modals: ability, obligation, criticism (past) Past ability: could, couldn’t, was / were able to Could / couldn't are past forms of can / can’t. Could not Is used In formal speech and wring, Use could / couldn't © todescribe past ability. We don't know haw fast Ancient Greek athletes could run © to describe what was allowed oF not allowed. Women couldn't compete or wateh the ancient Olyiopic Garnes See also Units 22 and 24 for other meanings of could. ‘We can use was / were able to in the place of could / couldn't to describe past a He tie! hard but wasn't able to win the race ‘We use was / were able to, not could / couldn't, when we mean that we could do something and we actually did it, ‘One runner fll badly, but forrunately was able to finish the race. ity in general pact abligatian: had fa, didn't have to ‘Had to / didn’t have to/ did you have to etc are past forms of have to and must Use had to @ to describe past obligation, for both must and have to. Athletes who cheated in the Olympic Games had to pay fora statue of the (god Zeus. (Of course, in ancient times athletes dn't have to take dros tests, past necessity: needed to, didn’t need to, needn’t have Use needed to (reqular verb) to describe what was necessary. He needed to stop fora drink, but he kept running, Use didn’t need fo to describe what was not necessary. In ancient Greece, winning athietes didn't need to work again, ‘The question form is did you need to etc. Use needn't have + past participle (a form of modal verb need) to explain that someone did something, but what they did was unnecessary. | was worried because I thought that my tickets for the Games wouldn't ative in time, But / needn’t have worried. They arived this morning! past criticism: should have / shouldn't have, ought to have, ought not to have Use should have / shouldn't have + past participle to criticize a past action. “You started before the gun! You shouldn't have done that.’ ‘But it was an accidentt’ ‘Well you should have been more carefull” Use ought to have f ought not to have + past participle in the same way.1 Complete the sentence with could or couldn't. a The sultease was so heavy! eouldn’+ —_ itt it. b Learned to play the piano when I was ten but | only play one song, © Ihave to go home soon, my parents said | stay out late. 4 We don't know how, but the ancient Egyptians move huge pieces of stone to bulld the pyramids. @ Frank Sinatra sing really well but he write his ‘own songs. f He do the homework because he lost his book. 9 The Britons make soap before the Romans. h 100 years ago, most people travel abroad because It was too expensive. i. The class worked hard so they leave early. When you were younger, you play any musical instruments? Complete the comment on the situation with either didn’t need to or needn't have (done) and the verb in brackets, a I worked fast and finished my project on time, but now our teacher has given the class three (work) Lneedn't have, worked so hard! bb At least I managed to do it without working at the weekend, (work) the weekend. © And although 1 thought | would have to borrow some books, m the ent this wasn't necessary. (borrow) any books. 4. But [gave up a lot of my spare time when I didn’t have tol (uive) so much of my spare time. @ [spent a lot of time reading and writing every evening, (spend) reading and writing every evening, 4 But I managed to do it on my own, and I didn’t ask for any help. (ask) any help. g. And I didn't give up playing tennis. (play) tennis bh [spent a lot of time using the Internet unnecessarily. (use) so much, 1 But it was quite easy in the end, and | did it without thinking too hard! (think too hard, J In the end, [ worried about it a lot, but this wasn’t necessary! (worry) it so much, © modials: ability, obligation, criticism (past)3. Complete the text with had to, didn't have to, could or couldn't + the verbs in brackets Life for children in Victorian Britain was very different from the fe children lead today: Firstly, Victorian childten a (go) dida# have. +o.4n. to school, and in any case poor families b (pay) for lessons because they didnt have enough money So children ¢ ind) jobs at an early ge, saving uv the dS, for example, atthe age of five The more fortunate children became ApEEAEES, learning ate and working atthe same time. Such children d (work) for fy or say hours a week, usully for very low age, and e (ign an agreement which kept them with dhe same MSW for « numer of years, The worst jobs were in factories, where many children under the age of nine were eiplaj@d. Children were also employed to clean chimneys, and known as’ chimney sweeps! These children f (climb) w eons cTumneys and clean them. They g (be) smmall, or ese they would get stuck in the chimney. Using children to do his job was Bain. 1840, bu emaplopeis then h (use) special rashes, which were expensive, and so they continued to use chidren. The employers (pay) a smal fini they were caught. Aferthe Factory Act of 1833, employers in t@Mfilé factories j (employ) children under the age of nine, though children aged mine to 11 ke (work) cight hours a day: However, nathing changed in coat mines and in other factories, where employers | (put) eluléren to work in dangerous and dlty conditions. t wasnt until 1847 that employers m (limit) the working day to ten Iris, fr ho hirer anaes A. Comment an the situation saying what the persan should have dane ar shaulcin’t have done Use the verb in brackets a The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle sald that a heavy object always falls faster than a light object, but he didn’t conduct an experiment to prove it, and in fact he was wrong, (conduct) He shouid have conducted an exper iment, 'b The English sclentist Francis Bacon wanted to find out whether snow would preservea dead chicken, He spent a long time in the cold doing this, and then died of a chill. (wear) © Scientists often test things on themselves or their students. In the case of von Licbig, a German chemist, he dropped acid onto the arms of his students to see what would happen. Unfortunately the acid bumed their skin very badly. (test) Other scientists injure themselves by accident. Pierre Curie carried radioactive substances in his trouser pockets. This burned holes in his pockets and injured his legs. (cary)© Another problem is that of fame. In some cases, scientists have their work done for them by others, The astronomer William Herschel made many important discoveries, but he was helped a lot by his sister Caroline. Unfortunately, he didn’t mention this to other scientists, {told people) 4 Other scientists get into political trouble. The French chemist Lavoisier discovered how oxygen is used in burning, and in rusting, However, the French revolutionary authorities arrested him because he was also a tax collector, and in 1794 he was executed. (execute) 5 complete the text with could, couldn't, had to, didn’t have to, didn’t need to, needn't have, should have or shauldn’t have and the verbs in brackets, Not all are used in the text. History contains «lot of stories bout people who a (be) Should heave. bee. a lle bit more careful 1m 1576 the explorer Sir Martin Frobisher sailed to the north of Canada trying to Find a way to Asia Unfortunately, he b (find) it, but during the voyage, his men landed on Balin island as they € (ook for) fooel and SHEE Here he discowere some rocks which he thought contained gold. When he returned to England he showed the piece of rock to people who agreed that it was ‘gold, and Frobisher retumed to the island with a larger ship. It was difficult journey asthe ship ¢ (avoid) huge 58438. On the island there were polar bears which e (kill) man quite easily. And Frobisher was worried that someone else would get to the gold fist. Perhaps he (tell so many people about his discovery, he thought. Bathe g (worn) “that's why aout his secret. He found the place again, and his men ‘they call | hGwork) in the feng weather to dig Foo!'s gold for the gold. They returned to England again, and this time hei (Stop) his discovery from becoming generally known. More anc! more people wanted to go to Baffin Island, and the next year the ships came beck with hundreds of toni of gold. Unfortunately dus is whete things went wiong, Wheu Frobisher Wied, co sell the gold, he discovered than perhaps he j (show) ict more people im the first place ‘The people he had showed ito had been wrong, They Geld) the difference between gold and iron fA, a BRASIL of iron aed Sulphur Everyone laughed at Sir Martin and his men, and he Hadi) that he had macde a mistake. Beene n ec aea! ‘Think about your first school, Make a lst of thing you had to do, or didn’t have to do. ‘Make a lst of things that famous people in the past should or shouldn't have done. ‘Need more practice? Go to the Review on page 192. S = 3 8 = =)modals: possibility, uncertainty, certainty (present / future) possibility and uncertainty Use mav, miaht, could + bare infinitive «to describe things that will possibly happen. The nett earthquake may / might / could happen tomorror Use may not and might not + bare infinitive '@ to describe things that will possibly not happen in the future. The next earthquake may not / might not happen for another fifty years, I's imoossible to predict exactly possibility Use can + bare infinitive {© to describe a possibility in general, but not wath a future time reference, ‘During an earthquake, people can suffer injures when parts of buildings fel into the street. certainty Use will + bare infin {© when we are cortain something will happen in the future During a strong earthquake, some older buidings will collapse Use must + bare infinitive * ‘© when we are certin something is true (usually with be), or when we suppose what a situation is ike ‘ve never been in an earthquake. It must be realy tightening (=1'm certain of that) You've done a lot of work. You must feel realy red ‘m sure you do.) negative certainty Use cantt+ bare infinitive ‘© when we are certain something is not true (usually with be) or impossible, that can’t be an carthquake! We don’t have eartnquakes nere! You can't know the answer alrescy! That’ impossible!1 Complete the sentence with may or may not. a They sky looks a bit grey. It__.a4.