Evolution and Growth of the Muslim Society in India

Major Ruler Politics + Administration State and Religion Economic Policies Society and Culture
Muhammad bin Qasim Hajjaj vs. Dahir Shariah as the supreme law Zakat on Muslims Contact of 2 civilizations
Previous failed attempts Office for its interpretation Jizya on Hindus Trade b/w the two intensified
From Debul to Multan: No jizya on Brahmins Beginning of Islam in India
1. Debul, Nerun and Sehwan Mutual cultural influence:
2. Rewar, Aror, Brahmanabad 1. Script of language
3. Multan 2. Musical influences
4. Expeditions to Rajput areas Translation of works to Arabic
Modern well trained army Educational linkages
Civil admin. set up Arab settlers in India
Peace keeping troops in place Muslim settlements along rivers
Non-Muslims on govt. posts Muslims felt insecure
Change of Caliph
Death of Qasim
Politically insignificant
Mahmud of Ghazna Opening of invasions from NW No formal state structure India as a veritable El Dorado Security for Muslims (Punjab)
17 invasions over 27 years Used religion for fame + repute Imperialistic exploitation of India Spread of Islam by Sufis
1. Jaypal at Peshawar Sufis started coming to India Extraction of tributes from vassals Infrastructure devastated
2. Bhaira (aka Bhatia) No formal economic structures Cultural heritage lost/destroyed
3. Anandapal & then Multan Development in Central Asia Death of youth (killed in wars)
4. Bhatinda (Baji Rao) Central Asia prospered
5. Nawasa Shah of Multan Architecture:
6. Battle of Waihind 1. Museum at Ghazna
7. Fortress of Nagarkot 2. University at Ghazna
8. Abul Fateh Daud of Multan 3. Celestial bride (mosque)
9. Annexation of Punjab Patronized scholars
10. Thaneswar Al-Beruni visited India
11. Kashmir unsuccessful
12. Mathura and Qanauj
13. Kalinjar
14. Kashmir unsuccessful
15. Gwalior and Kalinjar
16. Somnath temple (Gujrat)
17. Jats of Sindh
Loot + plunder
No proper admin. system
System of vassals in India
Formal annexation of Punjab
Questionable motives:
1. Political (Hindushahis, Jats)
2. Religious? (Somnath)
 3. Economic
4. Central Asian Empire
Muhammad Ghauri Gahuris vs. Ghaznavids Politics and religion separate No formal economic policy Muslims spread all over India
Conquests of M. Ghauri: Cause of religion taken up Tributes and penalties Infrastructure destroyed
1. Peshawar made stronghold Religion not used for fame/repute Loot and plunder esp. in Bengal India connected to outer world
2. Sindh, Multan and Punjab
3. Chauhan kingdom
4. Bengal + Bihar
5. Qanauj + Klinjar + Badaun
First proper Muslim empire est.
Strong slave system in place
Centralized admin. est.
Iqtadari system as federalism
Conquest without consolidation
Suppression of Khokhars’ revolt
Qutb ud Din Aibak Slave squabbles: No formal policy (little time) No formal economic policy Culture and arts revitalized
1. Taj ud Din Yidiz Mosques were built though Tributes + penalties contd. Architecture:
2. Nasir ud Din Qabbacha 1. Quwwatul Islam mosque
3. Shams ud Din Iltutmish 2. Qutb Minar
Matrimonial alliances 3. Arhai Din ka Jhompra
Consolidation of power
Integration of empire
Independence from Ghazna
Khalji revolt in Bengal suppressed
Lahore as the capital
Shams ud Din Iltutmish Problems faced and solved: Alliance with the ulema Iqtadars as revenue collectors Sectarian tendencies grew
1. Taj ud Din Yildiz Ulema’s will as moral legitimacy Finance + revenue departments Patronized scholars + artists
2. Nasir ud Dun Qabacha Patronage for Suharwardi order Jagirs based on escheat Persian literature grew:
3. Khalji revolt in Bengal Anti-Shia policies Monetary system: 1. Khwaja Abu Nasr
4. Rebellion of the Rajputs Anti-Hindu policies 1. Silver Tanka (coins) 2. Taj ud Din Dabir
5. Revolt in Gangetic valley 2. Copper Jital (coins) 3. Nur ud Din Muhammad
6. Uprising of the Khokhars Music flourished
7. The Mongol menace Architecture:
Policy of consolidation 1. Huz e Shamsi
Truly independent Sultanate 2. Jami Masjid
Deed of investiture from Caliph
Proper est. of iqtadari system
The ‘Forty’ were est. as advisors
Real founder of Slave Dynasty
Delhi chosen as the capital
Gahyas ud Din Balban Turkish theory of kingship Divine legitimacy (divine rights) Checked officials’ excesses Social harmony
Problems faced and overcome: No particular place for ulema Policy of jagirs contd. Law and order prevailed
1. Influence of the Forty Ulema relevant in judiciary Quick justice, harsh punishments
 2. Mongols started invading Un-Islamic Persian practices: Architecture – tomb of Balban
3. Lawlessness + disorder 1. Zamin bosi His son patronized scholars:
4. Rebellion in Bengal 2. Pai bosi 1. Amir Khusrau (musician too)
Large standing army 3. Zil e Ilahi 2. Amir Hassan Dehlvi
Defensive policy (no expansion) Society for dancers, actors etc.
Spy system est.
Jalal ud Din Firoz Khalji Khalji revolution Religious tilt as a Sultan Misplaced generosity Turk-Indian integration
Non-Turkic rule in India Alliance with a few ulema Lenient with thugs + thieves New Muslims (Mongol converts)
Unpopular among the nobles Abandoned Ranthambhor siege Peace and security
Lenient policy of appeasement Maintained a royal orchestra
Rebellions faced:
1. Malik Chajju (Governor)
2. Taj ud Din Kuchi (Governor)
3. Siddi Maula (saint)
Mongol attack + assimilation
Ala ud Din’s exploits
1. Malwa (town of Bhilsa)
2. Deogiri (Ram Chandra Deva)
Ala ud Din Khalji Dealing with the Jalali nobles Secular set up Comprehensive economic policy Muslims flourished
Buying of loyalties Wanted to start his own religion 1. Price control Hindus suffered
Measures to prevent revolts: 2. Food, cloth, cattle control Welfare – unintentional
1. Prohibiting drinking 3. Public stockholdings Muslims began settling in South
2. Prohibiting gatherings 4. Serai Adal est. Architecture:
3. Confiscation of wealth 5. Revenue system reformed 1. Jamat Khana Masjid
4. Increased land revenue 6. Diwan e Riasat est. 2. Alai Darwaza (Quwat ul Islam)
5. Poor condition of Hindus 7. Collective accountability Musicians flourished across India
6. Espionage network 8. Anti-hoarding + profiteering
Expansionary policy: 9. No black markets
1. Northern conquests Policy was an outcome of:
a. Gujrat 1. Expansionary policy
b. Ranthambhor 2. Mongol policy
c. Chittor 3. Not welfare
d. Malwa, Ujjain etc.
2. Southern conquests
a. Deogiri
b. Warangal (Prataparudra)
c. Dwarasamudra (Bhalala)
d. Madura (Pandya kingdom)
Effective Mongol policy
Large standing army + forts
Anti-corruption measures
Ghayas ud Din Tughlaq Domestic Reforms Cordial relations with ulemas Revenue reforms: Peace and prosperity
1. Accountability of nobles Conflict with 1. Heavy taxes discontinued City of Tughlaqabad was built
2. Judicial reforms (Islamic) Biased treatment of Hindus 2. Generation of revenue Music was banned
 Foreign policy:
1. Juna Khan in Warangal
2. Resolving Bengali civil war
3. Mongols were defeated
4. Other conquests/tributes:
a. Utkala (Juna Khan)
b. Tirhut (Sultan)
Muhammad bin Tughlaq Ascended by killing his father
Large standing army
1. Dreams of Tibet + China
2. Success at Nagarkot (fort)
3. Defeat at Qarjal
4. Deal with Mongols in 1326
Integrating South India formally
Transfer of capital to Deogiri
Suppressed a number of revolts
Empire broke apart:
1. Vijayanagar kingdom
2. Bahmani kingdom
Firoz Shah Tughlaq A welfare theocratic state
Conquests varied in motives:
1. Bengal invaded twice
2. Jajnagar – religious motive
3. Nagarkot – religious motive
4. Sindh invaded – lost on way
Syed Dynasty Four rulers in total
Initial allegiance to Timur
Later allegiance to Shah Rukh
Mubarak Shah as most capable
He repudiated foreign allegiance
Political instability:
1. Decline in Muslim power
2. Sharqi dynasty in east
Secular state
Non-Muslims given imp. posts
Ulemas were against him
Non-Indians given imp. posts
Indian nobles were against him
Sunni ulemas gained importance
Shias + Hindus persecuted
Books of both were burnt
Hindu temples were destroyed
Mulhids were dealt with strictly
General massacre in Katehar:
1. Two Syeds were murdered
2. Massacre was retaliatory
3. 23000 people died
4. Story repeated annually
No proper religious policy
Primarily due to:
1. Short reigns
2. Political bickering
3. Revolts
Rulers remained busy in politics
a. Increasing tax net
b. Irrigation system
c. More land irrigated
Confiscated properties returned
Higher pay for officials
Higher taxes in Doab (famine)
