Bridge Design Manual Part 2 - July14Final MASTER

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY
BRIDGE DESIGN
MANUAL
PART 2
SUPPLEMENTARY GUIDANCE FOR
BRIDGE DESIGN
2013
201
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 PLANNING STAGE/FEASIBILITY STUDY/SITE INVESTIGATION ................ 1-1
1.1 General ....................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Site Selection .............................................................................................. 1-1
1.2.1 River Type .................................................................................................. 1-1
1.2.2 Bridge Sites ................................................................................................ 1-2
1.3 Site Conditions ........................................................................................... 1-2
1.3.1 Catchment Area .......................................................................................... 1-2
1.3.2 Water Levels ............................................................................................... 1-3
1.4 Cross-Section of River (See also the prevailing version of the ERA Drainage
Design Manual and ERA Site Investigation Manual) .............................................. 1-3
1.5 Proposed Typical Section of Road .............................................................. 1-3
1.6 Sketch of Proposed Bridge and Brief Technical Descriptions of Bridges..... 1-4
1.7 Existing Bridges ......................................................................................... 1-4
1.8 Cost/Benefit Analysis and Evaluation ......................................................... 1-4
1.9 Site Investigation ........................................................................................ 1-5
1.9.1 General ...................................................................................................... 1-5
1.9.2 Hydrology................................................................................................... 1-5
1.9.3 Land Use .................................................................................................... 1-6
1.9.4 Other Structures ......................................................................................... 1-7
1.9.5 Sampling and Soil Investigation .................................................................. 1-7
1.9.6 Field Sketching and Photos......................................................................... 1-7
1.9.7 Check List of Site Investigation ................................................................... 1-8
2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN/LAYOUT OF BRIDGES AND CULVERTS ............... 2-1
2.1 General ....................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Basic Information ....................................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1 Topographical Map .................................................................................... 2-1
2.2.2 Surveying, Benchmarks, and Measurement of Water Depths ....................... 2-2
2.2.3 River Data .................................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.4 Soil Investigations ...................................................................................... 2-2
2.2.5 Bridge Reference Number ........................................................................... 2-3
2.2.6 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................. 2-3
2.3 Geometric Requirements ............................................................................ 2-3
2.4 Load Assumptions ...................................................................................... 2-3
2.5 Foundations ................................................................................................ 2-3
2.5.1 General ...................................................................................................... 2-3
2.5.2 Spread Footings on Rock ............................................................................ 2-4
2.5.3 Spread Footing on Soil ............................................................................... 2-4
2.5.4 Footings on Compacted Fill........................................................................ 2-5
2.5.5 Pile Foundations ........................................................................................ 2-6
2.6 Scour/Erosion, Riprap, Sheet Piling, River Training, Etc ............................ 2-6
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Table of Contents Bridge Design Manual – 2014
2.7 Substructure (Abutments, Piers, Wingwalls, and Retaing Walls) ................. 2-7
2.8 Low Level Water Crossings (Fords, Irish Crossings, Vented Causeways, Etc)
2-10
2.9 Frame Bridges ........................................................................................... 2-12
2.10 Slab Bridges .............................................................................................. 2-14
2.11 Girder Bridges........................................................................................... 2-15
2.12 Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges ......................................................... 2-16
2.13 Prefabricated Bridges ................................................................................ 2-17
2.14 Pedestrian Footbridges .............................................................................. 2-20
2.15 Cattle Underpasses .................................................................................... 2-20
2.16 Other Types of Bridges (Cable Stay, Suspension, Truss, Railway) ............ 2-20
2.17 Temporary Bridges.................................................................................... 2-20
2.18 Backwater ................................................................................................. 2-25
2.19 Selection of Bridge Type ........................................................................... 2-25
2.19.1 Skewed Crossings .................................................................................. 2-25
2.19.2 Economical Aspects............................................................................... 2-26
2.19.3 Architectural and Sculptural Aspects ..................................................... 2-27
2.19.4 Appearance and Safety .......................................................................... 2-27
2.20 Railings, and Parapets ............................................................................... 2-27
2.21 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Drawing(s) ...................................... 2-27
2.22 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Standards (PDS) .............................. 2-29
2.23 Sample Preliminary Design Specifications ................................................ 2-31
3 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES ........................................ 3-1
3.1 General ....................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Notations..................................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 Seismic Design Methods ............................................................................. 3-4
3.4 Foundations................................................................................................. 3-5
3.4.1 Effect of Load Eccentricity .......................................................................... 3-5
3.4.2 Spread Footings .......................................................................................... 3-6
3.4.3 Piled Foundations ....................................................................................... 3-8
3.5 Retaining Walls ......................................................................................... 3-13
3.5.1 General ..................................................................................................... 3-13
3.5.2 Gravity Walls (Stone Masonry) ................................................................. 3-13
3.5.3 Cantilevered RC Wall Design .................................................................... 3-13
3.6 Culverts..................................................................................................... 3-14
3.6.1 General ..................................................................................................... 3-14
3.6.2 Design of RC Culverts ............................................................................... 3-14
3.6.3 Design of RC Pipes ................................................................................... 3-17
Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Table of Contents
3.7 Substructures for RC Bridges .................................................................... 3-17

