Nautical Chart

     A nautical chart represents part of the spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows water depth, the shoreline of adjacent land, prominent
topographic features, aids to navigation, and other navigational information. It is a work area on which the navigator plots courses, ascertains
positions, and views the relationship of the ship to the surrounding area. It assists navigators in avoiding dangers and arriving safely at their
destination

Projections

               Because a cartographer cannot transfer a sphere to a flat surface without distortion, he or she must project the surface of a sphere onto a
developable surface. A developable surface is one that can be flattened to form a plane. This process is known as chart projection. If points on
the surface of a sphere are projected from a single point, the projection is said to be perspective or geometric.

               As the use of electronic charts becomes increasingly widespread, it is important to remember that the same cartographic principles that
apply to paper charts apply to their depiction on video screens.

Types of Projection

     The type of developable surface to which the spherical surface is transferred determines the projection’s classification. Further classification
depends on whether the projection is centered on the equator (equatorial), a pole (polar), or some point or line between (oblique). The name of a
projection indicates its type and its principal features.

     The Mercator projection - classified as a cylindrical projection upon a plane, the cylinder tangent along the equator. Similarly, a projection
based upon a cylinder tangent along a meridian is called transverse (or inverse) Mercator or transverse (or inverse) orthomorphic. The
Mercator is the most common projection used in maritime navigation, primarily because rhumb lines plot as straight lines.

 Simple Conic Projection - points on the surface of the earth are transferred to a tangent cone.

Lambert Conformal Projection, the cone intersects the earth (a secant cone) at two small circles.

Polyconic Projection - a series of tangent cones is used.

 Azimuthal or Zenithal Projection - points on the earth are transferred directly to a plane.

 If the origin of the projecting rays is the center of the earth, a gnomonic projection results;if it is the point opposite the plane’s point of
tangency, a stereographic projection; and if at infinity (the projecting lines being parallel to each other), an orthographic projection.

     The gnomonic, stereographic, and orthographic are perspective projections.

In an azimuthal equidistant projection, which is not perspective, the scale of distances is constant along any radial line from the point of
tangency.

     Cylindrical and plane projections are special conical projections, using heights infinity and zero, respectively.

     A graticule is the network of latitude and longitude lines laid out in accordance with the principles of any projection.

chart Scales

     The scale of a chart is the ratio of a given distance on the chart to the actual distance which it represents on the earth

     A simple ratio or fraction, known as the representative fraction. For example, 1:80,000 or 1/80,000 means that one unit (such as a meter) on
the chart represents 80,000 of the same unit on the surface of the earth. This scale is sometimes called the natural or fractional scale.

    Chart Classification by Scale Charts are constructed on many different scales, ranging from about 1:2,500 to 1:14,000,000. Small-scale
charts covering large areas are used for route planning and for offshore navigation. Charts of larger scale, covering smaller areas, are used as
the vessel approaches land. Several methods of classifying charts according to scale are used in various nations. The following classifications of
nautical charts are used by the National Ocean Service.
Sailing charts 

 the smallest scale charts used for planning, fixing position at sea, and for plotting the dead reckoning while proceeding on a long
voyage. 
 The scale is generally smaller than 1:600,000. The shoreline and topography are generalized and only offshore soundings, the principal
navigational lights, outer buoys, and landmarks visible at considerable distances are shown.

General charts 

 Intended for coastwise navigation outside of outlying reefs and shoals. 

 The scales range from about 1:150,000 to 1:600,000.

Coastal charts 

 Intended for inshore coastwise navigation, for entering or leaving bays and harbors of considerable width, and for navigating large
inland waterways. 
 The scales range from about 1:50,000 to 1:150,000.

Harbor charts 

 Intended for navigation and anchorage in harbors and small waterways. 

 The scale is generally larger than 1:50,000.