Diwan e Amir Kohi
1. Developing agrarian econ.
2. More land for cultivation
3. Land for the poor farmers
4. Loans for the poor farmers
Issued copper coins (failed)
Free hospitals and sirais
Reformed on religious lines
Only Quranic taxes imposed:
1. Zakat
2. Jizya
3. Kharaj
4. Khums
5. Ushr
Diwan e Khairat (poor girls marriage)
Diwan e Istihqaq (financial help)
Adha and biqh (coins) issued
Jagir system reinstated
New wells + canals (irrigation)
Gardens for revenue at Delhi
No formal economic policy
Collapsing economy
Primarily due to:
1. Preoccupation with politics
2. No consolidation
Purdah had become common
Modern Indian dresses
The Empire presented extremes:
1. A few areas prospered
2. A few suffered (doab e.g.)
Scholars were patronized
Persian poetry:
1. Sultan was a poet himself
2. Badar ud Din at the court
Music was revived
Rule of law + equality before law
Dar ul Shifa + Dawakhana (charity)
Employment bureau set up
Abolition of torture as justice
More productive slave system
Education (madaris + maktabs)
Patronization of scholars:
1. Barni
2. Afif
3. Sultan’s autobiography
Arranged music recitals
Built four cities:
1. Hisar Firozah (aka Hisar)
2. Jaunpur
3. Fatehabad
4. Firozabad (palace built here)
Old monuments repaired
Great mosque at Firoz Shah Kotal
Mosques built by Sharqi rulers
Developments under provinces:
1. Patronization of scholars
2. Education + health
Delhi ignored everything
 3. Increasing no of revolts
4. Delhi fell to warring factions
5. Conspiracies of nobles
6. Mubarak Shah assassinated
Last ruler abdicated voluntarily
Alam Shah replaced by Bahlol
Lodhi Dynasty Three rulers in total
Afghan theory of kingship
Bahlol Lodhi started expansion
Peaked under Sikandar Lodhi:
1. Sharqi rulers were defeated
2. Spy system strengthened
3. Check on governors
Ibrahim became power hungry:
1. Rebels vs. royalists
2. Clash of Sultan with nobles
3. Ibrahim alienated himself
4. Nobles allied with Babur
Zaheer ud Din M. Babur Significant battles against:
1. Ibrahim Lodhi
2. Rajputs (Rana Sanga + Rao)
3. Afghans (Lodhis + Khans)
No administrative system set up
Dawn of a new era
Revival of Muslim rule in India
Naseer ud Din M. Hamayun Conspiracy against Hamayun
Weak empire:
1. The “brothers problem”
2. Ethnically divided army
3. Multiple rebellions
Suppression of revolts:
1. Afghan chiefs
2. Bhadur Shah of Gujrat
Successful coup of Sher Khan
Sher Shah Suri Usurper or not?
Defeated + exiled Hamayun
Expansionary policy:
1. Punjab + Gakkhars + Multan
2. Rajput states
3. Bengal
Turkish theory of kingship
Welfare oriented + people’s will
Strict central control
Bahlol had no formal policy
Sikandar was a religious bigot:
1. Persecuted Hindus happily
2. Sacked temples
3. Mosques in place of temples
4. Building temples prohibited
5. Barbers not to serve Hindus
6. Hindus not to bathe at Jumna
Liberal religious policies
Pro-Shia attitude
Liberal religious policies
Pro-Shia attitude
Liberal religious policies
Secularism in practice
Jizya still imposed on Hindus
Reforms by Sikandar Lodhi:
1. Encouraged agriculture
2. Removed a no. of duties
3. Old roads were repaired
4. New ones were built
Poor financial policies
Money distributed among nobles
Jagirdari system kept intact
No reforms
Continuation of ad hoc policies
Wealth wasted on pleasures
Jagirdari system kept intact
Liberalization of trade
Roads + serais built all over
Tariffs at only two points
Revenue reforms by Todar Mal
Debased coins replaced by rupee
Art + literature patronized
Tuzk e Babri by Babur
Disintegration and uncertainty
No order
Architecture:
1. Babri Masjid
2. Several other mosques
Painters from Iran came to India
Wooden architecture:
1. Qasr e Rawan
2. Bazar e Rawan
3. Bagh e Rawan
Social integration + tolerance
Daily langar for the poor
Education for Muslims + Hindus
Architecture:
1. Qila Rohtas (Jehlum)
2. Purana Qila (Delhi)
3. His own mausoleum (Bihar)
 Iqtadari system contd.
More efficient spy system (fast)
Jalal ud Din M. Akbar Consolidation of Empire
True founder of Mughal Empire
Elimination of rival to throne:
1. Hemu (2nd Battle of Panipat)
2. Bairam Khan
3. Harem party
Expansionary policy:
1. Kandahar to Bengal
2. Kashmir to Berar
Strong mansabdari system est.
1. Mix of civ-mil admin.
2. Ranked hierarchy
3. Fixed salary + escheat
Efficient spy system
1. Simple spies to spy on all
2. Special spies to spy on spies
Nur ud Din M. Jahangir Liberal policy mixed with greed
Suppression of revolts:
1. Khusrau (son of Jahangir)
2. Guru Arjun Dev (Sikh Guru)
Expansionary policy:
1. Rajputs in Mewar
2. Southward expansion
Influence of Nur Jahan’s junta
Ascendency of Nur Jahan
Revolts put down by Nur Jahan:
1. Prince Khuram (Shah Jahan)
2. Mahabt Khan (coup)
Nepotism over meritocracy
Mansabdari system contd.
Shahab ud Din M. Shah Declining liberalism
Jahan Suppression of Revolts:
1. Bundella problem
2. Khan Jahan Lodhi
3. Marathas in the South
Expansionary policy:
1. Deccan campaign (50/50)
2. Central Asia + Afghanistan
New problems:
1. Portuguese presence (wars)
2. The Sikhs (war)
Mansabdari system contd.
Islamic state in theory
Compromise with the ulema
Akbar’s title “Khalifa tul Zaman”
Secularism in practice
Ibadat khana gatherings
Infallibility Decree + Sulh e Kul
Deen e Ilahi
Pro-Rajput policy
Hindus given govt. posts
State declared as Islamic
Compromise system in place
Continued Sulh e Kul
Some features of Deen e Ilahi
Ibadat-khana type gathering
Dastur ul Amal in place
Funds for building mosques
Funds for building temples
Clash with Sheikh Ahmad
No jizya on Hindus
No Muslim girl-Hindu marriage
Beginning of anti-Sikh policies
State declared as Islamic
Compromise system in place
Liberalism still dominant
Funds for building mosques
Theologians exempted from:
1. Sajda e Tazeemi
2. Zamin bosi and pai bosi
Destruction of temples
Destruction of churches
No jizya on Hindus
No Muslim girl-Hindu marriage
Anti-Sikh policy
Revenue reforms by Todar Mal:
1. Multiple systems in place:
a. Zabti system (efficient)
b. Ghalla Bakhshi
c. Nasq + Kankut
2. Broke jagirdar’s powers
3. Uniform implementation
4. Treasury augmented
No system of artificial irrigation
European traders allowed:
1. Boom in industrial sector
2. Boom in mining activities
Roads + rivers for internal trade
Roads + seas for external trade
No system of artificial irrigation
Measures taken against famines
Peasant friendly policies
Spread of Europeans
Social integration + tolerance
Art + painting began to flourish
Mughal School of Painting est.
