customs are learnt, retained and handed
down from one generation to the next'.
Analyse the above definitions, by focusing on the italicised part, find out the
characteristics of Social Cultural Anthropology.


m
It is a study of pre-literate as well as modern societies
It is a study of structure and function of societies
………………………
ci

 ………………………..
Why do we study Social Cultural Anthropology? The answer is quite evident.
pe
The main aim of social cultural Anthropology is to understand and

appreciate the diversity in human behaviour, and ultimately to develop a science
of human behaviour. This is attained through the comparison of different people
throughout the world.
All Anthropologists agree that some social cultural features are universal. That means,
S
they are almost common to all cultures. These include family, marriage, kinship, economic
organisation, political organisation, religious organisation, social control etc. Social Cultural
Anthropologists mainly focus on these universal aspects of culture to study the social
relationship. They study how these social institutions have originated and developed. They
also study the changes that have occurred in these institutions from the past to the present.
As you learned earlier, there are several sub-fields in social cultural anthropology. All these
specialised areas are closely related to each other. For instance, in our society, marriage is
formalised with the help and in consultation with other members of the family and society.
It might involve decision making, religious sanction and ceremonies, economic liability, etc.
Hence, the knowledge of the institution of marriage would be incomplete without the
knowledge of its links with other institutions like family, religion, economic and political
organisation, etc. All these aspects are studied in an interrelated manner, in Social Cultural
Anthropology, with an in-depth approach through its specialised fields.
42
As we have noticed earlier, while studying the social and cultural aspects of human
beings, emphasis is seen given either to society or to culture or both. This has become
more or less an approach or tradition in Britain and America.
British and American Traditions
en
If you had carefully read the definitions of Social Cultural Anthropology given in the
beginning, you would notice that some scholars have used the term Social Anthropology
and some others have used the term Cultural Anthropology. You must be curious to know
why they have used different titles for dealing with same or similar aspects. Likewise, you
might also come across books entitled 'Social Anthropology', 'Cultural Anthropology', as
m
well as 'Social and Cultural Anthropology' as given below:
ci
pe
Fig 2.1 Books showing different anthropological traditions

You will be interested to know if there is any difference in the content of their approach,
and how these differences came into being.
S
Examine the contents of some of these books available in your library

or through Internet Browsing and find out for yourself, if there are
differences in the subject matter of these books and in their approach,
and if so what? Discuss it in groups and prepare a discussion note for
presentation.
Anthropology is a large and diversified subject, which is practiced differently in
different nations. The term Social Anthropology is popular in Great Britain and other
Commonwealth countries. They emphasise on the study of social structure and social
relations. To them, society is more important than culture. Culture cannot exist without
human society. So they used the term social anthropology. The British Anthropologists like
Radcliffe-Brown, W.H.R. Rivers, Malinowski, Evans Pritchard and many others used the
term Social Anthropology in their writings. They concentrated on the study of social relations
43
such as family, marriage, kinship, economic

Evans Pritchard while
organisation, political organisation etc.
writing the history of
American Anthropologists on the other Anthropology writes,
“In Britain, the subject was
hand believed that culture is the most important
taught at Oxford since 1885
en
aspect of human existence. It is culture that makes under the name ‘Anthropology’
the human society distinct. They study the origin, not ‘Social Anthropology’ or
development and diversity of culture, and how it ‘Ethnology’. It was started in
is transmitted from generation to generation in Cambridge in 1900 and London
different societies. To them, culture includes in 1908. But the first University
society and hence they use the term 'cultural Chair which used the title Social
of Erikson and Herskovits, stated above.

m
anthropology'. This is evident from the definitions
Earlier, due to the influence of Britain, the

Anthropology was started in
1908.
(Source: Social Anthropology –
SL Doshi & PC Jain 2002)
ci
term 'Social Anthropology' was used in India also.
However, the influence of American anthropologists in Indian soil had changed the Indian
perspective in this regard. The Indian anthropologists realised that it is not possible to
separate society and culture in Indian context. Hence, they preferred to use the term that
pe
synthesised both the usages namely, social and cultural anthropology.
The main focus of Social Cultural anthropology is the study of culture and society. It
is essential to have a detailed understanding of these concepts. We have seen earlier that,
all of us do not have the same child rearing practices, same type of sheltering, and the same
food habits. All these have undergone changes over these years. But take the example of
S
animals. Have the child rearing practices, sheltering, and food habits of animals undergone
any change? No. Why is it so? What makes humans different from animal species? The
answer is clear. It is the way of life - culture - that makes humans different from animals.
Culture is changing. Hence, changes occur in human behaviour and way of life. This concept
of culture is the core subject of study in Social Cultural Anthropology.
II. Concept of Culture
A common way of life makes humans unique among other animals. However, all
human societies have no common way of life. It is culture which differentiates humans from
non-humans and among humans themselves. The term culture is used with different meaning.
As a scientific term, culture refers to all the features of a society's way of life like food
production, mode of dress, living habits, food preference, art, architecture and layout of
44
field farms, system of education, beliefs, values, art and literature. Thus, the term culture
stands for the sum total of all human behaviour - verbal and non-verbal - and all human-
made products - material and non-material.
The definitions of culture will help you to understand the concept in a better way.
en
Definitions of Culture
 According to M. J Herskovites "culture is the man-made part of environment"
 According to Ruth Benedict "culture is not the content of social life, but it is
an order and organisation of social life".


m
In the words of Bronislaw Kaspar Malinowski "culture comprises of inherited
artifacts, goods, technical process, ideas, habits and values".
The first Anthropological definition of culture was given by Edward Burnet Tylor
(1871). To him culture ……."is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
ci
beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of the society".
Analyse the definitions and trace out the characteristics of culture

pe
 Culture is complex
 Culture is created by humans
 Culture consists of material and non-material aspects
 Culture satisfies human need
Culture is always that of a society and not of an individual
S
 Culture has the quality of adaptation

 Culture is universal: it exists in all human societies
 Culture is learned: it is obtained through the process of enculturation and not by
hereditary
 Culture is diffused to other places through culture-contact
 No culture is inferior or superior
 ………………………..
 ………………………..
 ………………………..
45
From the above discussion we have seen that all human populations have culture.
There is no society in the world without culture. But some cultures are technologically
more advanced than others. Some cultures depend completely on nature for their livelihood,
while some others depend on the most modern technology for food production. Some are
literate and some others are not. The introduction of alphabet created remarkable changes
in all areas of human life. Some scholars, especially the early Anthropologists, considered
en
it as a stage of development of culture. They termed it as civilisation.
Culture vis-a-vis Civilisation
You have studied about many civilisations in your previous classes.

 Indus valley civilisation


………………..
………………..
m
What are the characteristics of life during these civilisations?
ci
 Housing, drainage, beliefs,……….. , ……….., ………
It is the way of life of the people of that period. Simply we can say that the way of
life of a particular society is culture. Some scholars distinguish culture from civilisation and
pe
consider civilisation as the peak of development of culture. To them civilisation is

characterised by civil social organisation in cities. That means, it is based on non-kinship
groups like local kings or rulers. This is in contrast with kinship organisation of traditional
society, where family, lineage and clan exerted influence on the members of the society.
The evolutionists like E B Tylor, L H Morgan and others considered civilisation as a
developed stage of culture. According to them society had passed through three successive
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stages of development namely, savagery, barbarism and civilisation. Civilisation is

characterised by the invention of alphabet and writing. All human societies have culture
and civilisation is one form of culture.
Discuss the following points in groups in the context of civilisation and

culture.
 No culture is inferior or superior

 Culture is universal
 If so, considering civilisation as a developed form of culture is not appropriate.
Consolidate your conclusions and present in the class.
46
We have seen that culture comprises visible items like dress, ornaments, house, etc.
and invisible items like knowledge, beliefs, morals, norms, customs, values etc. It shows
that some of the cultural elements are observable and others not. Invention of alphabet is
the characteristic feature of civilization. Can alphabet be included under visible items of
culture? Yes, it is visible when it is written. But it is meaningful only to those who recognize
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it as a symbol. For others, it is only some meaningless figures, mere signs. Hence, it cannot
be treated as a visible item of culture. Knowledge of the visible and invisible elements of
culture will help you to understand culture in a comprehensive way.
Material and Non-material Culture
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Culture comprises both material and non-material aspects. Those aspects of culture
which are visible are called material culture. According to Malinowski material culture is
the physical aspects of culture. It includes house, household articles, vehicles, dress,
ornaments, road, weapons, means of transport etc.
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The aspects of culture which are not visible are non-material culture. These include
knowledge, beliefs, values, religion, social organisation, philosophy, ideas, etc. They can
be understood only through close interactions with the people.
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List out the material and non-material elements connected with your
school and prepare a chart/table.
Check your progress