3.7.1 General .................................................................................................... 3-17
3.7.2 Piers (Masonry, Walls, Framed, Columns) ............................................... 3-18
3.7.3 Abutments (Stone Masonry, RC Closed, RC Opened) ................................ 3-19
3.7.4 Wingwalls ................................................................................................. 3-29
3.8 Superstructure for RC Bridges .................................................................. 3-30
3.8.1 Concrete General ..................................................................................... 3-30
3.9 Frame Bridges .......................................................................................... 3-43
3.9.1 General .................................................................................................... 3-43
3.9.2 Design ...................................................................................................... 3-43
3.10 Precast Concrete Bridges .......................................................................... 3-44
3.10.1 General................................................................................................. 3-44
3.10.2 Design .................................................................................................. 3-45
3.11 Arch Bridges (Masonry and Concrete) ...................................................... 3-45
3.11.1 Masonry Arch Bridges .......................................................................... 3-45
3.11.2 Concrete Arch Design ........................................................................... 3-47
3.12 Composite Steel/Concrete Bridges ............................................................ 3-48
3.13 Timber Bridges ......................................................................................... 3-50
3.14 Other Types of Bridges ............................................................................. 3-50
3.14.1 Prestressed Concrete Bridges ............................................................... 3-50
3.14.2 Steel Truss Bridges ............................................................................... 3-51
3.14.3 Large Span Bridges (Above 50m Span) ................................................. 3-51
3.15 Bearing Design ......................................................................................... 3-51
3.16 Software for Bridge Design ...................................................................... 3-55
3.16.1 General................................................................................................. 3-55
3.16.2 Finite Element Modeling (Fem) Programs ............................................ 3-56
4 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS ...................................................... 4-1
4.1 General ....................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Notations .................................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Decks ......................................................................................................... 4-2
4.3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 4-2
4.3.2 Applicability ............................................................................................... 4-3
4.3.3 Width of Equivalent Interior Strips ............................................................. 4-3
4.3.4 Width of Equivalent Strips at Edges of Slabs ............................................... 4-4
4.3.5 Distribution of Wheel Loads ....................................................................... 4-4
4.3.6 Calculation of Force Effects ....................................................................... 4-5
4.3.7 Cross-Sectional Frame Action .................................................................... 4-5
4.3.8 Live Load Distribution on Fully Filled and Partially Filled Grids .............. 4-6
4.3.9 Inelastic Analysis ........................................................................................ 4-7
4.4 Beam-Slab Bridges ..................................................................................... 4-7
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

Table of Contents Bridge Design Manual – 2014
4.4.1 Application.................................................................................................. 4-7