___rain later, b I don't think the new secretary likes her job, She stay very long. © Ifyou leave fight now, you be on time. In the future when technology has improved, it be possible to build a spaceship that can travel to distant planets. I’m not sure if Sue's at home today. She have come back from her holiday yet. # The Prime Minister fly to India later this week for talks on reducing global warming. gt 0 to the party because I'm not feeling very well. hy According to astronomers, there be intelligent life on other planets. We don’t know because we haven't travelled very far into space yet. i Jarek have an mp3 player. Ask him if you can borrow it i juan [pass his exams if he revises every day. 2 Underline the correct form. 2 Even if you don’t live in a Mediterranean country, you can / might already know about earthquakes. b They can / might be frequent in some countries, though most are too small to be noticed by humans and you may not / cannot even notice when one occurs. © Barthquakes are the result of movernents of the Earth’s tectonic plates, though human activity may / will be responsibie. 4 Most earthquakes happen at depths of 20 or 30 km, though they will / can be as deep as 600 ki. @ What is it like to experience an earthquake? If the tremor is very sinall you might / couldn't feel nothing at all, {Ina stronger tremor, there is more movement, and so the furniture in the room cam / will 4g, Tall buildings wil / may definitely move a little, and, depending on how well the building is, constructed, cracks will / might appear in the walls fh Ina major earthquake, the building could / can collapse completely, though with modern earthquake-proof buildings, this is unlikely. e 5 2 = = 2 8 2 & z = 3 8 2 = g z 5 B3. Rewrite the sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, b 1'm sure you know the difference between @ solid and a gas! You must know the difference between a Solid and a qasl Ifa substance does not contain hydrogen, then we are sure that it isn’t an acid. If we put some litmus paper in a solution and it turns red, then we are sure that the solution is an acid, If we add a substance to a red cabbage substance isn’t an alkali. lution and it stays red, then weare sure the If we add a substance to a red-cabbage solution and it turns green, then the substance hall. issue to be an If we put some litmus paper in a solution and it turns red, then we are sure that the solution isn’t an alkali If’s not an acid, or an alkali, then it's sure to be neutral. 1 we use a univetsal indicator to check a substance, and it tums purple, then we are sure that the substance isn't an acid, 4 Rewrite each sentence so that it begins as shown and contains the word in capitals. a If the world becomes warmer, as some scientists predict, its possible that Europe will change dramatically over the next century, the world becomes warmer . aS Some Seientis+s predict, Furope could change dramatically over the next century, It is possible that there will be no snow-covered mountains In Europe by then, ‘There And it’s possible that areas in the south of Europe will become deserts. And areas It's also possible that heavy rain will become normal in northern Europe. While is possible that southern Europe will be always short of water. While southern Europe Must CAN'T MUST CANT ust CANT Must CANT couLD MIGHT MIGHT couLDr £ It’s possible that there will be so benefits for some people, MIGHT There ‘9: Its possible that summers will become longer, and hotter, and winters will became warmer, COULD ‘Summers h On the other hand, it’s possible that some species of plants and animals will become atinct MIGHT On the other hand, some species of plants and animals 5 Choose all the possible answers, A, B or C, for each gap. Most of us enjoy a good rights sleep, but wea A, 6 not realice just how important sleep is Everyone knows that without sleep for a night or cwo,a person b find ic hard to think well Afcer three nights without sleep, you ¢ seartto see things. and you d begin to lose your sense of reality In cenperionents rats which are not alkeved to sleep © actually di, which seems to prove that sleep f be very important. We know that children who de net sleep enough ean fail so grow properly. as groweh Hormones ¢ be active ‘white the body is asieep. Lack of siegp h also damage the fall ill more often, Scientists don't know exactly what sleep Is for and why humans need so much of it, but they believe that it j five the body a chance to repair muscles and replace eels. fee sso give the brain the opportunity to organize memory. and some experts believe that dreams | help inthis process. The brain also needs to rest,so sleep m give the brain a chance to recharge’ its batteries. Obviously sleep 1 also be related to the fact that chere are hours of darkness when our activities are limited. Another possible reason for sleeping is that if we didn’t sleep and save some energy, we ° have to eat a lot more food, a A may —B might © must iA might B must —C could b Aca B will — C must j A might 8 cant C will © Acan— B could — C might k A might & could — muy d Acant 8 must — © could 1 A could B cant may @ A might Bc — € will mA milghe B can can't fA will — B must € can't nA must B can C can't g Aca Beant © may © A can't B will © might h Acun — Bmay — C could Make some predictions about how your life could change in the next 20 years. 2 What do you think it must be like to be an astronaut? Use these ideas: food, feelings, sleep, washing, how you spend the time, training. Need more practice? Go to the Review on page 192 zg 2 2 S ® 2 z = 2 z S é & 8 eS £ 8 & g zg 5 z © moda!