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1. Match the columns properly
A B
Social anthropology Indian Tradition

Cultural Anthropology British Tradition
Social Cultural Anthropology American Tradition
III. Concepts related to Culture
We have seen that the belief systems are important part of culture. There exist different
types of belief systems in different cultures. These belief systems have originated and
47
developed within the worldview of a particular culture. These may not be applicable to
other cultures.
Look at the following conversations. Whose viewpoint is correct?
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Wretched people
…. very delicious
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What inferences would you get from the above statements?
People often try to judge other cultures with their own cultural standards. This has
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resulted in creating lots of problems in a multicultural setting. Ethnic violence and cultural
conflicts are the results of these attitudes. Anthropology has always advocated against
judging other cultures with their own cultural standards. This has resulted in two famous
cultural concepts in Anthropology: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

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Ethnocentrism is an attitude of judging

other cultures based on the norms and values Poor fellow… sitting on
present in one's own culture. Most people floor and eating with hand?
grow up thinking that their culture is 'the' way Can’t he use dining table and
eat with knife and fork
of life and that of others' is strange and
meaningless. It is mainly because we consider
our own culture to judge other cultures. This
attitude is called ethnocentrism.
Now, we know that the terms like 'primitive', 'savage',

'barbarians' and so on had been used in an ethnocentric sense
even by the anthropologists. It is because, such ethnocentric
48
attitude dominated the studies of other cultures, during colonial period. The British, who
considered their life, language and culture superior to others, thought that it was 'white
men's burden' to civilise the colonies.
Opposite to ethnocentrism is the attitude of cultural relativism (Some use the
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term 'ethno relativism'). It is based on the idea that each
culture must be understood in its own standards. The
Can you support beliefs and values of a culture should not be used to
killing of people on grounds judge other cultures. The idea of cultural relativism holds
of ritual purity? the view that no culture is inferior or superior. One is not
better than others. Each culture contains its own unique
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pattern of behaviour. So, each culture must be judged on
the basis of its own norms and values. The attitude of cultural
relativism aims to respect and appreciate cultural diversities.
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The attitude of relativism can be developed by learning other
cultures, by way of making friendship, by sharing food, by reading
books, listening to music and by
appreciating the differences of Can untouchability be
other cultures. The most
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allowed on the basis of

important and valuable cultural relativism? Is the practice
contribution of anthropology to infanticide justifiable on the
humanity is the concept of grounds of relativism?
cultural relativism.
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Examine the above

conversations and discuss the
following points in your groups:
 Is it possible to take a cultural relativistic
stand, in a multi-ethnic cultural setting like
India?
 How far cultural relativism and violation 
of human rights go hand in hand? 
What are your findings and conclusions?

Present it in the form of a report.
49
Each culture views its belief and values as good and upright. For example, the practice
of untouchability, infanticide, and similar other practices are not considered as evil by an
insider (native). But the perception of other cultures may be different. This shows that what
an insider considers as culture may be different from that of an outsider's perception.
Anthropologists understand this difference mainly because they study 'other cultures'. These
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two views of culture can be understood by studying the concepts of emic and etic.
Emic and Etic Culture
What the people think about their own culture is emic and what an outsider thinks
about a culture other than his own is etic. The term emic refers to what insiders do and
why they do and the way they do.

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grasp about their own culture. It includes people's view of reality and their explanation of
Observe the emic and etic views from the following examples:
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Emic view Etic view
There is a local belief that the nails and hair The etic side of it may be that throwing nails
removed from the body are not to be and hairs carelessly is not hygienic, and it
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thrown in the open space, because there is will in turn mix up with food materials.
a chance of the same being used for black
magic causing harm to the person
concerned.
In Hindu families, the elders do not allow Keeping half of the coconut open will lead
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the coconut piece (half) open inside the to the coconut becoming dry and unfit for
home saying that it is done on the occasion use.
of death.
Do you know?
The words Emic and Etic had been coined by a linguist Kennath Pike. It has
been taken from the words phonemic and phonetic.
Cultural Anthropologists and Ethnographers always try to draw an emic view of

culture through participant observation. In ethnographic research, the researcher attempts
to compare the natives' (insiders') view of culture with that of an outsider. The view of a
native on the meaning and importance of her/his own culture and the perception of an
50
outsider about same are equally important. Local statements, perceptions, categories and
opinions help the ethnographers to understand how culture works within. At the same
time, an etic view could look to other explanations in an objective way without being
coloured by the emic view. Furthermore, the emic view might represent the hidden rationality
of a particular belief which the insiders might not be conscious of. To be holistic in one's
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study, the researcher should utilise both these views.
Collect the local beliefs and practices

known to you and find out the emic
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and etic meaning of those beliefs and practices.
You have studied about material and non-

material culture. You must now be able to list out the
Emic and Etic views
of the concept of
sacred cow
A group of people in India,

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material and non-material cultural elements of your do not kill or eat cows because
classroom. How far can these elements be divided they believe that cow is sacred.
further in a meaningful way? By taking your classroom They do not kill or sell their cattle
as a whole, try to list out all its elements. These would even in extreme needs. We can
include bench, desk, table, chair, chalk, window, see large population of cows,
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wandering freely through both

teaching, learning, friendship, respect, feelings, etc. rural areas and streets,
Can you divide these elements into further meaningful undisturbed by the millions of
units? For example if the desk is divided further, it hungry and malnourished people.
might lose its use-value and meaning. Cultural The concept of sacred cow
elements can be divided into the smallest meaningful actually plays an adaptive role in
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the ecosystem. Cattle are very

units, as minute aspects of culture. So, the study of essential in Indian economic set
smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is up where ploughs and carts are
indispensable for a holistic understanding of culture. pulled by the cattle, cattle manure
is used as fertilisers and fuel. For
Culture Trait and Culture Complex all these, the cows need to be
protected. The doctrine of ahimsa
The smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is towards cows puts full command
called 'culture trait'. It is the smallest functional unit of unorganized religion, not to
of a culture. If it is divided further, there will be no destroy the valuable resource
even in extreme needs.
meaning or function. Cultural trait can be material or
non-material. Material traits include house, radio, (Adapted from Marvin Harris,
mobile phone, watch, television, furniture, dress and 1974. Cows, Pigs, Wars and
ornaments and non-material traits include beliefs, Witches: The Riddles of Culture)
51
values, knowledge, concepts, symbols, gestures, world views, customs, traditions, hand-
shake, greetings, touching of feet, blessing, kissing, sprinkling of water on idols, saluting
flag, walking barefoot etc.
Large number of cultural traits that combine to form a meaningful segment of culture
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is called a culture complex. A cultural trait will be meaningless, if it is separated from the
culture complex. For example, a chalk, as a cultural trait, is important only if it is a part of
classroom education. When it is separated from classroom and put in an agricultural situation,
it will be meaningless. School, Family, religion, factory, agriculture, etc. are examples of
culture complexes. If kitchen is considered as a culture complex, then the items like stove,
utensil, mixer grinder, cooker, fridge, knife, glass, plate, the knowledge of making and
preserving food are all culture traits.
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List out the cultural traits taking family, religion, marriage etc. as
cultural complexes, and present the same in the form of a chart.
You must have seen the children involved in family role-play, taking up different
roles such as that of father, mother or sibling. From
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where did these children learn this game? It is a type of