4.4.2 Interior Beams with Concrete Decks ......................................................... 4-10
4.4.3 Exterior Beams.......................................................................................... 4-13
4.4.4 Skewed Bridges ......................................................................................... 4-15
4.4.5 Flexural Moments and Shear in Transverse Floorbeams ........................... 4-15
4.4.6 Interior Beams .......................................................................................... 4-16
4.4.7 Exterior Beams.......................................................................................... 4-16
4.4.8 Skewed Bridges ......................................................................................... 4-17
4.5 Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges ......................................... 4-18
4.6 Effective Length Factor, K ........................................................................ 4-18
4.7 Shear – Sectional Design Model ................................................................ 4-19
4.7.1 General ..................................................................................................... 4-19
4.7.2 Determination of β and θ ........................................................................... 4-19
4.7.3 General Procedure .................................................................................... 4-19
4.7.4 Longitudinal Reinforcement ...................................................................... 4-25
5 STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STEEL, CONCRETE AND
MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES ...................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.1 Purpose ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Scope .......................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.3 Applicability ................................................................................................ 5-2
5.2 Notations..................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 Strength Evaluation of Bridges .................................................................... 5-3
5.3.1 General ....................................................................................................... 5-3
5.3.2 Safe Evaluation ........................................................................................... 5-4
5.3.3 The Rating Equation.................................................................................... 5-5
5.4 Numerical Examples ................................................................................. 5-20
5.5 Masonry Arch Bridge Rating..................................................................... 5-21
5.5.1 General ..................................................................................................... 5-21
5.5.2 Scope ........................................................................................................ 5-21
5.5.3 Rating of Masonry Arch Bridges by the Modified Mexe Method ................ 5-22
5.5.4 Spandrel Walls .......................................................................................... 5-37
5.5.5 Dry-Stone Walls ........................................................................................ 5-37
5.5.6 Assessment of Dry-Stone Walls.................................................................. 5-39
5.5.7 Substructures, Foundations and Retaining Walls....................................... 5-39
6 CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS................................... 6-1
6.1 Format of Calculations, Drawings and Specifications .................................. 6-1
6.1.1 General Requirements ................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 Preliminary Design Drawing/Preliminary Plan(s)....................................... 6-1
6.1.3 Detail Design Drawings .............................................................................. 6-2
6.1.4 Final Revision/As-Built Drawings ............................................................... 6-3
6.2 Quality Control of Calculations and Drawings............................................. 6-3
Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual – 2014 List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1-1: Sketch of Bridge Site................................................................................ 1-8
Figure 2-1: Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing .................................................. 2-5
Figure 2-2: Two Types of Abutments .......................................................................... 2-8
Figure 2-3: Typical Parallel and 45º Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment.............. 2-9
Figure 2-4: Typical Combined Attached Wingwall and Retaining Wall ................... 2-9
Figure 2-5: Bed Level Causeways, Common Types .................................................. 2-12
Figure 2-6: Design Heights of Open Single Span Frame Bridges ............................ 2-13
Figure 2-7: Requirements for Skewed Frame Bridges ............................................. 2-14
Figure 2-8: Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks .... 2-14
Figure 2-9: Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls ............................................... 2-15
Figure 2-10: Cross-Reinforced Hinge ....................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-11: Section of a Typical Slab Panel ............................................................ 2-18
Figure 2-12: Section of U-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels .................................. 2-18
Figure 2-13: Section of a Normal T-Shaped Type of Stressed RC Girder Panel .... 2-19
Figure 2-14: Section of Stressed I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels..................... 2-19
Figure 2-15: Section of I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panel Bridge for Pedestrians2-19
Figure 2-16: Typical Sections of Railway Bridges and Their Suitable Span Lengths
............................................................................................................. 2-22
Figure 2-17: Temporary Bridge on Gabion Abutments ........................................... 2-24
Figure 2-18: Bridge Pier Made of Concrete Rings ................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-19: Skewed Bridge Crossing ....................................................................... 2-26
Figure 3-1: Reduced Footings Dimensions .................................................................. 3-5
Figure 3-2: Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings ................................. 3-8
Figure 3-3: Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations .................................................. 3-16
Figure 3-4: Factor Ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio ................................................. 3-18
Figure 3-5: Active Wedge Force Diagram ................................................................ 3-30
Figure 3-6: Recommended Arch Shape .................................................................... 3-46
Figure 3-7: Common Bearing Types ......................................................................... 3-54
Figure 4-1: Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three Girder Bridges ....... 4-8
Figure 4-2: Common Deck Superstructures ............................................................. 4-12
Figure 4-3: Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement ............ 4-21
Figure 4-4: Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement ....... 4-22
Figure 4-5: Illustration of Ac ..................................................................................... 4-24
Figure 4-6: Flow Chart for Shear Design.................................................................. 4-25
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