State gallery was opened
Patronized all scholars
Integrated education policy:
1. Persian + Sanskrit for all
2. Co-education promoted
3. Madrassas + Pathshalas
Akbarnama by Abul Fazl
Art/painting flourished
Perfumes became common
Architecture:
1. Tomb of Itimad ud Daula
2. Tomb of Jahangir (Lahore)
Books translated into Persian
Architecture:
1. Taj Mahal (Agra)
2. Moti Masjid (Agra)
3. Red Fort (Delhi)
4. Jama Masjid (Delhi)
5. Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)
6. Peacock throne
 Muhi ud Din M. Aurangzeb Fighting rebels:
1. Jats got a separate state
2. Satnamis were defeated
3. Sikhs became militant
4. Rise of Marathas/Shivaji
Expansionary campaigns:
1. North West frontier
2. North East frontier
3. Deccan campaign
New Problem - Europeans
Strong army and spies
Decline in mansabdari system
Islamic theory of kingship
Orthodox religious policy
Ulema’s role increased
Imposition of jizya
Destruction of temples
No Hindus on govt post
Anti-Shia policy
Anti-Rajput policy
Anti-Sikh policy
Religious taxes
Low trade due to wars all over
Crops damaged by wars
Rise of criminal activity
Royal servants’ excesses
Exploitation of the poor
Social disintegration
Promoted puritanical Islam
Promoted Islamic culture
Architecture:
1. Badshahi Masjid
2. Marble mosque (Delhi fort)
3. Alamgiri gate (Lahore)
Ignored art + literature

Dimensions along which to Analyze:

Politics and Administration
1. Military (foreign) policy:
a. Defensive (whenever a stronger threat like the Mongols arose)
b. Offensive/expansionary and suppression of revolts
2. Restructuring of the military (Blaban + Ala ud Din + Akbar)
3. Spy system (need depended on the nature of nobility)
4. Theory of kingship:
a. Everyone followed the theory of divine rights of kings with an Islamic tinge
b. Only Lodhi dynasty followed the Afghan theory of kingship (only Bahlol Lodhi followed it in its true essence)
Religion and State: Secular/Liberal vs. Theocratic State
1. Ulemas were always involved in one capacity or another:
a. Strong Sultans contained them but gave them some small role (Balban, Ala ud Din, Muhammad Tughlaq, Akbar)
b. A few zealous Sultans shared power with them (Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Aurangzeb)
c. Political conditions dictated co-option (Iltutmish, Sultana Razia, Gyas ud Din Tughlaq, Sikandar Lodhi)
2. Relations with Sufis
a. Patronization of Sufis and their khanqas esp. of the Suharwardiya order
b. Opposition by Naqshbandia order esp. by Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah Wali Ullah
Economy: Welfare vs. Militaristic Economic Policies
1. Welfare policies were pro-agriculture (irrigation, loans, widening of tax net or increasing yield to increase revenue instead of increasing tax, charitable institutions)
2. Militaristic policies were a burden on the people and included price control mechanisms – best under Ala ud Din Khalji (high taxes, tough punishments)
3. A few Sultans managed pro-agriculture policies without sacrificing expansionary ends (Sher Shah Suri and Akbar)
4. Trade varied from time to time but anyone with a proper economic policy focused on it (roads and serais were built)
5. A few had religious economic policies – those who allied with the ulemas (Ghyas ud Din Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq)
Society and Culture
1. Architecture, music, literature
2. Persianization of Indian cultures and languages
3. Islamization of the way of life (justice by Qazis and the Sultan, mosques, madaris, maktabs, calligraphy, Sufism)
4. Role and rights of women (from infanticide and sati to an increasingly equitable status)
5. Hospitals, pharmacies, marriage and employment bureaus
Dynasty Muslim Ruler Date (AD) Dynasty Muslim Ruler Date (AD)
Arabs Muhammad bin Qasim 712 – 715 Zaheer ud Din Muhammad Babur 1526 – 1530
Mughals
Ghaznavid Mahmud of Ghazna’s Invasions 1000 – 1027 Naseer ud Din Muhammad Hamayun 1530 – 1540
Ghurid Muhammad Ghauri’s Invasions 1175 – 1206 Sher Shah Suri 1540 – 1545
Qutb ud Din Aibak 1206 – 1210 Islam Shah Suri 1545 – 1553
Aram Shah 1210 – 1211 Firoz Shah Suri 1553
Shams ud Din Iltutmish 1211 – 1236 Suri Muhammad Adil Shah 1553 – 1554
Muhammad Adil Shah
Rukn ud Din Firoz Shah 1236 Ibrahim Shah Suri 1555
Sikandar Shah Suri
Slave
Sultana Razia 1236 – 1240 Naseer ud Din Muhammad Hamayun 1555 – 1556
Muiz ud Din Bahram Shah 1240 – 1242 Jalal ud Din Muhammad Akbar 1556 – 1605
Ala ud Din Masud Shah 1242 – 1246 Nur ud Din Muhammad Jahangir 1605 – 1627
Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah 1246 – 1266 Shahab ud Din Muhammad Shah Jahan 1627 – 1658
Ghyas ud Din Balban 1266 – 1287 Muhi ud Din Muhammad Aurangzeb 1658 – 1707
Muiz ud Din Kaiqubad 1287 – 1290 Bahadur Shah I (Shah e Bekhabar) 1707 – 1712
Jalal ud Din Firoz Khilji 1290 – 1296 Jahandar Shah 1712 – 1713
Ala ud Din Khilji 1296 – 1316 Farrukh Siyar 1713 – 1719
Khilji Malik Kafur 1316 (36 Days) Mughals Rafi ud Darjat 1719
Qutb ud Din Mubarak 1316 – 1320 Rafi ud Daula 1719
Khusrau Khan 1320 – 1321 Muhammad Shah (Rangila) 1719 – 1748
Ghyas ud Din Tughlaq 1321 – 1325 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1748 – 1754
Muhammad bin Tughlaq 1325 – 1351 Alamgir II 1754 – 1759
Firoz Shah Tughlaq 1351 – 1388 Shah Jahan III 1759 – 1760
Ghyas ud Din Tughlaq Shah II 1388 – 1389 Shah Alam II 1760 – 1806
Abu Bakr Shah 1389 – 1390 Akbar Shah II 1806 – 1837
Muhammad Shah 1390 – 1394 Bahadur Shah II 1837 – 1857
Tughlaq Ala ud Din Sikandar Shah 1394 (2 months)
Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq
Nusrat Shah Tughlaq 1394 – 1398
(Rival claimants to the throne)
Amir Timur’s invasion 1398 – 1399
Nasir ud Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq 1399 – 1413
Daulat Khan Lodhi 1413 – 1414
Khizr Khan 1414 – 1421
Muiz ud Din Mubarak Shah 1421 – 1434
Syed
Muhammad Shah 1434 – 1444
Ala ud Din Alam Shah 1444 – 1451
Bahlol Lodhi 1451 – 1488
Lodhi Sikandar Lodhi 1488 – 1517
Ibrahim Lodhi 1517 – 1526
Evolution and Growth of Muslim Society in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent

Beginnings: From Trade to Military Conquest by the Arabs

While conventional wisdom has it that the Muslims made contact with India in 712 AD when Muhammad bin Qasim led a
military assault on Sindh, the truth of the matter is that Arabs and Indians had been in contact for centuries, and that
these economic ties continued after the advent of Islam, the difference being that Islam provided a revolutionary
rationalization for the recent exposure of pre-historic Arab tribalism to iron, settled agriculture and the family unit,
transforming the Bedouins into a force that carried the simple and austere message of Islam to distant lands Westward
over land and Eastward over high seas. The almost one month long journey from the shores of the Arabian Peninsula to
the Malabar Coast of India was helped by the predictable Monsoon winds that made the Indian Ocean the most strategic
ocean of that time.
 Peaceful Relations between the Arabs and the Indians: The Malabar Coast
Many Muslim traders had settled in towns along the Malabar Coast of India and it was in Kerala (in South India), in 629
AD that the first mosque in India was established and named Cheraman Juma Masjid. In any case, Muslims who settled
on the Malabar Coast married with the indigenous people of India and the offspring of these marriages came to be known
as the Mopillas/Moplahs who over time became concentrated around the River Beypore. But these relations did not
remain peaceful for very long. After conquering the Persian Empire, Muslims set their eyes on the great Gandhara Kingdom
which they wanted to invade from the South, via routes through territories lying in India.
 Early Attempts by Arabs to Conquer India: Sindh
Attempts to invade India were made by the Muslims as early as 634 AD during the period of the second rightly guided
Caliph, Hazrat Umar (RA). During the time of the second Rashidun Caliphate, the Governor of Bahrain, Mughira ibne-abi
Aas made an attempt to conquer India and thought that victory would come easily due to which he did not even consult
the Caliph. This attempt was unsuccessful. An advisor of Hazrat Usman (RA) advised against the undertaking of a similar
expedition to conquer Sindh and his advice was not ignored. Caliph Muawiya sent an expedition under the command of
Abdullah bin Sawar Abidi. This army faced a number of defeats in Balochistan and Punjab. Muawiya’s second attempt was
no better than the first one.