Family is the basic
social unit for the process role imitation. They have seen their mother, father or
of enculturation other members in the family, in different roles. The
children imitate their elders. Similarly, we have imbibed
unconsciously many things from our family.
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 How did you learn the way of praying and

performing rituals?
 How did you learn to behave with other members in the society?
 From where did you learn the way of addressing your relatives?
 Observing and imitating parents
 ..........................
 ..........................
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Enculturation
Enculturation refers to the process

by which one learns the way of life and
behaviour of one's own culture. It will
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help the person to become an active
participant of that culture. An individual
can participate in the society, only if he/
she learns the norms and values that exist
in the society. A child learns toilet training,
the way of addressing relatives (kinship
terms), the way to behave with elders in
the family, the beliefs and practices of his/
m Fig. 2.2 Enculturation
her culture by imitating and observing. Thus

by imitating the elders in the society children
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acquire the knowledge of role which each
person had to perform, the role of father,
mother, grandmothers etc... How to face
problems, how to co-operate with others,
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way of welcoming others, (hospitality),

manners and how to look after the aged
people are to be imparted through family
itself. The process of enculturation starts
from birth and ends only at death. After
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learning the basic behaviour from family, the

person enters into society. When the
Fig. 2.3 Enculturation individual encounters new situations each
time in his/her life, one has to learn further
lessons of behaviour based on his/her basic learning. Even a grown-up person has to
understand how to tackle with one's occupation, how to interact with the spouse, in-laws
etc. So enculturation is a continuous process. The major agencies of enculturation include
parents, family members, elders, peer groups and society.
Sometimes a person learns other cultures willingly or unwillingly. For example, the
tribal children, though they have their own language or dialect to transact, learn the language
of other cultures while in contact. Likewise, a person is compelled to learn another language
while interacting with people in a new situation. In both these cases, original culture might
53
undergo change due to the influence of other culture. Anthropologists take interest in the
study of this process of culture change.
Acculturation
Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous
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contact with other culture. It occurs when one culture dominates over other culture(s). It
may happen intentionally or accidentally. For instance, Indian culture has undergone changes
due to continuous contact with western culture. Similarly tribal cultures in India and elsewhere
also witness widespread changes due to the contact with non - tribal cultures.
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Due to the political and technological changes in the past decades, isolated indigenous
populations all over the world are losing their identities. There are various forms of
acculturation like deculturation and transculturation.
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Deculturation is the process by which a culture loses its cultural identity due to
contact with other cultures. Many tribal cultures are losing their identity under domination
of external cultures.
Transculturation is the process of exchange of cultural traits among different

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cultures. Indian culture adopting English language and the European culture adopting
Ayurveda are examples of transculturation.
Find out instances of acculturation, deculturation, and

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transculturation from the situations known to you. List out those

instances of acculturation and present it in your class.
Culture Shock
Imagine a situation when you encounter an entirely different culture, with a strange
language, food pattern, housing pattern and belief system. The problem may sometimes
be simple or hazardous. List out the problems which you are likely to face in such a
situation:
 Problem of communication
 Problem of food
 ………………………
 ………………………
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Such a situation may include strangeness in

Do Anthropologists
the material culture, food ways, dress pattern, ideas,
get culture shock in the
concepts, beliefs, practices etc. The whole set of field?
feeling towards an unfamiliar situation can be called
as culture shock. Culture shock is the psychological My first impression of Bahia community
was of smells. Alien odors of ripe and
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or social maladjustment, experienced when people
decaying mangoes, bananas and
encounter a strange cultural situation for the first
passion fruits and swatting of the fruit
time. It is a frightening feeling of alienation. It may
flies which I had never seen before.
result in adjustment problems. When a person is …… There were strange mixture of rice,
compelled to live in another culture where snake black beans and unidentifiable meat and
meat is delivered as regular food item, it will be a
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culture shock as far as that particular individual is
concerned. Individuals differ in their ability to adapt
with new situations. Ethnocentric people are
more exposed to culture shocks. On the other
floating pieces of skin. …. I remember
one oatmeal soup and a slimy stew of
beef tongue in tomatoes. At one meal a
disintegrating fish head, eyes still
attached, but barely stared up at
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hand, cultural relativists may find it easy to adapt to me……………. Gradually the smells,
new situations, and overcome from culture shock. sounds, sensations and taste grew
familiar to me.
Anthropologists who were trying to explore
Adapted from: Conrad Phillip
the different cultures, with their approach of cultural
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Kottak: ‘Assaul on Paradise: Social

relativism also experience culture shock.
Change in a Brazilian Village’,1999
Did you ever come across the situation of culture shock in your life?
Write an account.
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There is widespread technological advancement in all spheres of life especially, during

the last decade. You might have seen that even the older generation could not escape from
adapting to these latest technologies. Mobile phones, internet, transport, and other modern
amenities have made life more 'convenient' to a section of people. Even then, some people
are not ready to change their traditional beliefs and way of life. For instance, there are
people who are reluctant to change their beliefs regarding supernatural causes of disease.
Why is this so? Anthropologists are of the opinion that the non-material aspect of culture
changes very slowly as compared to the material aspects of culture.
Culture Lag
W.F. Ogburn in his book 'Social Change' introduced the concept 'culture lag'.
According to him, compared to non-material aspects of culture including beliefs, values,
55
morals, etc. material culture changes more rapidly. In other words, the non-material part
always lags behind the material part. The gap between the rate of changes in the material
and the non-material culture is referred to as 'culture lag'.
Due to the rapid development of science and technology, our material culture had
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undergone radical changes. We have constructed roads, railways, airports, dams, big houses,
etc. Now, we are more exposed to the latest electronic devices. During the last 200 years
in India, much of the material culture has been borrowed from the west and many cities in
India have been competing with western towns in the adoption of the latest aspects of
material culture. Culture is changing very rapidly in areas like fashion, dress, artifacts,
beautification, art and recreation. However, the pace of change has been very slow in the
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sphere of religious beliefs and cultural values. We have always experienced a gap between
the changes in these two aspects of culture. This is called culture lag.
Check your progress:

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1. Match the following
A B
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Visible aspects of culture Culture trait

Smallest functional unit of culture Cultural relativism
Beliefs, values and morals in a culture Enculturation
Considering one's own culture superior Deculturation
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A child learn the kinship terms Ethnocentrism

Even though economy is developed the status
of women does not change Non-material culture
Each culture has its' own values Material culture
Tribal people lost their original culture due to culture contact Culture lag
2. Find the odd one and justify.
Family, trade union, political party, student association
3. Make pairs by using the following culture trait and culture complexes.
(Father, Agriculture, Prayer, Blackboard, School, Sickle, Religion, Family)
56
We have examined different aspects of culture, which is one of the central themes of
Social Cultural Anthropology. Another important theme of Social Cultural Anthropology is
Society. The concept of society has different connotations in different contexts. You might
have already learned what a society is in your previous classes. You have already heard
about different types of societies like Girijan Co-operative Society, Milk society, Tribal
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society, Kerala society, Urban society etc. Do humans alone have society? No, ants,
wolves and bees have societies. Then, what are the differences between human society
and the societies found among other organisms? We often use the term society in our daily
life without knowing the exact meaning of the concept. In this part of the unit, we will
examine the various aspects related to the concept of society.
IV. Concept of Society:

Meaning and Definition
A society is composed of
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individuals. They interact with
each other on the basis of some
shared behaviour. It is a network
of relationship between
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individuals. So the essence of

society is social relationship and
Fig. 2.4 Society of bees and ants
social behaviour. This social
behaviour shared by the members, known as culture. Thus, society is composed of people
who are interacting on the basis of shared beliefs, values and activities.
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In a limited sense, the grouping of bees and ants can also be called as societies as it
is composed of members who are interacting on the basis of certain shared behaviour. But
society among animals is instinctual in nature, formed to meet the basic requirements of
physical needs, and reproduction.
In human society, members are recruited by means of reproduction within the group.
On rare occasions, members are recruited through enslavement, immigration, adoption or
conquest.
On the other hand, the members in occupational or service societies like labour co-
operative society, milk co-operative society, etc. are not recruited by means of reproduction.
They are made up of some individuals with limited goals.
57
In short, the basic characteristics of human society can be summed up as the following:
 It has a definite territory

 It has a culture
 It is a permanent, independent, and integrated group
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 Members are recruited by means of reproduction
 According to Maclver and Page, society is 'the web of social relationships'.

 According to Ralph Linton society is an organised group of individuals. A culture
is an organised group of learned responses, characteristics of a particular

society.
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In the words of S F Nadal, culture is the way of life of people while a society is
an organised, interacting aggregate of individuals who follow given way of
life.
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Every society is governed by a set of standardised way of behaviour. These
standardised behaviour controls the activities of the members in the society.
Culture and Society
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The terms culture and society are frequently used interchangeably. In simple terms,
society is always made up of people and the way they behave is culture. A society is not a
culture but it has culture. Culture, on the other hand, is a product of society. It refers to the
material aspects as well as ideas, meaning and knowledge that people share. Culture belongs
to a body of people who share a common tradition. Society and culture are the two sides
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of the same coin. The emphasis on one over the other has been the hallmark of the two
traditions in Anthropology, namely, Social Anthropology of British Tradition and the Cultural
Anthropology of the American tradition which you had learned earlier.
Prepare a chart distinguishing the characteristics of society and cul-

ture and present the same in the class.
Society and community are often used synonymously. For instance, Indian society/
community, Chinese society/community, Tribal society/community, etc. However, though
both the terms are related, they are different and have distinct meaning. The term society
has a broader implication while the term community is a restricted implication. For instance,
we talk of the Indian community settled in the United States; but use the term Indian
58
society while referring to the collective entity of all the people in India. In Malayalam
language, the term community is translated as 'samudayam', and the term society as
'samooham', and the term culture as 'samskaram'. All these three terms in Malayalam have
a common character implying collectivity.
Community
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According to Maclver and Page, community refers to a group, small or large, whose
members live together in such a way that they share the basic condition of common life. It
is a small cultural system and its members derive their personal identity from their community
membership. Caste and tribe are some of the examples of community. Some communities
like the tribes, live in a common geographical boundary and share common economic
ideologies and common cause of activities.