List of Illustrations Bridge Design Manual – 2014
Figure 4-7: Guide to the Selection of Sx .................................................................... 4-26

Figure 4-8: Forces Assumed in Resistance Model by Moment and Shear ............... 4-27
Figure 5-1: Flow Chart for Rating Procedure............................................................. 5-7
Figure 5-2: Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN ...................................................... 5-10
Figure 5-3: Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN ................................................... 5-10
Figure 5-4: Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN .............................................................. 5-10
Figure 5-5: The Legal Lane Loading (mainly for large spans) ................................. 5-11
Figure 5-6: Flowchart for Selecting Resistance Factors Φ ....................................... 5-17
Figure 5-7: Nomogram for Determining the Provisional Axle Loading of Masonry
Arch Bridges before Factoring ........................................................... 5-25
Figure 5-8: Arch Dimensions ..................................................................................... 5-26
Figure 5-9: Span/Rise Factor ..................................................................................... 5-27
Figure 5-10: Profile Factor ......................................................................................... 5-28
Figure 5-11: Conversion of Modified Axle Loads to Single Double and Triple Axles
............................................................................................................. 5-33
Figure 5-12: Spandrel Wall Failures ......................................................................... 5-38
Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual – 2013 List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections ........... 2-7
Table 2-2: Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)....................................... 2-17
Table 3-1: Comparison Between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients ........................ 3-4
Table 3-2: Factor Kh for Relative Humidity ............................................................. 3-19
Table 3-3: Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)....................................... 3-46
Table 3-4: K- Values for Effective Length of Arch Ribs .......................................... 3-47
Table 3-5: Suitability of Different Bearing Types..................................................... 3-53
Table 4-1: Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks ........................................ 4-4
Table 4-2: “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations ....................... 4-10
Table 4-3: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam ....... 4-13
Table 4-4: Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal
Beams .................................................................................................. 4-14
Table 4-5: Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal
Beams on Skewed Supports ............................................................... 4-15
Table 4-6: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for Moment and
Shear ................................................................................................... 4-16
Table 4-7: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams .......... 4-16
Table 4-8: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams ......... 4-17
Table 4-9: Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support Shear of the
Obtuse Corner .................................................................................... 4-17
Table 4-10: Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement ........... 4-23
Table 4-11: Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement ...... 4-23
Table 5-1: Unit Weights of Materials .......................................................................... 5-8
Table 5-2: Condition of Wearing Surface and Impact Value................................... 5-12
Table 5-3: Reinforcing Steel Yield Stresses .............................................................. 5-12
Table 5-4: Correction Factor for Analysis ................................................................ 5-14
Table 5-5: Load Factors............................................................................................. 5-15
Table 5-6: Resistance Factors vs Condition .............................................................. 5-18
Table 5-7: Resistance Factors ϕ for all Conditions ................................................... 5-19
Table 5-8: Reduction Factors for Live Load ............................................................. 5-20
Table 5-9: Centrifugal Distribution Factor Ap ......................................................... 5-23
Table 5-10: Barrel Factor .......................................................................................... 5-28
Table 5-11: Fill Factor ............................................................................................... 5-29
Table 5-12: Width Factor .......................................................................................... 5-29
Table 5-13: Mortar Factor......................................................................................... 5-30
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

List of Tables Bridge Design Manual – 2014
Table 5-14: Depth Factor ........................................................................................... 5-30

