PRINCESS NINFA M.

MACAILING
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ACTIVITY # 1

1. What are folds? Classify and describe different types of folds.

 Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When set of
horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upward or
downward. The bend notice in rocks are called folds.
 Symmetrical and asymmetrical folds
- When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal part in such a way that one half is
the mirror image called symmetrical folds.
- If the compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude
formed asymmetrical fold.
 Plunging and non-plunging folds
- The plunge of a fold has already been described as the inclination of the fold axis to
the horizontal plane.
- A non-plunging fold are mutually parallel and either converging or diverging.
 Open and closed folds
- If the thickness of beds is uniform throughout the folds are called open fold.
- If the beds are thinner in the limbs portion and thicker at crest and trough are called
closed fold.
 Similar and parallel folds
- Similar folds where the shape or pattern of fold remain the same at depths.
- Parallel folds where the crest and trough become pointed and angular.
 Overturned folds
- The order of superposition of beds in that limbs will be in reversed order.
 Chevron folds
- Some folds have sharply bent, angular crest and trough.
 Isoclinal folds
- The limbs will be mutually parallel to great extent (vertical/horizontal).
 Fan folds
- The limbs dip towards each other with reference to their axial plane.
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 Domes and basins

- Dome, resembles an upper hemisphere and the dip are found in all sides from
common central top point.
- Basin is like a bowl and the slopes are just opposite
 Drag folds
- Minor asymmetrical folds within major folds but confined only to incompetent beds
which are sandwiched between competent formations.
 Anticline and syncline
- When the beds are bend upward called anticline (convex upward).
- When the beds are bend downward called syncline (convex downward).
 Geanticlines and geosynclines
- It is the anticline and syncline with a normal shape but have a very large magnitude.

2. Give and define the behaviors of rocks to stress and strain.

 Plastic
- Ability to bend while under stress and does not return to its original shape after
relaxation of the stress.
 Elastic
- Ability to recover stress after its stress has been reduces or remove.
 Brittle
- Tend to break or fracture at stresses higher than its elastic limit.
 Stress
- A force per unit area of a particular point.
o Compressive – layers are pushed or squeeze together from opposite direction.
o Tensional – forces pulling away from one another in opposite direction.
o Shear – due to the movement parallel to but in a parallel direction along fault
boundary.
 Strain
- A change in size (volume), shape or both while an object is undergoing stress.
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3. Distinguish between strike and dip.

 Strike
- Refers to the direction in which a geological structure is present.
- As the direction of the trace of the intersection between the bedding plane.
 Dip
- Means slope or inclination.
- Expressed both as direction and amount.
- Is the direction along which the inclination of the bedding plane occurs.

4. Define outcrops and give examples that are present in the Philippines.
 Any geological formation exposed on surface.
 Examples
1. Kapurpurawan Rock Formation, Burgos, Ilocos Norte
2. Biri Rock Formation, Biri Island, Northern Samar
3. Nakabuang Arc, Sabtang Island, Batanes
4. Alapad Rock, Batan, Batanes
5. Apo Island Rock Formation, Negros Oriental
6. “Boto ni Kukarog”, Bagamanoc, Catanduanes

5. Explain how folds are recognized in the field of civil engineering.

 Folds developed in the areas of work are important for a civil engineer. If these
structures are not thoroughly investigated, any civil engineering project standing
on or driven through the folded rock may prove not only uneconomical but also
unsafe.
 Always consider the presence of folds when designing and constructing structures
such as traffic and hydropower tunnels, selection of sites for dams and reservoirs
and even fixing alignments of roads, bridges and highways.
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ACTIVITY # 2

1. Define “Unconformities” and how they formed.

- Unconformity is one of the common geological structure found in rocks. It is
somewhat different from other structures like folds, faults and joints in which the rock
are distorted, deformed or dislocated at a particular place. Unconformity is a product
of diastrophism and involve tectonic activity in the form of upliftment and subsidence
of land mass.

2. What are “Joints”?

- Joints are fractures found in all types of rocks. They are cracks or openings formed
due to various reasons. The presence of joints divides the rock into number of parts or
blocks. Through the joints may be described as mere cracks in rocks, they differ
mutually. Joints, like cleavages of minerals, occur oriented in a definite direction and
as a set.

3. Classify and describe various types of joints.

- Strike joints or Dip joints are joints parallel to the strike and dip of adjacent beds
respectively.
- Oblique joints if the strike direction of joints parallel neither to the strike nor dip
direction of adjacent beds.
- Bedding joints if the strike direction, dip direction and dip amount coincides
completely with the attitude of adjacent beds.
- Tension or Shear joint are formed due to either tensional forces or shearing forces.
This classification is based on the origin of joints

4. Explain the effects of joints in various civil engineering projects.

- Joints resembles fault by appearing as fractures in rock are not as dangerous as faults.
The region affected by joint are not liable to recurrence of joints in future as happens
in the case of faults. Places where joints occur are not very unstable for foundation
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purposes. However the area affected by joints can be easily improved by methods
such as suitable cement grouting or plugging. Therefore this method is not
economical and time consuming. Not economical because it will need more materials
use on construction, not just for strong foundation but also to fill the fracture in order
to attain stable ground. Also it is time consuming because it is not easy to fill the
fracture and it needs further study or calculation.