Activity:
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resources. All people possess the feeling of community sentiments in thinking, thought,
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Prepare a chart, distinguishing the characteristics of society and com-
munity.
You have to behave in schools as per the norms and rules. Similarly, as a member of
a society you are guided by the norms and values. The society executes these norms and
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values through family, marriage, religion and many other social institutions.
Institution Family is an institution
The aspect of culture that is governed by a standardised

way of behaviour existing in a society is called institution.
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According to Radcliffe Brown, institutions involve socially

approved pattern of behaviour of members. It is guided by
the norms and values existing in the society.
Family is a social institution. There exist different norms of behaviour between the
members in a family. Deviation from the rule is not permitted or accepted. The status and
role of each individual in a society are also controlled by this institutionalised behaviour.
Marriage, economic organisation, political organisation, kinship etc. are other social
institutions.
Anthropologists study social institutions like family, marriage, kinship etc. as cultural
universals. In order to understand the culture of a given society, different institutions and its
inter-relationship must be studied. All the institutions are interrelated and integrated.
59
Besides these social institutions, there exist different groups in each society, which
are known as associations.
Association
 Have you heard the name of any Association?
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 Are you a member of any of the Associations such as Students' Association, Alumni
Association, Residents association ............ etc.
There are some other associations like police

Association is a group
associations, teachers
associations, etc.
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All these are formed with a specific objective.
Association refers to a group of persons formed with a
specific objective or a set of objectives. They are relatively
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small and localised. The members of an association try to
satisfy their needs which do not come under the purview
of the social institutions like family. Each association has its own specific guidelines of
behaviour for its members. Important features of Association include the following:
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 Associations are formed for specific purpose

 Membership is optional
Malayalee association in Mysore try to help
 It is a temporary group (once the
the malayalees in Mysore when they are in
target is achieved, it may get need. They take initiative to celebrate the
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dispersed) Kerala festivals to maintain their native

 It is not restricted to a particular area culture.
 It provides a code of behaviour for all

its members. KALA (Kerala Art Lovers Association) in Arab countries try to
 In modern times, unite the Malayalees and popularise the Kerala art and culture
associations are
adaptive devices to fight for the rights of individuals and groups.
Prepare a digital presentation distinguishing the characteristics of

society, community, institution and association.
60
Group
Like associations, individuals with common interest join together to form different
groups. Associations are different from Groups.
List out the names of the groups in which you are members.
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 Play group (Cricket, Football, Tennis etc.)
 Family
 ----------------
 ----------------
 ---------------- m
Individuals having common interests may join together to form a group. S F Nadel
(1951) defines group 'as a collection of individuals who stand in a regular and relatively
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permanent relationship'.
In some groups, all the members have face to face relation and interact with each
other. This type of group is known as primary group. For example, family, local club,
plays group, tribal settlement, or a village community.
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Sometimes, large scale social organisations are formed in a society based on

profession, political affiliation, occupation etc. They are secondary groups. All members
in a secondary group may not know each other. But they become its members with view of
common goal. Trade unions, professional associations, political groups and religious groups,
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are some examples of secondary groups.
Group can also be based on

relationships. If the members of a
group are related through blood or
by marriage, it is known as kin group.
Family, lineage and clan are kin
groups.
Among different groups, family

is regarded as universal and
permanent. A person who is a
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member of one group could be a member of many other groups like family, lineage, clan,
caste and religion.
It is this inter-connection that maintains the society. Working or functioning of a

society means working or functioning of different institutions, associations and groups
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within it.
Analyse the above chart and make inferences and present in the class.
Check your progress
1 Differentiate between institution and association.
2
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Fill the table with the features of society and culture.
Society Culture
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......................................... .........................................
......................................... .........................................
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V. Status and Role
An individual, being a member of an association or group or institution, has a position

in that group. Corresponding to one's position, one has to perform some duties also. The
positions and duties of an individual have to be examined to understand the social
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relationships.
At home you have some duties to perform. What are they? But when at school your
duties may change according to the situation? What does it show? The duties or roles
change according to the situations and positions .
The position, which an individual occupies in the society, is called status.

The duty, which a person has to perform according to one's status, is role. The
position of an individual determines the duties one has to perform. A person could be a
father, son, husband or brother at home. He may be an officer, workman, or a labourer
outside his home. He is expected to perform certain duties that are associated with his
different positions.
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Status also implies ranking. It refers to one's ranking in relationship to other positions.
For instance, the ranking of a leader is always at the top of the group. Social status is to be
recognised by prestige. For example in school or college, the status of Principal and students
are different.
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There is no status without role, and there is no role without status. Each status
consists of a related role. A set of duties associated with a single status is called role.
Status: Ascribed and Achieved
Generally there are two types of statuses: one occupied by a person by birth and the
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second occupied through one's own effort. The status which an individual occupies by
birth is called ascribed status and the status which an individual acquires through one's
own effort is known as achieved status.
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The status of women in Kerala is relatively high in comparison with

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many other states in India. There could be various reasons for this.
Discuss in groups how the change in the status of women reflects in
their roles. Based on the discussion, prepare a note for presentation.
Check your progress
1. Prepare a chart showing different status and roles of a teacher, who is head of a
school, family and an arts club.
2. Prepare a chart showing two types of status with examples.
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VI. Social Structure and Social Organisation

You know the term structure, which means, the arrangement of parts in relationship
to each other. What is the structure of an automobile engine? It is the arrangements of
parts. The structure of our body means the arrangement of organs. Likewise, institutions
are arranged in a society as parts in a machine or organs in a body. That means, institutions
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are the parts in a society. Individuals are arranged in different social institutions. That
means individuals are the parts in a social institution.
The arrangement of activities in an automobile engine is its organisation. Similarly,
the arrangements of activities of individuals and institutions in a society form social
organisation. The study of social structure and social organisation is inevitable in
understanding the functioning of society.
Social Structure: Structure is the ordered
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arrangement of parts. A structure of a classroom
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consists of the arrangement of windows, doors,
walls, black board, benches, desks and so on. "Components of social
The basic elements of a society are individuals. structure are human beings. The
They are arranged in different institutions and structure itself being an arrangement
groups in relationship to each other. The basic of persons in relationship
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institutionally defined and regulated"

institutions of a society consist of family, marriage,
kinship, economic organisation, political Radcliffe Brown(1952) : Structure and
organisation, etc. In short, social structure is Function in Primitive Society
arrangement of individuals in these social
institutions in relationship to each other. These
arrangements help for the smooth functioning of
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the society.
Social Organisation: How does a class room function? How are the duties of the teachers
and students organised? A class room through the collective organisation of students,
teachers, and the principal functions on the basis of syllabus, time table, rules and regulations
of the institutions.
Social organisation is the way by which the activities of different parts of the society
are organised. The arrangement of the activities of the individuals and groups in the society
is social organisation. Thus, social structure is the arrangement of persons in different social
institutions while social organisation is the arrangement of the activities of these institutions.
64
Find out the structure and organisation of the following and make a
presentation of the same in the class:
(a) A family (b) A factory (c) A political organization
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VII. Ethnography and Ethnology
The concept of society and culture, and its various components like culture trait,
culture complex, status, roles, association, community, group, etc. have been discussed
above. You know that the central theme of social cultural anthropology is the study of
society and culture. To understand society and culture in its comprehensive sense,
m
anthropologists depended on simple societies. They studied the way of life of these societies
and compared them with other societies to understand cultural similarities and cultural
diversities. Most of the studies in anthropology earlier were categorised under ethnography
and ethnology.
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Ethnography
Ethnography is a simple and holistic description of a particular culture, at a particular
period of time. An ethnographer collects data through direct interaction with the people.
The settlement pattern, dressing, food habits, economic activities, political organization,
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family, marriage, kinship, beliefs, practices, rituals, customs, etc. are studied in detail in
ethnographic studies. Ethnographic studies had been a primary concern of Social
Anthropology from its very beginning.
For an ethnographic study, two types of data are required, quantitative and qualitative.
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Quantitative data consists of data pertaining to population, male-female ratio, size of houses,
number and size of different types of house hold equipment, quantity of crops produced,
income, quantity of material used and so on. Qualitative data include data pertaining to
beliefs, sentiments, knowledge, social network of family, marriage, kinship, religious beliefs,
practices and life cycle rituals, etc. Data collection in ethnography is primarily based on
field work. Ethnographic field work involves living in close contact with the people under
study. As all aspects of culture are related, the ethnographer must study the whole of social
life, in relationship to each other. In ethnographic research, the researcher usually selects
small-scale societies.
Brief History of Ethnographic Studies