Table 5-15: Load Capacity and Gross Vehicle Weight Restrictions for Masonry
Arches.................................................................................................. 5-34
Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation
1 PLANNING STAGE/FEASIBILITY STUDY/SITE INVESTIGATION
1.1 General
In this first stage of design the highway engineer identifies a preferred location for the
bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure. He reaches these
decisions on the basis of field surveys and information concerning:
• The proposed road alignments;
• The local terrain and site conditions;
• The required design life of the bridge;
• The likely traffic volumes;
• The resources he has available.
The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and the
design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources available
to construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and building methods. The
traffic predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of the bridge.
The data required for the Preliminary Design stage, specifically for the geotechnical
analyses, hydraulic design and site investigations, are discussed in Part 2Chapter 2.
1.2 Site Selection

For the highway engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be bridged.
Occasionally the highway engineer shall be called upon to design a rail or road grade-
separated crossing. These are relatively simple compared to river crossings because they
involve considerations only of height and span. The design of a river crossing also has to
take hydraulic requirements into account.
There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the site:
• A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew angle
above 20°should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
• Its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure (the
site selection should if possible be made together with a soils engineer and, for a
large bridge, with a bridge engineer, to minimize costs and select the best site).
• The bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on
adjoining land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local
environment (an environmentalist and a hydrologist are advantageous in some
cases to avoid these impacts).
1.2.1 River Type

Rivers are classed as either alluvial or incised, as follows.
Alluvial rivers are winding and erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood
plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to
spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing
materials on the banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and any
of the minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of a
single major flood.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

Chapter 1
Planning Stage/Feasibility Study/Site Investigation Bridge Design Manual – 2014
Incised rivers have relatively stable banks and are generally narrower and deeper than
alluvial rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing
channel when the flood subsides.
Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt
changes in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These
changes result in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial fans
of gravel to clay sized debris.
1.2.2 Bridge Sites

In selecting the location for small-or medium-sized bridges (below 50 m length), the
engineer often has to reach a compromise between the easiest river crossing and the
shortest road alignment. The choice of location then becomes an economic decision. The
most economic bridge site and the one that has potentially the longest service life is a
location that:
• Is on a straight reach of the river
• Is beyond the disturbing influence of larger tributaries
• Has well defined banks
• Has reasonably straight approach roads
• Permits as perpendicular a crossing as possible
• Has a good foundation condition.
The site shall also allow the gradient of the approach roads to be appropriate to the types of
vehicles likely to travel on the road and to conform to the prevailing version of the ERA
Geometric Design Manualforvertical alignment. It should offer vertical curves and sight
distances suitable for the design speed of vehicles using the bridge.
A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A skewed
bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct. If a skew is
unavoidable the angle should preferably not exceed 20°, due to the increased cost, and the
abutments and piers should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during
maximum flood (see Section 1.3), which may not be the same as during normal flow.
Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.
1.3 Site Conditions

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he needs to obtain field
information on the local terrain and river conditions in addition to the soil information and
hydraulic data that are outlined in the prevailing version of the ERA Drainage Design
Manualonhydrology. The key points of field information relate to:
• The catchment area of the river;
• Water levels;
• Navigational and other clearance requirements.
1.3.1 Catchment Area

Usually the road plans with contours are not prepared at this early stage, which makes it
necessary to use the topographical maps available in the country. The Ethiopian Mapping
Authority has prepared maps to scale 1:250 000 for the whole country. In addition to that
there are also maps to scale 1:50 000 available for large areas of the country shown in the
Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
current "Map Catalogue" published by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority. The area west of
Goba–Korem and south of Gondar–Korem is mainly covered by 1:50 000 topographic
maps. These are especially suited for the planning stage to calculate catchment areas,
possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries, and other uses.
The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans and
sections, and can be used to estimate flow volumes (see ERA Drainage Design Manualon-
hydrographic survey). Using maps or aerial photographs to an appropriate scale, the
catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using transparent squared graph
paper or a planimeter.
1.3.2 Water Levels