 Success at Last: Muhammad bin Qasim’s Invasion of Sindh
It was not until the disruption of Muslim trade in the Arabian Sea thanks to pirates whom Raja Dahir, the Hindu ruler of
Sindh, was unable to subdue, that the fate of Sindh was sealed. Piracy along with other reasons including Arab imperialism
and Dahir’s arrogant attitude, prompted Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the Muslim Governor of Iraq who had an interest in the trade
with Ceylon that had been disrupted, to direct his Generals to lead campaigns against Raja Dahir. Ubaidullah and Budail
both failed in this task and it finally fell to the young nephew and son-in-law of Hajjaj, Muhammad bin Qasim to bring
Dahir to heel. He led an invasion into Sindh and got the support of the local Buddhists and others who were tired of Dahir’s
oppressive rule. In 712 AD, he conquered Debul first after which he unleashed his wrath on the non-Muslims of the area,
prompting Hajjaj to write a letter instructing Qasim to practice restraint and instead of ravishing the lands, developing a
system of administration for long term benefits. Nerun and Sehwan were the next to fall – both were ruled by local
Buddhist rulers who preferred not to fight and thus surrendered. Rewar lay next and it was here that Dahir himself faced
Qasim. Dahir was killed on the 6th day of battle and this forced his wife Rani Bai to shut herself along with the troops into
the fortress of Rewar which was surrounded by the Muslim forces. The siege was successful and to protect their honour,
the Hindu women performed Jauhar. Brahmanabad and Aror, the capital of Sindh, fell next, thereby completing his
conquest of Sindh (referred to as Baab-ul-Islam). At Brahmanabad, Qasim captured Dahir’s second wife, Rani Bai along
with his daughters, Parmal Devi and Surya Devi. In 713 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim added Multan, the City of Gold, to his
list of Indian conquests. The system of administration set up by Muhammad bin Qasim was, as per Hajjaj’s instructions,
more liberal than could have been expected during that era: Qasim’s most trusted advisors were Hindus such as Siyakar
and Moka Bisaya, and the Brahmins were exempted from Jizya and were given high posts in administration and revenue
collection. While the system was successful and was replicated to various extents by many rulers till the time of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq (14th century AD), due to internal politics of Muslims (Caliph Walid was replaced by Caliph Suleman who was
opposed to Hajjaj and by extension, all of his Generals), Muhammad bin Qasim was recalled in 715 AD and imprisoned in
Mesopotamia where he died.

Towards Muslim Domination of India: From the Arabs to the Turks

The Arabs established multiple colonies along the River Indus, they were unable to maintain their diplomatic ties with the
Caliphate especially after the Abbasids succeeded the Umayyads in 750 AD. By the year 871 AD, Muslim Governors of
India had severed their ties with the Caliph and had declared themselves to be independent. The Caliphate too had lost
interest in a campaign that was not rewarding enough. While Muslim settlements began to sprout in a few locations,
political power passed back into the hands of the Hindus except for in a few areas. Even in Multan by the 10th Century AD,
power had passed on from the Arabs to the Karmathians. The impermanence of the effects of Arab conquest have been
interpreted with hindsight by many as a resistance by the land of the Indus River to accept the Arabic precepts and
interpretations of Islam. Turkic and Persian precepts and interpretations of Islam though, as the advent of the second
millennium AD was to show, were accepted quite readily. Reasons for this are attributed primarily to the similarities in
the civilizations that emerged in India, Persia and Turkey and simultaneously, to the differences of the said civilizations
with the one that emerged in Arabia, along with the possibility that the Arab contact had primed the Indians for further
contact. This latter Perso-Turkic Islamic contact with the Indo-Pak Subcontinent was facilitated by the Muslim invaders
from these regions, the first among which was Mahmud.
 A Scimitar at Somnath: Mahmud of Ghazna
Arabs had defeated the Persians during the reign of the second Caliph of the Muslims but over time, Arab influence
declined and the Persians (who were by then Muslims), took back control of the region that was theirs. The first post-Arab
independent Muslim Persian Empire was the Samanid Empire. It was after the decline of the Samanid Empire that Ghazna
emerged as the hub of power. Alp Tigin, a General of the Samanid Empire, established himself at Ghazna as partially
independent of the Samanid Empire. Upon his death, his slave General Sebuktigin took over at Ghazna and founded the
Ghaznavid Dynasty in 977 AD. Some 2 decades later, in 997 AD, his son Mahmud took over with an aim to defeat the
Ghaznavid Dynasty’s rival Hindu Shahi Dynasty (led by Raja Jaypal) that covered areas from Kabul to Lahore, but with an
even bigger aim of establishing a Central Asian Empire centered at Ghazna. While Mahmud was able to defeat Raja Jaypal
of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty and his successors including Anandapal, Trilochampal and Bhimpal on multiple occasions
leading to the inevitable disintegration of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty in 1028 AD, he also destroyed a large number of
temples in India in the process with the most notable one being at Somnath which was destroyed in 1026 AD and which
earned him the title of “Idol Destroyer”. He also captured numerous forts and reduced various rulers to being his vassals.
However, his primary goals seemed to be to use India from time to time as a personal treasury chest and armory that
came in handy whenever a need arose to finance and arm expeditions in his main goal of setting up his Central Asian
Empire. Even his annexation of Punjab seems to have been a means towards this end as he used Punjab as a launching
pad for looting and plundering campaigns further into India instead of setting up a roper civilian administrative system.
This does not mean that his expeditions did not open up India for Islam. His efforts did open up the path for saints and
Sufis to come into India. Nevertheless, one must refrain from giving credit to a political ruler who was a product of his
time, for something that occurred only as an unintentional byproduct of his policies and their implementation. In the end,
his 17 invasions of India over a span of 28 years left North India looking like a large refugee camp. Had the successors of
Mahmud been even slightly capable, they might have been able to integrate a few portions of the India into the Empire
centered at Ghazna but that was not to be the case until Ghaur emerged as the new center of power to challenge Ghazna.
 The Foundations of a Muslim Empire in India: Muhammad Ghauri
In 1150s a tussle between the Ghurids and the Ghaznavids broke out with the former succeeding at Ghazna and Ghaur in
1173 AD. In this task, the Ghurids were led in 1173 AD by Ghyas-ud-Din who was helped by his brother Shihab-ud-Din aka
Muhammad Ghauri who then set himself to the task of defeating any left-over Ghaznavid rulers – a task he completed in
1186 AD with the conquest of Lahore. After that he was able to expand his dominions in India and thus became the first
Turk to establish a proper administrative system in India. He fought Prithvi Raj Chauhan III twice at Tarain. In the First
Battle of Tarain in 1191, Ghauri suffered a defeat but in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, he won and appointed his
slave General, Qutb ud Din Aibak for the task of capturing Delhi and Ajmer which he was able to do so successfully through
a policy that intermixed diplomacy with coercion. Furthermore, Aibak appointed his own slave-general, Ikhtiyar ud din bin
Bakhtiyar Khalji for the conquest of lands beyond the Gangetic doab. Bakhtiyar was able to conquer Bihar and Bengal by
1205 AD, a goal in the achievement of which, the old Sena Dynasty perished and thousands of bhikshus fell to Muslim
swords. In 1203 AD, Muhammad Ghori ascended the throne at Firoz Koh when his brother Ghiyas ud Din died, and became
more embroiled in the power politics of Central Asia. His defeat at the hands of the Khwarizm Shah of Persia in 1205 led
to the subjugated Indians to raise their arms in rebellion. He came back to India to help his general Qutb ud Din Aibak and
on his return journey, he was assassinated during the dark of the night while he was asleep in his camp, by a Khokhar
daredevil at Dhamyuk, near Jehlum. By the time of Muhammad Ghauri’s death in 1206 AD, Aibak had succeeded in
expanding his Indian territories and establishing a basic administrative system for these territories. Muslims who were to
remain a minority in India, had laid down the foundations of political dominance that was to last for half a millennium.
A Muslim Continental Bureaucratic Empire in Medieval India: The Delhi Sultanate
The Sultanate of Delhi was the first formally recognized independent Muslim Empire in India. Besides the Roman Empire,
it is perhaps the only example where the locus of power is a specific place i.e. Delhi, as is reflected in the name of the
Sultanate. The nature of the Sultanate has been described as feudal but it can be more aptly be said to be organized
according to what is called the Asiatic Mode of Production based on a natural economy in which the Emperor is the
universal proprietor, and in which production is facilitated by public works built by the state, surplus extraction is in the
form of land revenue and not land rent, and social structure is based on class and not serfdom. Furthermore, the political
system can be described as a continental bureaucratic empire: the Sultan was the universal proprietor whose power was
largely dependent on military might backed by revenue collection, and whose legitimacy was dependent on religious
ideology backed by a system of justice rooted in religious principles.
 Consolidation of Power and the Triumph of Absolute Monarchy: Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290 AD)
During this period, the initial external threat was from Central Asia as Ghazna still claimed Indian Dominions to be under
it. Three main rulers were of much significance and all three were slaves who rose to positions of power through the hard
work they put in. Between Qutb ud Din Aibak and Shams ud Din Iltutmish, there were 2 decades marred by extreme
instability and backstabbing where the nobility became more powerful than the Sultan. Otherwise, the Sultan was the
ultimate and unchallenged power in the land – the law was what he said it to be, it was interpreted by him, and he was
the source of all executive authority. However, despite the Herculean internal and external problems faced by the nascent
Muslim Empire (such problems are faced by almost every new Empire), power was held continuously by the Muslims at
Delhi.
1. Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206 – 1210): he failed to consolidate power not due to incapability but due to his short rule
and the plethora of political actors who made claims to power: Taj ud Din Yildiz who ruled from Ghazna and made
claims over Delhi, Nasir ud Din Qabacha who was centered at Uch and Sindh but made claims over Punjab, Ali
Mardan Khan and then the Khiljis who declared Bengal to be independent of Delhi. While Aibak achieved partial
success through matrimonial alliances with Yildiz, Qabacha and Iltutmish, and diplomacy in Bengal, the task of
establishing an Indian Muslim Empire centered at Delhi as an independent Sultanate fell to Iltutmish.
2. Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (1211 – 1236): he met the said challenge within 6 years of his rule. But the first external
threat (Yildiz) gave way to the second and more dangerous one – that of the Mongols. A temporary solution was
found to that threat though no formal Mongol policy except for the continuation of masterly inactivity was made
by Iltutmish. For internal stability, Iltutmish formed an alliance with the Sunni ulema and patronized the
Suharwardi silsilah which helped him obtain moral legitimacy. This was complemented by further steps: he got
the Caliph to issue the Deed of Investiture in 1229 AD in order to give the Sultanate a hereditary shape, he gave
the Sultanate its own currency and a formal administrative system called the Iqtadari system, and he appointed
40 special nobles to oversee the administration. These 40 (aka Chahalghani aka Corps of the Forty aka Shamsi
nobles) created much troubled for his successors and the internal squabble for power between the nobility and
the Sultan could not be settled in the favour of the Sultan until Balban’s time.
3. Ghyas-ud-Din Balban (1266 – 1286): Balban, who brought the Shamsi nobles (the corps of the 40) to heel and
subdued all rebellions through semi-barbaric measures, also gave the Sultanate its formal defensive policy against
the Mongol menace and Persianised the culture of the Sultanate. Finally, another contribution of Balban was his
Theory of Kingship which was based on the concept of divine rights of kings who were to be considered to be
inspired and guided in all that they did by God Almighty and were to be called Zil-e-Ilahi, and on the principle that
the stability of the state depended on its ability to display pomp, show and munificence, its ability to exert the will
of the Sultan through a strong army backed by a network of spies and financed by a huge treasury. He ruled
according to these principles and amassed power in his own hands. Stability of the state, dependent on the
strength of institutions and not on how powerful the ruler is, was temporary. With the death of Balban, internal
strife returned. The first dimension concerned the tussle between the nobility and the Sultan, ever so dictated by
the nobility’s calculus of fear and greed. The second dimension concerned the hatred for locals that the Turks and
other foreigners had due to their own misinformed ethnocentricity.
 Territorial Expansion and Militaristic Fiscalism: Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1321 AD)
With the Khilji Revolution in 1290 AD, the Sultanate underwent a striking change under the leadership of two capable
Sultans: the soft and relatively orthodox Jalal-ud-Din Firoz Khilji who was succeeded by the stringent and secular Ala-ud-
Din Khilji.
1. Jalal-ud-Din Firoz Khilji (1290 – 1294): the bloody takeover that resulted in the assassination of the Sultan
Kaiqubad and his young son though not in that order, was followed by a period of relative peace. Firoz who had
 been a brutal general was a very soft hearted Sultan for whom the Sultanate was not ready yet. He avoided the
expansion of his Empire but he showed his military might when faced with the Mongol threat. His nephew and
son-in-law, Ala-ud-Din however was ambitious and started incursions into the rich Southern India and Rajputana
on his own which led the Sultan to believe those who said that Ala-ud-Din was planning a coup. In order to lay
these suspicions to rest, Ala-ud-Din decided to meet his uncle (the Sultan) on his return from Deogiri in South
India from where he amassed a lot of wealth. During this meeting, Ala-ud-Din had his uncle murdered and then
turned his eyes towards Delhi. He bought off most of the nobility with his wealth and those he could not buy (the
Jalali nobles), fell to his sword. After his takeover, he assassinated those whom he had bought off as he though
them to be not loyal and not reliable.
2. Ala-ud-Din Khilji (1294 – 1316): his brutal takeover saw the assassination of Jalal’s family and nobility. With
dreams of world conquest and of starting his own religion, he began the policy of territorial expansion. Portions
of North India including Gujrat, and Rajputana (Chittor, Ranthambhor, Malwa, and Ujjain) were conquered and
added to the Sultanate lands. The slave Malik Kafur who was captured from Gujrat, led the Sultan’s forces later
into South India to make the rulers of various kingdoms such as Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Telingana, and Pandya
kingdoms, the vassals of Ala-ud-Din. Lastly, the Sultanate had to deal with a new wave of Mongol invasions which
were more frequent and intense than before. Wars against the Rajputs, in the South and against the Mughals
were a heavy drain on the economy and in order to finance them, Ala-ud-Din came up with his much praised
economic and price control policy designed to generate a steady stream of revenue and ensure that inflation
remained virtually zero. Ala-ud-Din tried to undo the feudal nature of the society and was able to replace the
jagirdari system with a bureaucratic system based on pay in cash and post-retirement safety in the form of
pensions. With the expanse of the Empire and this bureaucratic system, he emerged as probably the first
chakravarthin but the neo-Arthashastra state that he established could not last for long. The chaos that ensued
after his death led to the degeneration of the society once again.
Malik Kafur’s Hindu rule for 36 days after Ala-ud-Din’s death in 1316 AD and later Khusro Shah’s Hindu rule for over a year
in 1320 – 1321 AD were seen as a threat to Muslim rule over India and thus Khusrau Shah was replaced by one of Ala-ud-
Din’s generals, Ghazi Malik.
 A Welfare State amid Fluctuations b/w Orthodoxy and Secularism: Tughlaq Dynasty (1321 – 1414 AD)
The post-Ala-ud-Din chaos and Hindu takeover was displaced by the Tughlaqs who were also known as Qaraunah Turks.
The period of Tughlaqs saw a greater focus on experiments in administration not all of which succeeded, and lesser of a
focus on conquest. However, the Sultanate weakened gradually over this period and as the hold of the Sultan waned,
apathy and atomization of the society led to numerous rebellions and the emergence of concentric states as was the norm
in vast and heterogeneous regions like India.
1. Ghyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1321 – 1325): Ghazi Malik ascended the throne and took the title of Ghyas-ud-Din Tughlaq
thereby starting the Tughlaq Dynasty in 1321 AD. He focused on welfare works such as wells, canals etc. so as to
increase the revenue by affecting an increase in the yield instead of by demanding greater portion of the produce
as revenue. Public service delivery including law and order along with efficient administration of justice were steps
in the correct direction. But his son, Juna Khan proved himself to be unreliable. Ghyas-ud-Din was killed probably
by his own son who then took over the throne.
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325 – 1351): Juna Khan took the title of Muhammad Tughlaq and he brought in an era
of experiments (economic, military, administrative, etc.) and extreme secularism. The administrative portion
included a change in capital from Delhi to Deogiri renamed to Daulatabad with the aim of incorporating the South
and making it more connected to North India. The way it was done however, led to the death of a large number
of people and a successfuk invasion of Delhi by the Mongols who had to be bought off. This latter episode forced
the Sultan to return to Delhi as his capital as Daulatabad was too far removed from the North where the main
threats lay. Poor execution of other experiments such as the issuing of copper coins as legal currency led to
inflation when people began forging copper coins on their own in their homes (from their utensils). Muhammad
Tughlaq also trained a large force for over a year in order to invade Khorasan but then abandoned the project
altogether and disbanded the military which led to large scale unemployment and law and order crisis all over the
Sultanate. These disturbances mutated into rebellions that finally resulted in the emergence of two separate
kingdoms called the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms where the former was a Hindu kingdom and the latter
was a Muslim kingdom and both of them were established in South India. Secular policies on the other hand
eroded his moral legitimacy as the ulema refused to support him and criticized his policy of keeping Hindus and
 non-Turks on important posts. Muhammad bin Tughlaq finally died in 1351 on his way to Thatta to suppress
another rebellion, paving the way for his cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1388): he was also focused on administration and his reforms actually led to welfare
of the masses as he opened up a number of new departments such as the Dar-ul-Shifa, Dar-ul-Istihqaq, Dar-ul-
Khairat, outlawed punishments such as the cutting off of body parts except for those allowed according to religion,
and reformed the slave and madrassah systems. But his religious attitude which is seen by many to have saved
Islam from the clutches of secular forces (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) ushered in an era of religious zeal and bigotry.