Beginning of ethnographic studies can be traced back to the period of Herodotus in
65
Why Social Cultural Anthropologists have shown special interest in the study of
pre-literate societies?
Most of the early Anthropologists were engaged in the study of 'primitive' or pre-
literate societies. It was mainly to understand the way of development of modern societies through
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the study of living people with simple technologies. Pre-literate societies are different from non-
literate societies. Non-literates are the contemporaries of historical people with access to writing.
On the other hand, the pre-literates are those who lived prior to or away from the historical people
or the mainstream population. Pre-literate or the so-called primitive people were relatively simple
in their technologies and material possessions as compared to the historical societies. They were
small in number, homogeneous, lived in relatively isolated places and had little contact with the
outside world. However at present anthropologists study all types of societies irrespective of
m
pre-literate or literate, simple or complex, rural or urban societies.
the 3rd century BC. Herodotus travelled to different places
and met more than 50 different groups of people and
described their culture. He was considered as the father of
Do you know?
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Herodotus is the father of
Greek Ethnographic studies. Greek ethnography
The travelogues produced by the explorers including

Marco Polo, Columbus, Vasco-de-Gama and others during
the era of exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries brought
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out wonderful and exotic accounts of the people living in

remote corners of the non-European regions of the world.
The Christian missionaries, in the process of their work of conversion carried out studies
of different cultures of the people in different parts of the world.
Scientific ethnographic studies were started during end of 19th century. E.B. Tylor
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started field work to understand the culture. He stayed one year in United States and six
months among the Mexicans to collect first hand information. Though he was not a real
field worker, he verified the data collected by his students to ensure the accuracy. L.H.
Morgan of America published the book 'League of Iroquois' (1951) based on the field
work among the Iroquois tribes of America. He interviewed many Iroquois people and
collected data on their dance forms, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, language,
material culture, form of government , family organisation etc. As he was ignorant of the
native language, he utilised the help of an interpreter called Ely Parker throughout his study.
Meanwhile, European administrators also tried to study the people of their colonies
in their attempt to "civilise and rule" the colonies. In this context, the contribution of Edgar
Thurston, 'The Castes and Tribes of South India' is worth mentioning. Many Anthropologists
66
were appointed by the British, to study

the native culture of their colonies. By
the beginning of 20th century, W.H.R.
Rivers, a British Social Anthropologist,
came to India to Study the Toda tribe
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of Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. His
Monograph The Toda, was published
in 1906. During 1906-1908, Radcliffe-
Brown, the student of W.H.R. Rivers
conducted field work among the tribes
m
of Andaman Nicobar Island, and his Fig. 2.5 Malinowski doing fieldwork among the
book 'The Andaman Islanders' was Trobriand islanders
published in 1922. In 1912,
ethnography on the tribe Munda, titled 'Munda and Their Country', was published by S.C.
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Roy. He was the first Indian Scholar who conducted an Ethnographic study of an Indian
tribe. Hence, S.C. Roy was considered as the father of Indian Ethnography.
However, significant change in the approach of Ethnographic study was brought in
By Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski. He conducted three years of intensive field work (1914-
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1918) among the tribes of Trobriand Island. He used the method of total Participant
observation, and followed the native language throughout his study. It was a turning point
in the field approach of Anthropology and hence, he was known as the father of field
work tradition in Anthropology.
His book, based on the field work among the Trobriand Islanders was published as
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'The Argonauts of Western Pacific ' in 1922. It made a new beginning in Ethnographic
studies. Since then, following the method of Malinowski, a large number of ethnographic
studies were published by different scholars throughout the world.
Practice of early anthropologists in documenting endangered cultures
was called Salvage ethnography or urgent ethnography
Ethnographic studies were conducted in Kerala on different castes and tribes by
different scholars. The earliest of such studies was the 'Castes and Tribes of Cochin' by
L.K Anandakrishna Iyer, published in 1911. Later, he was invited to head the First
Department of Anthropology in the University of Calcutta in 1920. He is widely considered
as the father of Indian Ethnology. His son, L.K. Krishna Iyer produced the work Travancore
Tribes and Castes and his grandson Bala Ratnam became the third in the line to continue
67
this tradition of Anthropology. Some of the recent examples of ethnographic studies in

Kerala include Rajalakshmi's study of 'Mullukkurumbas of Kppala'. A. Ayyappan's study
'Iravas and Culture Change', P.R.G. Mathur's study of the 'Mappila Fisherfolks of Kerala'
and Ananda Bhanu's study of 'Cholanaickan, the Cave Men of Kerala'.
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Check your progress:
1. Fill the blanks areas suitably.
Name of Scholar Community studied Book Published
W.H.R Rivers ................................... The Toda
Radcliffe Brown
................................... m
Tribes of Andaman island
Trobriand Islanders
...................................
...................................
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S.C.Roy ................................... Munda and their Country
A. Ayyappan ................................... Iravas and Culture change

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Prepare an ethnography of your own Caste/Community. You can utilise

the following hints and refer the brief sketches of ethnographic re-
ports given in appendix.
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Ethnographic Profile of a Community
I. Name and area of the community for study

(1) Name of the community, its synonym and etymology
(2) Present day distribution
(3) Mother tongue
(4) Other languages spoken
II Entering the community
(1) Permission of the local government officers
(2) Co-operation of community elders
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(3) General persons: Key informants

III Ethnographic Details
(1) Food habits: Staple food, drinks, smoking etc.
(2) Social: What are the major social divisions/ groupings and their hierarchical order,
if any in the community? What are the chief functions of these sub-divisions?
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(3) Institution of marriage: What are the marriage rules? Age of marriage, bride price/
dowry. Rule of residence after marriage. Rules regarding divorce
(4) Family pattern: Types/forms of family, rules of inheritance in family, succession
pattern; Inter-family linkages in and outside the community.
(5) Life cycle rituals: what are the major rituals observed on the occasion/state of (a)
birth (and how names are given) (b) adolescence (c) marriage (d) death and (e) any
(6) m
other function. Any significant changes reported lately in the ritual performance.
Economic activities: what are the major resources? Occupation of the community:
(a) traditional (b) primary and (c) subsidiary. The marker system, forms of trade,
barter exchange etc. Patron client relationship (jajmani system) or any other form of
socio-economic interdependence changes that have come about after independence
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in various economic pursuits.
(7) Mechanism of social control: What are the traditional and statutory councils and
the regional associations (sabha) in the community? Composition and function of
such councils / regional associations. Forms of punishment and reward.
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(8) Religious attributes: Mention religion the community professes. What are the main
family, clan, village and regional deities? What are the major sacred centres / shrines
/ pilgrimages. Role of ritual specialists. What are the major festivals and significance
associated with them? Changes in religious organisation of the community.
(9) Intercommunity linkages: Traditional linkages and Modern linkages.
(10) Impact of development programmes: Literacy and education, health, drinking water,
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employment and self employment, communication, electricity, and any other

parameters.
IV Any other observations of importance concerning life and culture of the community.
V Writing Report
The following points should be taken up appropriately, in a report
 Title and subtitle
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives of the study
 Description of the studies related to the problem
 Methodology: area of group selection, sampling, specific hypothesis, techniques used for
study
 Organisation of data: description and analysis and presentation of quantitative data in
table, graphs, photographs etc.
69
 Conclusions
 References of text
 Appendix
(Essentials of Cultural Anthropology: A.R.N. Srivastava pp 57-58)
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Ethnology
Ethnology is the comparative study of races and cultures. In Britain, Social

Anthropology was earlier known as Ethnology. Ethnologists classify people on the basis of
their distribution. It looks at people from an etic point of view. Ethnology can also be
m
called as a historical study. It is different from ethnography. While ethnography requires
primary data and close relationship with people, ethnology does not require direct interaction
with the people. Ethnology can be based on different ethnographic studies. The important
features of ethnology can be listed as below:
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 Ethnology is narrative
 Ethnology is historical
 Ethnology is comparative
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 It can be based on ethnographies.