Information is needed on the highest known flood level, the ordinary flood level and the
low water level at the proposed site. The historical flood level/ highest-known flood level
(HFL) should be determined by calculation and supplemented with local observation and
inquiries in the locality (see also the ERA Drainage Design Manual). The silt marks that
high floods generally leave on tree trunks and rocks remain visible for several years. If
there are old trees at the site vicinity, they should be examined for the presence of small
twigs left adhering to the bark at high water levels. It is usually helpful to ask people who
have been living in the area for a long time about their recollections of particularly high
floods, with a caution that this source of information is variable in reliability. It is usually
better to make such inquiries by talking to people individually rather than in groups.
The normal high water level, the ordinary flood level (OFL), is the level to which the river
normally rises during the wettest part of the year. The normal low water level, the low
water level (LWL), is the level prevailing in the river during dry weather. If there is little
or no flow in dry weather, the period during which the riverbed remains dry should be
noted in dry weather, the period during which the riverbed remains dry should be noted.
1.4 Cross-Section of River (See alsothe prevailing version of the ERA

Drainage Design Manual and ERA Site Investigation Manual)
In order to develop a sketch for a large bridge, cross sections of the waterway at the
approximate proposed crossing are essential. The cross sections should extend at least
20 m in length beyond the assumed high water mark, or 2 m vertically above the same.
1.5 Proposed Typical Section of Road

The proposed typical section of the road is based on parameters including ADT (Average
Daily Traffic) and/or road classification as shown in the prevailing version of the ERA
Geometric Design Manualand will be obtained from the road engineer. The width of the
bridge should be somewhat wider than the roadway, in order to allow the vehicles to pass
the bridge without retardation of speed, for safety, and for pedestrian requirements as
specified in Part 1 Chapter 2.

Chapter 1
1.6 Sketch of Proposed Bridge and Brief Technical Descriptions of Bridges

The result of the planning stage conducted by the bridge engineer (or by the road engineer
for small and sometimes medium sized bridges) should be a sketch of the proposed
bridge(s) containing the following information essential for the subsequent preliminary
design stage (see Figure 1-1, and Part 2Chapter 2: Section 2-21: Checklist for the
Preliminary Design).
• Waterway name;
• Direction of flow;
• Direction of north;
• The direction and name of the nearest town and/or project beginning and end of
project;
• Width of road;
• Proposed clear width of bridge;
• Proposed inclination of embankment slopes •overall proposed length of bridge;
• Span lengths;
• Clearance heights;
• Type of bearings (fixed/expandable);
• Proposed position of fixed bearings;
• Quantity of flow;
• Design water velocity (the calculated velocity at the statistical flow at design year);
• Design water level (the highest statistical level at design year);
• Normal water level;
• (Statistically) lowest water level (at design year);
• Cross section of the waterway in the alignment, spot levels of the river bed and the
surrounding ground in the area;
• Crossfall of bridge deck;
• Proposed grade of bridge;
• Angle of skew and proposed angle of abutments and piers;
• The approximate horizontal alignment of the road approaches and the bridge;
• The stations of the piers and abutments;
• Towns adjacent to the bridge;
• Bench mark used, and its location and elevation.
1.7 Existing Bridges

If any part of a bridge must be replaced, needs widening, or to be exchanged for a new
bridge, the existing bridge shall be inspected, and data on the bridge shall be collected.
Regarding a Checklist for existing structures (Ref. 3), see Form 1-2. For the strength
evaluation rating of existing bridges, refer to Part 2Chapter 5.
If a junior engineer is performing the field inspection, the result should always be verified
with a senior bridge engineer to determine whether further inspection is needed, and what
maintenance has to be accomplished to secure the bridge in the future.
1.8 Cost/Benefit Analysis and Evaluation

It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated from
technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most
beneficial alignment(s). This shall be performed either by hand or by a suitable computer