He consulted the orthodox Sunni ulema on every matter and Islamized the Sultanate as much as he could to the
extent that no tax other than the ones allowed by the Quran were imposed. However, he alienated due to his
oppressive policies, Muslims of the Shia sect, the mulhids (atheists) and the Hindus of India especially the
Brahmins. He also reversed for the first time, the policy of non-imposition of jizya on Brahmins that had been in
place since the times of Muhammad bin Qasim.
With Firoz’s death, rival claimants to the throne rose up and the fledgling two centuries old (almost) Sultanate was dealt
a major blow by Amir Timur’s invasion in 1398 AD after which the Sultanate could not recover. Amir Timur left behind
Khizr Khan as his vassal at Multan.
 Decline of Muslim Hold over Delhi: Syed Dynasty (1414 – 1451 AD)
In 1414, amidst increasing political instability at Delhi, Khizr Khan himself dealt the final blow to the Tughlaq Dynasty and
established the Syed Dynasty. First three rulers of the Syed Dynasty spent all of their time holding on to what was left of
the Delhi Sultanate by suppressing revolts. The second ruler, Mubarak Shah, the successor of Khizr Khan, however was
the most capable of them all. He repudiated his allegiance to Shah Rukh, the successor of Amir Timur and made Delhi
independent in name once again. But he was assassinated by his Vizier. Mubarak’s successor, Muhammad Shah however
was unable to maintain his power and in order to curb the influence of his Vizier, sought the help of Bahlol Lodhi, an
Afghan Governor under Delhi, in return for granting Bahlol hereditary rights to the throne. Muhammad Shah’s son Ala-
ud-Din Alam Shah ascended the throne after the assassination of his father but he was highly incapable and cared only for
sensual pleasures and thus he retired to Badaun, sending a letter from there that allowed Bahlol to ascend the throne at
Delhi.
 Afghan Theory of Kingship and the Challenge to Monarchy: Lodhi Dynasty (1451 – 1526 AD)
With the abdication of Ala ud Din Alam Shah was established the Lodhi Dynasty of which the first ruler was Bahlol Lodhi
who ruled according to the Afghan Theory of Kingship which was based on the principle that the Sultan was the first among
equals, clearly in opposition to Balban’s theory of Kingship. But he brought a semblance of control and began the
expansionary expeditions once again. In any case, it fell to his son Sikandar Lodhi to be the most successful of the Lodhi
rulers. He expanded the Sultanate and defeated the Sharqi Rulers of Jaunpur – the main rivals in the east. Sikandar shifted
the capital of the Sultanate to Agra which he had founded in 1504. This shift was to ensure that the newly conquered
regions could be administered more efficiently. Sikandar, in addition to such expansion and reforms, also increased his
powers immensely and expelled all those nobles whom he had evidence against, showing a partial tilt away from the
Afghan Theory of Kingship though not a total deviation due to which the nobility was not alienated completely. Upon
Sikandar’s death, one of his sons, Ibrahim Lodhi, took over and all the classic signs of trouble began to emerge together.
Ibrahim’s brother Jalal did not accept his claim to the throne and thus there was a war of succession. The nobility got
divided into supporters of the Sultan (Royalists) and opposition of the Sultan (Revolutionists) and eventually the Royalists
won. But then the Sultan himself had become too suspicious of all of his nobility due to which he started taking actions
against them including members of his own family – a complete negation of the Afghan Theory of Kingship. Ergo, those
who once supported him turned against him and started forming an alliance. They colluded with the then Padshah of
Afghanistan, Babur, and struck a deal with him. As a result of this deal and its eventual fallout that resulted in the First
Battle of Panipat in 1526, the ailing Sultanate fell, paving the way for a different breed of foreign Muslims.

A Muslim Chakravarthin State in Modern India: The Mughal Dynasty

It was not right from the start that the Mughal state was a Leviathan. In fact, it was highly probable that the foreigners
who were descendants of Mongols and Amir Timur, would perish within a few years. It was only by the time of the third
Mughal Empire that the Empire began to grow into a giant and became one of the most if not the most expansive and
powerful Empires of the world that produced almost one-quarter of the world’s GDP. At its peak however, the nature of
the Mughal Empire was somewhat different from that of the Delhi Sultanate. Mansabdari system created a bureaucratic
class which merged civilian and military responsibilities along with revenue assignments, and the mansabdars were
compensated in the form of salaries and jagirs. Local zamindars, Rajput princes, etc. were confirmed in their possession
of land. However, the fact of the matter was that the chakravarthin model based on the mansabdari system did not
displace the continental bureaucratic nature of the Empire or the Asiatic Mode of Production. The Emperor was still the
universal proprietor whose power was largely dependent on military might backed by revenue collection, and whose
legitimacy was dependent on religious ideology though the only difference was that the chakravarthin, instead of being
forced to identify with the religion of the masses, could afford to re-shape the ideology of the Empire like Akbar tried to
do. If he did not impose his ideology, it was his decision not to.
 Becoming a Part of the Contest that India Was: Babur (1526 – 1530) and Hamayun (1530 – 1540)
The Battle of Panipat gave Babur the right to claim the throne at Delhi but it was not until his victory against Rana Sanga
in the Battle of Khanwa that his claim to the throne was recognized by others in India. This position was consolidated by
the third important battle that was fought at Ghaghra against the Afghans (the Lodhis) who still had claims to power. But
Babur’s rule was short and in the 5 years that he remained the Emperor of India, he did not establish any proper system
of administration and revenue. His son Hamayun too failed to do so and due to a number of problems some of which were
of his brothers’ making and much of which were of his own making, he was eventually defeated in the Battles of Chausa
and Qanauj in 1539 and 1540 AD by a rising General from Bihar and Bengal, leading to his exile from India.
 Towards Modernization of Administration and Communications: The Afghan (Suri) Interlude (1540 – 1555)
This General’s name was Farid Khan who had been given the title of Sher Khan and who had assumed the title of Sher
Shah Suri in 1540 after defeating Hamayun for the second time. He chased Hamayun out of India and established the Suri
Dynasty. Sher Shah laid down the foundations of modern administration, communication and transportation in India. The
revenue system introduced by one of his administrators, Todar Mal, was the same system adopted by Akbar during his
reign later on. Instead of containing the majority Hindu population, Sher Shah co-opted them and extended to them all
the rights that Muslims enjoyed during the Suri rule. But Sher Shah’s successors could not continue the liberal work and
efficient administration that he had started and thus their rule was challenged by internal and external powers, facilitating
Hamayun’s return to India.
 Emergence of a Secular Mughal Leviathan on Mansabdari Lines: Hamayun (1555 – 1556) and Akbar (1556 – 1605)
Hamayun’s return was affected by some help from the Shah of Persia and one of Hamayun’s generals, Bairam Khan. Within
a year of his return to India, Hamayun fell down from the stairs of his library and died, leaving behind the 14 years old
Akbar to re-contest the throne at Agra from Hemu Baqqal who was defeated by the Mughals in the Second Battle of
Panipat in 1556. Akbar was helped by Bairam Khan and the harem party initially but as he grew up, he wished to become
a truly independent Emperor and through superb political schemes, he turned his vision into reality, not to mention that
the mutual jealousy that any successful nobleman aroused within his colleagues helped Akbar’s cause. To further
consolidate his power, Akbar not only backed his military might by a network of spies but also created a network of
harakars (spies to spy on spies). With his power unchallenged by 1664, Akbar pursued a liberal policy: he abolished the
jizya and pilgrimage tax imposed on Hindus, made matrimonial and strategic alliances with the Rajputs, remained secular
in his outlook as he opened up the Ibadat Khana in 1675 for inter-religious and intra-religious debates and discussions,
had the ulema issue the Infallibility Decree in 1679 to establish Akbar’s word as the final one on all issues pertaining to
religion, and amalgamated features of all religions into Deen-e-Ilahi in order to promote unity and nationalism though it
was seen as a threat to Muslim identity, implemented administrative and revenue reforms on lines of what Sher Shah Suri
had done for which he even hired Todar Mal as his Minister of Finance (he had been hired by Sher Shah Suri), and was
able to conquer all of India (except Deccan) including portions that others before him had not conquered in centuries:
Kashmir, large parts of Afghanistan, Balochistan and the tribal areas. This was primarily because of the new foreign policy
that Akbar introduced to India, based on the geopolitical situation that involved three external powers: the Uzbeks
(Sunnis), the Persians (Shias) and the Ottomans who were often allied with the Uzbeks against the Persians. Despite such
issues, it is his religious innovation that invites the most controversy and interest. His religious policy attracted much
opposition from the ulema but given the power Akbar held in his hands, the ulema were unable to do much against him.