 It need not be based on primary data.
 It studies cultures at different times and in different places.
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Now you are familiarised with the contents of Ethnology and Ethnog-
raphy. Prepare a chart showing the difference between the two.
Let us sum up
 The Branch of Anthropology that concerns with the study of social institutions and
the social and cultural aspects of human life is known as Social Cultural Anthropology.
Some scholars have used the term Social Anthropology and some others have used
the term Cultural Anthropology. The term Social Anthropology is popular in Great
Britain and other Commonwealth countries. Cultural anthropology is popular in
America. In India, the term social cultural anthropology is in vogue.
70
 The first Anthropological definition of culture was given by Edward Burnet Tylor
(1871). To him culture ……."is that complex whole which includes knowledge,
beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of the society".
 Some scholars distinguish culture from civilisation and consider civilisation as the
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peak of development of culture. Culture comprises both material and non-material
aspects.
 Two famous cultural concepts in Anthropology: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
Ethnocentrism is an attitude of judging other cultures based on the norms and values
present in one's own culture. Opposite to ethnocentrism is the attitude of cultural

relativism. m
The two views of culture can be understood by studying the concepts of Emic and
Etic. What the people think about their own culture is emic and what an outsider
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thinks about a culture other than his own is etic.
 The smallest and indivisible unit of a culture is called 'culture trait'. Large number of
culture traits that combine together to form a meaningful segment of culture is called
a culture complex.
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 Enculturation refers to the process by which an individual learns the way of life and
behaviour of his own culture.
 Acculturation refers to the changes that occur in one's culture due to continuous
contact with other culture.
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 Culture shock is the psychological or social maladjustment, experienced when people

encounter a strange cultural situation for the first time. Ethnocentric people are more
exposed to culture shock. A gap between the changes in the material and non-
material aspects of culture is called culture lag.
 A society is not a culture but it has culture. Culture, on the other hand, is a product
of society.
 Community refers to a group, small or large, whose members live together in such a
way that they share the basic condition of common life.
 Institutions involve socially approved pattern of behaviour of members. It is guided
by the norms and values existing in the society. Family, marriage and religion are
institutions.
71
 Association refers to a group of persons formed with a specific objective or a set of

objectives.
 Like associations, individuals with common interest join together to form different
groups. Associations are different from Groups. There are primary and secondary
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groups.
 An individual, being a member of an association or group or institution, has a position
in that group. Corresponding to one's position, one has to perform some duties
also. The status which an individual occupies by birth is called ascribed status and
the status which an individual acquires through one's own effort is known as achieved
m
status.
 Social structure is the arrangements of individuals in society. The arrangement of the
activities of the individuals and groups in the society is social organisation.

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Ethnographic studies had been a primary concern of Social Anthropology from its
very beginning. It is the descriptive study of a culture.
 Ethnology is the comparative study of races and cultures.
The learner demonstrate the ability to

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 Analyse the meaning of social cultural anthropology and appreciate the British,
American and Indian traditions.
 Identify the meaning and definition of culture, elucidate its characteristics and
components and differentiate culture from civilisation.
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 Distinguish the different concepts related to culture and ascertain its application.
 Distinguish the concept of society from culture and delineate various terms and
concepts associated with society.
 Ascertain the concepts of role and status and appreciate their application in day to
day life situation.
 Analyse the meaning of social structure and delineate it from social organisation.
 Identify the difference between ethnology and ethnography and write auto
ethnography.
72
Evaluation Items
1. While arranging some books in the Library, the Librarian asked you 'Why do the
books having same content, have different titles like 'Social Anthropology', 'Cultural
Anthropology, 'and Social Cultural Anthropology' etc. How will you explain to her
about these differences? Explain this based on different traditions of Anthropology.
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2. Do you think culture is universal? Identify the universal elements found in all cultures
of the world.
3. Identify the cultural traits from your locality and arrange them into various cultural
complexes, and explain the relationship between both.
4.
5.
m
'Working of the society is the workings of social institutions' explain this based on
the analysis of different social institutions like, family, marriage etc.
'Family is a social institution and a primary group' justify this statement based on
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your knowledge of institution and group.
6. Prepare a time line showing major turning points in the development of field work
for ethnographic studies in anthropology.
7. Prepare auto ethnography.
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8. Classify the following terms under two suitable headings:

(Descriptive, racial distribution, comparative study, field work, a cultue, secondary
data, monograph, two or more cultures.)
9. Prepare 10 objective questions and their answers for conducting a quiz competition
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in your class on the topic 'Concepts of Society and Culture'.
73
Appendix
Brief Ethnography of the Toda
The toda is a pastoral tribe who live in the Nilgiri hills of South India. The
Todas live there with four other tribes namely Badaga, Kota, Kurumba and Irula. They are
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tall, fair, with long and narrow nose, long head with black wavy hair. The word Toda has
been derived from the name 'Tundra' - the sacred tree of the Todas. Numerical strength of
Toda population is very low and government have taken some important measures to
protect them.
m
Material culture: The Todas present a classic example of pastoral economy. They
know neither hunting nor agriculture, and rear only buffaloes. They make various products
like ghee, cheese, butter, curd from milk of buffaloes. These products are partially consumed
by themselves and the rest is sold or exchanged with the neighbouring tribal communities.
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Division of labour: Each family is engaged in caring large number of buffaloes. The
males of the house take the animals to the field regurlarly. In the morning the Females are
not allowed to enter into the dairy house because of the taboo - Milk is indispensible in the
socio-religious life of the tribe. Milking is done twice a day - early in the morning and in the
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evening. The buffaloes are of two types, some are regarded as the ordinary type and other
are sacred. The ordinary buffaloes are maintained by an individual family a for ordinary
use, whereas sacred buffaloes are kept in the special shed. Milk from the sacred buffaloes
is offered to gods.
Food: The Todas are purely vegetarians. Their favourite dish is rice, boiled in milk. They
S
also prefer curd, churned milk and plain milk. They take vegetables and green leaves as
their principal meals. Meat of the sacrificed buffaloes is considered as sacred, so they take
this during annual festivals. Both males and females of the Toda community are addicted to
liquor. The habit of smoking also prevails among both the sexes.
Reciprocity: The markets of the Todas are actually the homes of the neighbouring people.
Neighbouring communities like Badaga supply them agricultural products in exchange of
milk, the Kotas supply the various utensils made of clay and iron and the Irula and Kurumba,
the hunting gathering group bring different forest products like honey fruit, tubers, vegetables
etc.
Settlement: The Toda village consists of ten to twelve huts called 'Mandu'. The huts are
of two types. The first type is half-barrel in shape. A hut is divided into two portions, inside
74
room and outside room. Inside room is used as a workshop where the females have no
entry. The outside room is meant for living and other house hold work. The second type of
hut is not barrel in shape. It is circular in shape and made of stone. This type of hut is used
to keep the sacred buffaloes.
Dress: Todas are simple people. The males use a long strip of white loin cloth which has
en
to be thrown over the shoulders, after covering the waist. This is their traditional dress.
Sometimes they use clourful cloth for covering the upper part of their body. Women use
long thick cloth covering almost the entire body. They keep long hair in plait. They use
ornaments like ear- rings, nose-rings, nose pin etc. The Toda women are expert needle
workers.
m
Social Organisation: Todas are endogamous, marriage alliances occur exclusively within
the tribe. The tribe is divided into two subdivisions called moiety - Tartharol and Teivaliol.
Each of these two moieties are again endogamous. The members of Thartharol consider
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themselves superior to the Teivaliol.
Family: Todas exhibit polyandrous type of family. A woman with her multiple husbands
and children usually form this type of family. The husbands may or may not be brothers.
Children are known after their 'mother'.
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75
2.2. Research Methods in Sociocultural

Anthropology
In this section, attempt is made to describe briefly the
main issues and components of research methods in
anthropology.
2.2.1. The Scientific Method and Inductive vs.