     In the classification system used by NIMA (National Imagery and Mapping Agency) , the sailing charts are incorporated in the general charts
classification (smaller than about 1:150,000); those coast charts especially useful for approaching more confined waters (bays, harbors) are
classified as approach charts. There is considerable overlap in these designations, and the classification of a chart is best determined by its use
and by its relationship to other charts of the area. The use of i

Requirements for Charts

SOLAS Chapter V/Regulation 27:

"Nautical charts and nautical publications Nautical charts and nautical publications, such as sailing directions, lists of lights, notices to mariners,
tide tables and all other nautical publications necessary for the intended voyage, shall be adequate and up to date."

Mercator Projection

     Mercator projection, type of map projection introduced in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator. It is often described as a cylindrical projection, but it must be derived
mathematically. The meridians are equally spaced parallel vertical lines, and the parallels of latitude are parallel horizontal straight lines that are spaced farther and
farther apart as their distance from the Equator increases. This projection is widely used for navigation charts, because any straight line on a Mercator projection
map is a line of constant true bearing that enables a navigator to plot a straight-line course. It is less practical for world maps, however, because the scale is
distorted; areas farther away from the Equator appear disproportionately large. On a Mercator projection, for example, the landmass of Greenland appears to be
greater than that of the continent of South America; in actual area, Greenland is smaller than the Arabian Peninsula. 

Chart Catalogue

 The catalogue is an integral part of vessel’s navigational chart outfit which is required by statutory regulation. 
 All navigational charts currently produced by British Admiralty (BA charts) with new editions yearly, and is obtainable through chart agents. 
 Navigational charts are grouped into folios, each covering a particular geographical area.
 The folios carried on board will in general, reflect the intended trading areas.
 Maintenance of the chart outfit has a high priority among the functions of the navigating officer.
 It is essential to the safety of the ship that a high standard of efficiency is achieved in terms of both provision and correction of these chart.

 
Correction of Charts
How to correct charts using Admiralty Notices to Mariners

     The chart is a very important thing on the ship. Nowadays modern ships have come in electronic chart systems and it is very easy to correct them, but there are
still many companies that are using paper charts on their vessels primary sources for navigation. Updating a paper chart is a bit of hard work. And it should be very
careful to do it because the navigation of the vessel depends on the correction made by us. One of our Mistakes can put the entire ship and its crew in danger so the
chart correction should be done with full sincerity.

Things require for chart correction

1. Admiralty Notices to Mariners

2. chart correction pens

3. highlighter

4. paper cutter

5. cutting board for cutting blocks

6. hexablade for making submarine cable

7. parallel ruler

8. tracing paper etc.

Types of chart corrections:

The following corrections are listed in Weekly Notices to Mariners (ANM):

1. Permanent corrections are listed in the serial number, from the beginning of the year. A minor correction can be corrected by pen and areas of chart known as
“blocks” are issued for major corrections.

2. Temporary and Preliminary (T & P) corrections are carried out in pencil and are erased after they are canceled or superseded by permanent correction.

3. Navigational warnings are listed under Navareas.

4. A New edition of a chart is issued when the major portion of a chart is revised.

Charts must also be corrected for Local Navigational warnings and Local Notices.

Before starting chart correction

1. Highlight the charts which you have on board with a highlighter pen in the correction log (NP 133A).

2. Note down in the correction log correction numbers from all ANM’s, that are to be corrected, in an ascending order.

3. Voyage charts must be corrected first, followed by all charts on board.

4. Pull out the affected chart and confirm from the notice number, whether the last correction affecting the chart is entered at the bottom left-hand corner of the
chart.

After completing each correction:

1. Note down the correction number at the bottom left-hand corner of the chart.

2. Note down the correction number and week in which that correction received in correction log (NP 133A).

3. Strike out the correction number written in Chart Correction Log by pencil.

4. Strike out the chart number at the correction in ANM or the tracing.

5. Before moving to the next chart, correct all corrections (as noted from all ANM’s) affecting the chart.

Correction for a new chart:

When a new chart or new edition of a chart is received on board this procedure must be followed:
1. Highlight the chart number in the correction log. Erase all the old corrections (in case of the new edition and write the edition date in the pen).

2. Enter the Chart Folio and sequence number, from the index. In case of a new edition, this information is already present.