With his moral legitimacy intact without his dependence on the ulema, with the administration of the state being relatively
efficient, with the support of almost all sectors of the Indian society including the majority populace (non-Muslims), and
with the Empire having a large revenue base, his power was virtually unchallenged and it was only the common destiny
of all that bested him. In his last years, even though Akbar’s son Jahangir had his differences from Akbar, the two reconciled
and Akbar appointed Jahangir as his successor.
 The Southern Conundrum, Laid Back Attitude and the Tussle Within: Jahangir (1605 – 1627)
Jahangir, who succeeded Akbar, continued the campaigns in the Deccan to conquer it. His son Shah Jahan was able to
affect a few treaties in the Deccan with multiple kingdoms that existed there but none of them were permanent and the
Deccan campaigns had to be resumed in order to expand the empire. Progress was made but it was slow. After that,
Jahangir set his eyes on the lands from where his ancestors had come – those of Central Asia. Efforts were made to conquer
Western lands, in what can be seen as the continuation of Akbar’s foreign policy, but the efforts were of no use as the
tussle between the Mughals, Uzbeks and Persians continued without any end in sight. In his religious policies, he was less
liberal as compared to Akbar which was probably due to his being less capable which made him more dependent on
religion for moral legitimacy but it did not mean that he was dependent on the ulema. That was still a far way off and his
policies incorporated much that was distasteful to the ulema such as the Sajda e Tazeemi, something that had been in
force since the times of Balban. During this time, events that would eventually lead to the erosion of Mughal power and
the rise of the British were already in play. And the Mughals remained oblivious of such developments even when naval
power of the Europeans was visibly on the rise. The English East India Company arrived in India in 1608 and got a firman
issued in their favour from Jahangir’s son in 1612. But the more immediate threat to the stability of the Mughal Empire
came not from without but from within. His reign saw the rise of court factions which he unlike Akbar was unable to deal
with. Dynamics of intra-court politics were dictated by two primary opposing factions: one was led by his wife Nur Jahan
and the other by her brother Asaf Khan. During Jahangir’s life time, Nur Jahan remained dominant and he himself resigned
to wine drinking and pleasure seeking. But when Nur Jahan tried to have Khurram who had been given the title of Shah
Jahan, sent far away from the capital so as to facilitate the succession of Shahryar instead of Shah Jahan, the latter rebelled
and was supported in his rebellion by Asaf Khan who in 1627 helped him secure the throne against Nur Jahan’s wishes
when Jahangir died.
 Peak of Mughal Architecture and Dreams of Kandahar: Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658)
Shah Jahan spent too many resources on buildings that brought no benefit to the Empire though they were wonders of
architecture. He also had the Red Fort built at Delhi which was renamed as Shahjahanabad at that time and made the
capital of the Empire. Shah Jahan’s reign also saw time and resources being wasted in efforts to conquer Kandahar, the
land of which dreams of Babur and his successors were made of as they looked back with a certain nostalgia to those
regions to which their forefathers had belonged. This saw a tussle within the Mughal Princes to prove their capability in
the eyes of their father. But more worrying was the fact that none of them was willing to spend time in Afghanistan (away
from Delhi and Agra) due to which even after the conquest of Kandahar, Mughals lost it to the Persians, bringing the two
Empires into conflict with each other in Afghanistan. Signs of internal instability and future downfall began to emerge with
the increasingly orthodox policy of Shah Jahan – orthodox policies tended to alienate the majority non-Muslim population.
Issues with the Sikhs began to emerge and the policy of destruction of temples and churches was re-adopted by Shah
Jahan. In 1658, Shah Jahan fell ill and his sons started to fight amongst themselves for the throne.
 Orthodoxy and Alienation, Wars and Bankruptcy: Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)
Aurangzeb defeated his brothers Dara Shikoh, Shuja and Murad, then took his father, Shah Jahan prisoner and ascended
the throne. He kept Shah Jahan imprisoned in a room at the top of a tower of Red Fort till his death in 1666. With
Aurangzeb on the throne, a policy of religious orthodoxy was followed which alienated all the non-Muslims. The Jats and
Satnamis rose up in revolt. The Sikhs militated themselves and they developed their 5 K’s. Marathas under then Peshwa
Shivaji also rose up against the Mughals. Rajputs who had been the strength of the Mughal Empire also turned due to
Aurangzeb’s treatment of them. In the war against Rajputs, his own son Akbar sided with the Rajputs. Under such
circumstances, Aurangzeb decided to expand the Empire as well and waged lengthy wars on all frontiers including the
North East, the North West and Deccan. EIC tried to take advantage of this bordering state of nature, and waged a war
against Aurangzeb but was defeated at that time. By the end of his reign, the treasury was empty, soldiers had died due
to the long wars, the Empire had become too large to be governed effectively, all non-Muslim communities had been
offended by Aurangzeb, and his long reign had left 17 claimants to the throne. The Mughal Empire was set to decline while
the basis for the rise of European powers who were used to complex balance of power systems and divide and rule policies,
had also been laid down.

Spread of Islam: Role of the Sufis and Silsilahs

It is true that Muslim conquest of the regions that comprise the modern day Pakistan helped the cause of Islam. But it will
be unfair to give the political leaders credit for which they provided only the conditions for, but did not make a conscious
effort for. Had the Sufis and the Silsilahs not put in the tremendous effort that they put in, Islam would not have spread
the way it did within a short span of time. Earliest Sufis emerged in different cities across the Muslim world to promote
love for God and to introduce numerous spiritual paths to realize that love in its full potential. Wandering in search for
truth, leaving behind worldly pleasures for reconciling one’s self with God, struggling to attain the level of Insaan-e-Kamil
and accepting as truth some aspects of every religion, became the hallmarks of Sufis. Imam Ghazali formulated a proper
metaphysical basis for Sufism and tried to reconcile it with orthodox Islam. In India, despite having its teachings rooted in
Islam, Sufism took a separate pathway as dictated by conditions unique to India. Among the first ones to appear in the
Indo-Pak Subcontinent was Sheikh Ismail of Lahore whose work was facilitated by Ghaznavid invasions in the early 11 th
Century AD. He was followed by Sheikh Ali bin Usman al-Hajveri also known as Data Ganj Bakhsh, who is credited with
founding Sufism as it came to be in India and whose works had a profound influence on the entire moral and religious
outlook of South Asian Muslims. The era ushered in due to his efforts i.e. the period between 12th and 15th centuries AD
is considered to be the period of permeation of Sufism in India, during which many schools of Sufi thought or Silsilahs
(orders) sprung up and they remain as popular today as they were centuries ago.
 Critical Analysis of the Role of Sufis and Silsilahs
There was quite a lot of variation in the basic teachings of the Silsilahs and the principles on which they operated – while
some of them went so far as to introduce impurities in Islam, especially by mixing together Islamic and Hindu values and
practices in order to attract as many non-Muslim in India as possible, others went so far as to forbid singing and promote
extreme simplicity and orthodoxy. While both types did their best to serve all factions of the Muslim society from the
political elite to the destitute and the needy, it was the latter that was responsible for the final reformation of the Muslim
society as it was this faction or this band of Silsilahs and Sufis that reintroduced Islam to the Indo-Pak Subcontinent in its
true spirit. However, they all lacked in the area of modern progress and with too great a focus on religion only, they ended
up doing a huge disservice to the Muslim society of the said region. This is no way whatsoever meant to undermine the
valuable services they provided for the preservation of true faith which later became the basis of Muslims’ demand for a
separate homeland.
 Major Silsilahs and their Proponents
The particular brand of Islam that took hold in India was that of Sufism and mysticism. In the beginning, with a few
exceptions as usual, India remained largely immune to the Sunni-Shia debate-cum-conflict and the rationalist-traditionalist
squabbles, both of which eventually led to the growth of the culture of takfir across the Muslim world in general and the
Arab world in particular. But over time, the Sufis changed their ideas as the political hold of Muslims began to wane and
instead of having a more inclusive outlook, they became more and more puritanical in nature. This resulted in not only
the permanence of Hindu-Muslim division in India but also the socio-political institutionalization of several intra-Muslim
and intra-Sufism conflicts.
1. The Chishti Order: this school of thought was brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti who came to Lahore
in 1161 AD. The various Sufis belonging to the Chishti order lived simple lives and except for Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din
Aulia, they married and had children.
a. The Chishti Khanqas and Spiritual Nature of the Creed: they avoided the Sultans, their Durbars and their
patronage, and lived in Khanqas which, due to the Chishti saints’ religious prestige and high character,
became places of meeting for Muslims from all walks of life. The Khanqas were centers of activity of the
Muslim saints where they accommodated all their disciples and hosted a Langar. While the saints and
their disciples spent most of their time in meditation, they also hosted a number of visitors including
nobles, scholars, soldiers, politicians, etc. who came to them with spiritual and material problems and
found solace and solutions.
b. Target Audience (Non-Muslims) of the Chishtis and their Practices: their literary outlook and their
emphasis on the love for God and his creation instead of an exaggeration of rituals and practices made
them popular among the common people – this attracted the non-Muslims especially the Hindus. Their
practices of Pas-e-Anfas (breath control), Chilla (40 days of some hard ascetic exercise in a cell or in some
lonely place), Sama (recital of holy songs to incite an ecstatic state in the listeners) etc. helped them gather
a considerable following. As their teachings focused on spirituality and not on worldly practices and
politics, they made great progress when it came to attracting non-Muslims to Islam. Disciples of Chishti
saints spread their teachings as they travelled from Lahore to Bengal and Bihar.