Deductive Approaches
Anthropology is a science. As such, it is concerned with
systematically observing and classifying facts, and
establishing verifiable laws. Anthropology, like any other
science employs scientific method, which is the source
for scientific knowledge. The scientific method is a
logical system used to evaluate data derived from
systematic observation. The scientific method as a
precise way of designing and conducting research
consists of the following basic steps: “(1) establishing a
hypothesis, a general statement based on observed
facts; 2) determining ways to test the hypothesis,
incorporating them in research design; 3) testing the
hypothesis through research and further observation…”
(Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992:7)
59
Anthropology as a science employs the two very

important approaches in research design and in the
overall research framework: inductive methods and
deductive method. Inductive method is a method by
which the scientist first makes observation and collects
data, on the basis of which he or she formulates
hypothesis and theories (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995). The researcher tries to build theories from
particular observations and instances. Induction moves
from the particular to the general; where as deduction
moves from the general to the particular. In deductive
approach, the researcher attempts to derive specific
assertions and claims from a general theoretical
principle. In short, deductive approach in research goes
from general theory to particular claims (Dooley,
1995:65-66).
60
Box 2.1. Inductive vs. deductive approaches

• Inductive method is a method by which the scientist
first makes observation and collects data, on the
basis of which he or she formulates hypothesis and
theories
• In deductive approach, the researcher attempts to
derive specific assertions and claims from a general
theoretical principle.
2.2.2. Identification of Research Problem

The first step in doing anthropological research (for that
matter, any other research) is to come up with a
research problem. Identification of research problem
basically involves choosing a research topic. The ways
and manners in which researchers identify a research
problem and choose a topic vary according to various
factors. The research interests of anthropologists are,
often, triggered by their own life experiences and
observations (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992). The
initial ideas for research thus may occur at any time and
place for a researcher. Walking down a street, reading
through newspapers, watching television, etc may
61
suggest a topic of research for an observing and curious

person (Mann, 1976).
2.2.3. Literature Review:

Research work normally proceeds by reviewing earlier
works on a specific research problem one has identified.
The researcher will need to review past works on the
question he or she is raising (Dooley, 1995). The
traditionally dominant source for literature review has
been libraries and documentation centers where books
and various references are found in card catalogued
manner. Nowadays, most libraries maintain a
computerized filing system, whereby references are
made available via electronic online methods. Searching
literature has become very easy, thus, with the
computerization of library sources; one can easily
access them if Internet connection is available (Rosnow
and Rosenthal, 1996)
Literature review is necessitated by the fact that a

researcher is probably not the first person to develop an
interest in a particular problem; and hence, he or she
need to spend some time in the library reviewing what
theories and methods others have used to the topic in
62
the past and what findings are there (Macionis, 1997).

According to Marshal and Rossman (1989: 35), review
of literature has the following four purposes:
First, it demonstrates the underlying assumptions

behind the general research question…. Second,
it demonstrates that the researcher is thoroughly
knowledgeable about related research and the
intellectual traditions that surround and support
the study. Third, it shows that the researcher has
identified some gaps in previous research and
that the proposed study will fill a demonstrated
need. And finally, the review refines and
redefines the research questions and related
tentative hypotheses by embedding those
questions in larger empirical traditions.
2.2.4. Research Design

The research design is that section in the research
process which gives the details of the ways and
manners of conducting the study (Ibid.). It involves the
selection of research sites and study subjects, the
methods to be employed in collecting data, the
63
techniques to be employed in data analysis and other

related matters.
The anthropologist chooses the research site and the

people among whom he or she would conduct the
research. Appropriate and relevant data gathering
techniques are chosen. The way the researcher
designs the overall research process will determine the
data quality and the research outcomes.
2.2.5. Data Collection Strategies/ Methods in

Anthropology
Ethnography is the anthropologists’ distinct strategy in
data collection. It is the hallmark of anthropology.
Ethnography provides a foundation for generalizations
about human behavior and social life. There are various
techniques employed by anthropologists when collecting
information. The main field techniques in anthropology
are discussed below.
Participant Observation
Observation is central to any anthropological research.
The researcher has to pay attention to the many and
varied details of daily life among the people. Both
64
individual and collectives behaviors and actions should

be observed. All relevant events, actions, places,
objects, etc must be observed and recorded (Ibid.
1989). One of the key procedures in these techniques is
called participant observation, the active involvement
in community life while studying it. The researcher
participates in a research setting while observing what is
happening in that setting (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).
Here anthropologists attempt to take part in many of the
activities and processes of the community which they
study (Kotttak, 1994; Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992).
Ethnographic Conversation, Interviewing and

Interview Schedule
As anthropologists maintain rapport with the people,
they begin to record information starting by even the
simplest conversation with informants. While simply
conversing with community members, the anthropologist
can identify and obtain important information for his/her
research project. However, the researcher also depends
on interviewing techniques. Individuals or groups are
identified and may be interviewed on issues of
relevance for the anthropologist. While doing so, the
anthropologist may use interview schedules, pre-
65
planned question items, which the researcher writes

down on his/her notebook and uses them as guidelines
for the interview process. With the interview schedule,
the researcher talks face to face with the informants,
asks questions, and writes down the answers (Kottak,
op cit). The use of highly structured questions, such as
questionnaires, is not often common in typical
anthropological researches, although anthropologists
also employ these instruments.
The Genealogical Method

This ethnographic technique was developed by
anthropologists to deal with and gather information on
principles of kinship, descent, and marriage, which are
the social building block of small-scale societies. The
genealogical method is important in what
anthropologists call “kin-based societies”, where every
one is related to every other person; and rules of
behavior attached to particular kinship relationships are
basic to everyday life. Genealogical information may be
found in the form of art, paintings, cemeteries, rituals,
etc (Ibid).
66
Well-Informed Informants
These are also called key informants, and the method
is termed as key informant interview. Here, very
knowledgeable individuals in the community are
identified and the research learns lots of issues about
the community life. Every society has well-informed
informants, who are natives/ members of the community
who can provide the best and rich information about
particular areas of life in the community (Kottak, 2002).
Life Histories
Anthropologists also employ life history techniques. In
the process of his/her fieldwork the researcher may
come across with individual or groups who present him/
her with interesting cases. So the researcher conducts
in-depth investigation on the life histories of the
individuals or groups. “Life histories reveal how specific
people perceive, react to and contribute to changes that
affect their lives” (Kottak, 1994:26)
Emic and Etic Research Techniques

Anthropologists often employ two contrasting
approaches: emic and etic. The emic approach focuses
on the native’s or the community’s points of view, trying
67
to underhand the world from the perspectives of the

natives; whereas the etic view is observer-oriented
approach which tries to bring an objective and
comprehensive viewpoint to the study of the
community’s life. Here, the focus shifts from native views
to the views of the researcher. In practice,
anthropologists often have to combine the emic and etic
approaches in their fieldwork. They make every effort to
avoid the biases of their own views as well as those of
the people being studied (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis,
1992; Kottak, 2002).
Box 2.2. Emic and etic approaches

Emic approach: Understanding and describing the world
from the insider’s (people’s) view
Etic approach: The researcher’s views and interpretation
of the subject being studied
Problem-Based Ethnography
Anthropological field research has usually to address
specific problems; the researcher may thus enter a
community with specific questions in mind.
Anthropologists thus just do not wholly depend on what
68
the informants say and do; they also do many other

specific things. They consult documents, archives,
measure and record data on various phenomena like
the environment, weather, diet, land use, etc.
Longitudinal Research
The anthropologists’ research is not limited to a specific
locality or time period; often anthropologists conduct
longitudinal researches, with a long-term study of a
community, region, society, culture or other unit, usually
based on repeated visits (Kotttak 1994:27). Such kind of
research reveals important insights on the dynamic and
complex factors that affect the lives of people over
longer periods of time.
Survey Research
All of the above research techniques are qualitative in
nature; despite anthropologists heavily employ
qualitative research techniques, they also use
quantitative methods side by side with qualitative ones.
One of the dominant quantitative techniques is the
survey method, which involves sampling, impersonal
data collections, and sophisticated statistical analysis.
Of all the social sciences research techniques, survey
69
research probably seems to be the most visible and

pervasive form research in the social and behavioral
sciences (Jones, 1995).
Traditionally, the survey techniques has been

considered the domain of disciplines such as sociology,
psychology, political science, and economics, which
often work mainly in large, complex and populous
societies, unlike anthropologists, which have traditionally
worked among small-scale societies. In survey research,
people who provide information are termed as
respondents, (unlike in anthropology, where we call
them informants); these respondents are often selected
on random sample basis, wherein all members of a
population have equal chances of being included in the
study population.
A brief discussion of the difference between survey

research and ethnography may be appropriate here.
The following are some points of difference (Kottak, op
cit, P. 31):
• In survey research, the object of study is usually

a sample chosen randomly or otherwise by the
70
researcher. Ethnographers normally study whole,

functioning communities.
• Ethnographers do firsthand fieldwork,

establishing dirt relationships with the people
they study. Survey researchers often have no
personal contact with respondents.
• Ethnographers usually get to know their

informants are interested in their welfare; often a
social survey focuses on a small number of
variables, rather than on the totality of peoples’
lives.
• Survey researcher normally works in modern

nations, where most people are literate;
ethnographers are more likely to study people
who do not read and write
.
• The results of survey research must analyzed
statistically, a s it deals with large and diverse
groups; while ethnographers have not often
detailed knowledge of statistics, as the societies
71
they study are less diverse and smaller in

number.
In general, survey researchers such as sociologists are

often interested in causal relationships between limited
number of variables and they mainly study samples to
make inferences about a larger population.
Ethnographers, on the other hand, do their fieldwork in
communities and study the totality of social life and they
are more typically concerned with the
interconnectedness of all aspects of social life.
Box 2.3. Major qualitative research strategies
• Participant observation In-depth

interviewing
• Key informant interview Problem –
based
ethnography
• Ethnographic conversations Longitudinal
study
• Life histories
• Genealogical method
72
2.2.6. Data Analysis