3. Correct the chart for any pending corrections. Record these corrections in Chart correction log in pencil.

4. Correct the Admiralty Chart Catalogue (NP 131) if affected.

5. Cancel the old edition of the chart by writing boldly on top “CANCELLED” and remove it from the bridge.

Corrections to old charts:

If a chart has not been kept up-to-date and the last correction effected on the chart is very old, use the following procedure to correct it:

1. Check that the edition is currently in the Cumulative Notice to Mariners.

2. Check in the latest Cumulative Notice to Mariners against the chart number, the number of uncorrected notices. Note them down in the correction log.

3. Start by correcting the latest correction first and proceed backward until all the notices are corrected.

“Cumulative List of Admiralty Notices to Mariners” is published every 6 months and lists correction numbers affecting each chart for the last 2 years. This should
be used to verify that all corrections affecting a particular chart have been carried out. It also gives the date of issue of the current edition of each chart.

Temporary and Preliminary (T & P) notices are corrected in the following way:

• Only voyage charts to be corrected.

• Look up the list of T’s and P’s in force (This is published monthly in ANM)

• The T & P notices are printed on one side of the page. This is to facilitate them being cut out and filed, by area in the ship’s T & P file. The index of this file
should be the “Monthly T & P’s in force” list. This has to be renewed monthly when the new one is received.

• Correct voyage charts with the T’s & P’s in force, in pencil, and note the correction number in the bottom left-hand corner of the chart, as well as in the
correction log.

Navigation warnings in force:

Usually, only the voyage charts are corrected for Navigation Warnings. A proper log of all Navigation Warnings should be maintained with individual sections for
each area. The log is maintained in the following way:

1. All Navigation Warnings in force until the year-end are published in the Annual Notices to Mariners.

2. All relevant sections of Navigation Warnings are removed from Admiralty Notices to Mariners and filed in the Navigation Warnings log in serial order.

3. A complete list of all navigation warnings in force is published quarterly, in the weekly notices to mariners. This list forms the first page of the log.

4. The above list is kept updated, as the new notices are received. Old lists are removed on receipt of a new list at the end of the quarter.

5. Obsolete or canceled notices are removed from the log, as required.

6. All Nav warnings are removed at the end of the year when new Annual Notices to Mariners received.

7. Navigation Warnings in force must be corrected on voyage charts in pencil and number to be noted in the left-hand corner of the chart also in pencil.
 Polar and Equatorial Distances

     The Earth is not a perfect Sphere; it is slightly flattened at the top and bottom, the smaller diameter being about 23.1NM less than the larger. The Earth's
"flattened shape is known as an OBLATE SPHEROID with an Equatorial Radius (a) of approximately 3443.9NM and a Polar Radius (b) of 3432.4NM.
(International Nautical Miles of 1852m based on WGS 84 Datum). (See Image Below with Distances converted to kilometers)

     Given the figures above, we can calculate the Equatorial Circumference of Earth by formula:

Equatorial Circumference = 2 • π  • a

where 'a' is equatorial radius.

     Therefore, the Equatorial Circumference of Earth is approximately equal to 21,638.7NM or 40,075km.

     The Polar Circumference of the Earth on the other hand, since the shape is spheroidal or elliptical, we can calculate it by the of formula by the mathematician
Ramanujan:

where p is the Polar Circumference, a is the equatorial radius, and b is the polar radius.

     Therefore, the Polar Circumference of Earth is approximately equal to 21,602.5NM or 40,008km.

How Do We Measure Distances on Mercator Nautical Charts?

     Because a chart is a scaled representation of the real world, it can be used to measure distances between objects. This is useful, among other things, for
estimating sailing or motoring time between points.

     On a Mercator chart, the latitude scale on the sides of the chart serves as the distance scale.

     It's worth remembering that ONLY the vertical, latitude scale on a Mercator chart can be used to measure distance, NOT the horizontal longitude
scale. This is because each minute of latitude equals one nautical mile, while the distance between minutes of longitude decreases between the equator and the
poles.

    Dividers are used to transfer the distance between two charted objects to the latitude scale on the side of the chart, or from the latitude scale to any points on the
chart.