2. The Suharwardi Order: founded in India by Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakariya who established a Khanqa at Multan, this
order differed from the Chishti order in numerous ways which were ideological, material and political in nature.
When it came to ideology, Suharwardis emphasized orthodox Islam over tolerance and leniency, were averse to
music, and prohibited the habit of bowing before the Sheikh (a habit adopted by the Chishtis, with the habit having
Hindu origins). Materially and politically too they offered a huge contrast with the Chishtis as the Suharwardis
promoted a comfortable lifestyle instead of a simple one, and established friendly relations with the state, freely
associated themselves with the Sultans, accepted their patronage etc. Moreover, they accepted gifts and aid as
well as titles from the Sultans such as the title of Sheikh-ul-Islam. This was due to the staunch belief of the
 Suharwardis that they could serve Islam better if they had a position in the state structure and if they were
associated with the men of power.
a. The Suharwardy Khanqas and Material Nature of the Creed: As a manifestation of this thought, their
Khanqas were open mainly to the rich and the powerful instead of being open to the masses, and since
the Suharwardis received jagirs and grants from the state, there was always enough money to support
the expenditure of the Khanqas. Plus there was always enough food to go around for the select few who
visited them.
b. Target Audience (Muslims) of the Suharwardis and their Teachings: the Suharwardis were more popular
among the Muslims as they focused on outward and worldly religious practices including obligatory rituals
and politics which they thought did not interfere with spirituality. Some did convert a few Hindus to Islam
but they were militant evangelists instead of being spiritual saints. Their sphere of influence spread from
Multan and Sindh to Bengal.
3. The Qadri Order: this one was founded in Baghdad by Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jillani and was brought to India by Shah
Niamatullh and Makhdum Muhammad Jillani. The saints of this order, especially Mian Mir promoted a broad and
humane outlook on life. They asked both Mughal Emperors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan to be considerate to all
groups of their subjects irrespective of their religious affiliations. The Qadris prohibited music and singing and
wore green turbans. Initially they preached in Uch and Sindh but eventually their teachings and disciples spread
to areas of Central India like Agra and beyond.
4. The Naqshbandi Order: the most orthodox of all the orders was brought to India by the followers of Khwaja Pir
Muhammad and popularized by Khwaja Baqi Billah. The original aim was to counter the policies of Akbar and
reintroduce Islam in its true nature and spirit. Two of the most famous and significant Muslim reformers of the
Indo-Pak Subcontinent, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah Wali Ullah, belonged to this order. They resolved the
debate between Wahdat-ul-Wajood and Wahdat-ul-Shuhood in the favour of the latter and actively participated
in the political affairs of India with an aim to uplift the Muslim society. They both wrote letters to men of repute
and Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi even got himself into a dispute with the Mughal Emperor Jahangir over the issue of
Sajda-e-Tazim. The most supreme contribution of these saints remains relevant to date: helping the Muslims of
India maintain their independent identity and prevent it from being merged with others as was imagined by those
involved in the Bhakti Movement.
 Concluding Words on the Role of Silsilahs
Many contend that it was by the force of sword that Islam spread across half of the globe but the reality was quite
different. It was due to the sincere and untiring efforts of these men of God and their initial loving and all-embracing
attitude that Islam became popular and was embraced by non-Muslims belonging to all classes of society. Furthermore,
it was because of the stricter communalism that the later Silsilahs promoted that Islam remained as an independent force
within the Indo-Pak Subcontinent instead of being pulled into the socioeconomic vortex that was Hinduism. Thus the
efforts of the Sufis was not restricted to the spread of Islam but it extended to the reintroduction of Islam in its true
essence to purge the Muslim society of all Hindu values. In the final analysis, it becomes clear that the political atmosphere
alone was not sufficient for the growth of Muslim society in the region; Sufis and Silsilahs were essential for the progress
and development of Muslim society in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent.

The Emperor and Five Strata of the Muslim Society

Indian society was feudal and pyramidal in its nature and the exact structure of the society varied during the period of the
Sultanate and the Mughals but it cannot be said to be quite different during these two periods. The Sultan/Emperor was
at the top of the pyramid and his authority was supreme and unchallengeable though this varied from one Sultan and
Emperor to another. Members of the royal family, blood relations, friends and favourites of the Sultan/Emperor enjoyed
a privileged status in the society though they could easily fall from grace. The imperial harem and the court of the
Sultan/Emperor were trend setters and they often dictated which culture was to be adopted and which fashion was to be
popularized. Apart from the Emperor and the royal family, there were four other sections of the society:
1. The Nobility: while the Arabs were liberal in their administrative policies and gave high positions to Hindus and
Buddhists of India, the Turks did not such liberalism. The Turks were quite ethnocentric and thus the nobility
during the Sultanate period comprised mainly of Muslims from foreign lands. The power of the nobility however
depended on the nature of the Sultan. The Chahalgani for example were responsible for bringing down Sultana
Razia in 1240, Bahram Shah in 1242 and Ala-ud-Din Masud Shah in 1246 AD, but it was dealt with strictly by Balban
and its power was crushed. Furthermore, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was liberal enough to allow non-Turks and non-
 Muslims to become a part of the nobility. The structure and functions of the nobility were reformed by the
Mughals who introduced the Mansabdari system which worked well under Akbar but started to show signs of
decline under Jahangir when more jagirs than were available had to be assigned to mansabdars of higher ranks.
This decline, in the absence of any significant reforms, became a time bomb that exploded during Aurangzeb’s
reign and led to the so called jagirdari crisis that has been often summed up as “bey-jagir jagirdari.” This crisis and
the decline of the stature of the Mughal Emperor led to factionalism within the Mughal court which in turn
accelerated the decline of the Mughal Empire.
2. The Religious Class: the ulema, theologians, Sufis, etc. were of great importance in general. Their support was
seen as a sign of moral legitimacy which meant a lot in that era. But the power that the religious class held
depended primarily on the mindset of the Sultan or Emperor. Frequent fluctuations were seen in the Sultanate
period while in the Mughal era, the peak in liberalism (a sense of nationalism superseding religious communalism)
was reached under Akbar after which the balance kept on shifting in the favour of the religious class until
Aurangzeb established an Empire based on a very particularistic interpretation of religion.
3. The Slaves: they were available in abundance domestically though with the advent of the Europeans, there was a
rapid influx of African slaves into India as well. However, women slaves were preferred and were thus more
expensive, especially those who were purchased solely for sexual purposes. Slave system of the Turks worked well
but they began to be exploited by later rulers (after Iltutmish). Firoz Shah Tughlaq reformed it and started training
slaves to make them more productive. The Mughals introduced eunuchs as a separate class of slaves especially
for their harem. It was the advent of the Europeans that brought to India African slaves and made the working
conditions for the slaves extremely poor especially those who came to be employed in tea and indigo plantations.
4. The Masses: these were comprised mainly of the local Hindus who had converted to Islam, and their professions
varied from peasants to independent farmers to traders and merchant. Except for a few of the masses, none
flourished. They were not given any important positions in the government and facilities available to them with
respect to education, health, etc. were quite poor. Their welfare depended largely on the fiscal policy of the
Sultans/Emperors. Ala-ud-Din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq for example had imposed taxes equal to half of
the total produce. Conditions improved because of the reforms of Sher Shah Suri and Akbar but then as the might
of the Mughal Empire declined, conditions deteriorated. Drinking and eating habits of the masses also differed
from those of the nobility. The position of musicians and artisans varied according to the degree to which the
Sultanate/Empire was liberal.
5. The Women: position of the women also varied but there was a general trend towards more rights which does
not mean that women were given all the rights that they should have been. This can be gauged by the fact that
Sultana Razia was eventually removed because the conservative society could not reconcile with the fact that a
woman was their ruler, and by the fact that Nur Jahan who held all the power during Jahangir’s rule faded into
the background soon after Jahangir’s death and her influence at the court waned. But generally, there was a trend
among the Muslims to discourage Satti, female infanticide and other such customs. Finally, purdah became more
and more common among Muslim and Hindu women alike albeit it was a temporary fashion for the Hindu women
who neither stuck with it nor against it permanently.