After the data are gathered, the next important step is
analyzing the data. Various ways of analyzing data are
used both in qualitative and quantitative methods
(Henslin and Nelson, 1996). For quantitative data (which
are mainly expressed in terms of numbers, percentages,
rates to measure size, magnitude, etc) researchers use
sophisticated statistical techniques using computer
models. Plans for data analysis are often made as early
before the data are collected (Mann, 1976).
Analysis of qualitative data (those which expressed in

terms of descriptive statements, about the depth, details
and sensitive dimensions of information which are
difficult to express in terms of numbers) thus actually
begins while the researcher is in the field recording his/
her field notes, tape recording and transcribing the
interviews. Tape-recording the interview process and
transcribing are the essential components of analysis
(Jones 1995). In analyzing the data, the anthropologist
must distinguish between his own views and the views
of the people being studied (Scupin and DeCorse,
1995). There are many possible analytic schemes and
73
some computer models for analyzing qualitative data

are also available.
Box 2.4. Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Qualitative data: Data expressed in terms of statements,
focusing on depth, details, sensitivities, underlying
beliefs and attitudes; collected via intensive fieldwork
Quantitative data: Data expressed in terms of numbers
and statistical figures focusing on size, amount,
frequencies and magnitude of information; collected via
mainly surveys
2.2.7. Research Report Writing and Dissemination

The research process is not complete until the results
are reported in a written document (Rosenow and
Rosenthal, 1996). Research report writing in
anthropology, as in all other sciences, follows a
specified standard ways of writing. The research
findings are disseminated through various mechanisms
such as seminars, conferences, and symposiums. With
minor variations, all social and behavioral sciences
research reports have similar components, though it
may be with varying titles, in the same order. The report
74
characteristically has four major sections: introduction,

methods employed, and presentation and discussion of
results (Dooley, 1995)
2.3. Chapter Summary

Anthropological theories used to explain human culture,
why and how culture work, are similar and different etc,
have been developed since the early years of the
discipline. The first anthropological theories that
th th
developed in late 19 and early 20 centuries in Europe
and America include: social evolutionism, diffusionism,
historical particualrism, culture and personality school
and functionalism. Evolutionism assumed the unilinear
development of cultures and society from simple,
primitive stages to complex, “civilized” stages passing
thorough different levels. Diffusionism sated that culture
change occurs due to the borrowing and spread of
cultural traits from centers of invention to other areas.
Historical particularism rejected the unilinear evolution
and argued that each culture should be empirically
studied in its own historical context, while functionalism
focused on culture and society as integrated wholes,
75
where each part in the social structure functioned to

maintain order and stability.
The conflict schools of though such as neo-

functionalism and Marxist anthropologist focused on
conflict and competition and processed of social
transformation. Neo-evolutionism or cultural ecology
focused on the interaction between culture and ecology
and tied to explain cultures as adaptations to specific
environments. Studies of cognitive science such as
structuralism, ethnoscience and symbolic anthropology
focused on understanding and describing the
underlying, non-material mental structures that shape
cultures.
Anthropology as a science employs the scientific

method that involves systematic collection and analysis
of data to test hypotheses. Anthropology also depends
on the deductive and inductive approaches in research,
where the former focused on testing hypothesis on the
basis of general theoretical principles where as the latter
tries to build theories based on particular observations.
Anthropologists employ a variety of methods of data
collection such as interviews, ethnographic
76
conversations, key informant interviews, genealogies,

case studies and surveys.
The most vital anthropological method of data collection

is extensive fieldwork, in which the researchers live
among the societies studied and observe their ways of
life intimately. A typical anthropological research method
is participant observation, in which the researcher learns
about a society living among them and participating in
their daily lives.
Anthropological research is comparative and cross-

cultural. Anthropology emphasizes an insider's view of a
society. This is what anthropologists call the emic view;
here, the anthropologist gives value to what the people
he is studying know, think, believe, and view; how they
explain and understand the world around them, and the
logic and rationale of their beliefs, actions, practices,
behaviors and institutions. However, the anthropologist
also, as a scientist, gives equally much value to the etic
view; this is what the scientist or the researcher as an
outsider thinks about the thing being studied.
77
Review Questions
1. Discuss the differences and similarities between
evolutionism, diffusionism, historical particularism
and functionalism
2. Discuss the varieties of functionalist and
evolutionary theories.
3. How did the culture and personality theory
emerge? What important personality character do
you think you have from your own cultures shaping?
4. On what points do proponents of conflict school in
anthropology such as neo-functionalists and Marxist
anthropologists criticize functionalists? What are the
strengths and weakness of these theories
themselves?
5. What does cultural ecology theory maintain?
6. Distinguish between structuralism, ethnoscience and
symbolic anthropology, describing the weaknesses
of each theory.
7. Distinguish between the deductive do inductive
approaches.
8. Outline the differences between ethnographic
research method and survey method.
78
9. What is the genealogical method? For what do

anthropologists use it?
10. Distinguish between the emic and etic approaches.
11. Compare and contrast participant observation with
well-informed informant methods.
12. Why do you think literature review is necessary?
13. Why is data analysis needed? What are the
essential elements of data analysis?
79

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Introduction to Sociocultural Anthropology

1.1. What is Anthropology?

putting the two words together, anthropology is the

Box 1.1. A simple definition of anthropology

• Anthropology is the study of humanity.

In a more specific term, anthropology is science which:

• Analyzes the products of social groups: material

It should further be stressed that anthropology focuses

Anthropology seeks to explain how and why people are

lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky?

Anthropology has a strong affinity with natural sciences

1.1.1. Misconceptions about Anthropology

(adapted from lectures by my undergraduate

 One misconception about anthropology is related to

 Another misconception is that anthropologists only

 It is claimed that anthropologists are only interested

isolated people in a distant corner. But now

 It is also said that the purpose of anthropology is to

Box 1.2. Four misconceptions about

1.2 Brief Historical Overview of Anthropology

discipline curious-minded persons from ancient to

While the roots of (socio-cultural) anthropology can be

Anthropology as academic discipline was born out of the

Darwinian Theory of Evolution (Scupin and DeCorse,

According to Howard and Dunaif-Hattis (1992:362):

early twentieth centuries… Professionalization

Early anthropologists mainly studied small communities

Box 1.3. Difference between ethnography and

1.3. Subject Matter and Scope of Anthropology

becomes the difference between humanity and non-

It has now become a generally accepted fact in

Anthropology is interested in some of the following

Is there a common human nature, and if so, what

Anthropologists try to know and explain about the

Anthropologists are, for example, interested to know and

Although anthropologists investigate the distinctive

1.4. Distinguishing Features of Anthropology

1. Its Broad Scope

its broad scope. A good way to emphasize this broad

2. Its Unique Approaches

the present with the past, the modern with the

3. Emphasis on Insiders' View: Anthropologists

4. The Micro-focus: This is another distinguishing

5. Its Method of Research: The hallmarks of

no other discipline seems to be so associated with

Box 1.4. Distinguishing features of anthropology

1.5. Sub-fields of Anthropology

1.5.1. Physical Anthropology

Paleoanthropology: is a subspecialty in physical

Despite the highly acclaimed Darwinian theory of human

Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of

Primatological research helps us understand what

them part of the natural world and their unique

Anthropometry: The study of human variations within

The investigation of human variations among living

legal purposes. Forensic anthropologists work often with

1.5.2. Sociocultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropologists conduct studies of living

particular people for an extended period of time, usually

There are many other specialized fields of study in

anthropology, ecological anthropology, psychological

1.5.3. Archaeological Anthropology

Archeological anthropology has three major goals: 1)

One misconception about anthropology is related to

Another misconception is that anthropologists only

It is claimed that anthropologists are only interested

It is also said that the purpose of anthropology is to