Chapter 1
2
program. The preliminary cost of the bridges shall be calculated by unit cost per m of
bridge deck.
1.9 Site Investigation
1.9.1 General
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The
most complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for
personal inspection by someone experienced in bridge and drainage design.
There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit:
• Does the magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same
information be obtained from maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls?
• What kind of equipment should be taken? and most important,
• What exactly are the critical items at this site?
Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 1-1) are:
• High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies;
• Selection of roughness coefficients;
• Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions;
• Flow concentration (main stream),•observation of land use and related flood
hazards; and
• Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions.
An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made by the bridge
designerbefore any design is undertaken. Ideally, this shall be combined with a visit by
other practitioners, such as the roadway designers and soil investigators, environmental
reviewers, and local officials. Alternatively,in caseswhere the interests and the time
required to obtain the required data differ,the designer may visit the site separately.
It may not be possible to survey the entire watershed.Therefore, a sample area may have to
be studied. It is important to set out the exact field needs by a checklist before a trip is
made to ensure that all information needed is collected and all important areas are visited
(see Form 1-1).
1.9.2 Hydrology
Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the physical
characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can affect the magnitude and
frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These data may include
climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records, high
water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing structures the vicinity. The
exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to estimate discharges,
frequencies, and stages. It should be noted that much of the hydrologic data would not be
used during the planning and location phase. However, it is important at this stage to
emphasize the need for such data, because of the time necessary for collection and
evaluation of such data. By starting this process during the planning and location stage,
delays during the design stage should be minimized.
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis.
The field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance
personnel, and local officials who may have recollections of past flood events in the area.

Chapter 1
In some cases, if a stream gauging station is on the stream under study, close to the
crossing site, and has many years of measurements, this shall be the only hydrologic data
needed. These data should be analyzed to ensure stream flows have not changed over the
time of measurement due to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large
storage facility, diversion of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from another
watershed, or development which has significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the
watershed.
High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these
data should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the search
for marks local people could be of great help. The cause of the high-water mark should
also be noted, often the mark is caused by unusual debris build-up rather than an
inadequate structure, and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to
an unrealistic, uneconomical design. High-water marks can be identified in several ways.
Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches; elephant-grass or similar
matted down;and mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high-water indicators. Beware
however that grass, bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood flows and
spring up after the flow has passed, which may give a false reading of the high water
elevation.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are
needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of
the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream
network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general
geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage
values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values
using methods outlined in the prevailing version of the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency
(Weather Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data
developed and presented in the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
1.9.3 Land Use

Field visits including discussions with local residents can yield information not elsewhere
available. If there is wildlife; or livestock tracks; or paths crossing the proposed roadway
alignment, it would be wise to provide for the passing of the animals under the bridge if
possible. This may reduce the incidence of accidents with animals once the road is in use.
The types and extent of vegetal cover should be noted since it affects the velocity and
quantity of runoff. It also affects the quality of the water.
In order to make a study of the water resources of the area, an environmental team should
obtain those data commensurate with the needs to evaluate the highway impacts on the
surface water. A coordination meeting with representatives of the various environmental
disciplines concerned is often beneficial at this stage. Data may need to be collected on
such facts as fish and wildlife, vegetation and the quality of the water. A judgment may
need to be made on aesthetic values. Detailed test on environmental concerns and
coordination in presented in given in the prevailing version of the ERA Standard
Environmental Methodologies and Procedures Manual.

Chapter 1
Land use and vegetal cover information shall be determined to the extent needed for
preliminary design from soils and land use maps, but with rapidly changing land uses, a
more accurate survey will be achieved from aerial photographs and field visits.
To determine the disturbance and interference factor it should be noted whether the
upstream land areas include farming, cattle and/or fishing activities.
If the roadway, the bridge site and especially the upstream land-areas are influenced by
villages, houses, etc this should be noted at the site.
1.9.4 Other Structures

All existing structures along the stream that could possibly be affected by or affect the new
bridge, such as old bridges, dams and irrigation channels, shall be investigated as to size,
location, type and condition. This can be a valuable indicator when selecting the size and
type of any new structure. Data to be obtained on existing structures includes such
parameters as size, type, age, existing flow line elevation, and condition, particularly in
regards to the channel. Scour holes, erosion (around the abutments or just upstream or
downstream), or abrupt changes in material gradation or type can all indicate a structure
too small for the site. With knowledge of flood history, the age and overall substructure
condition may also aid in determining if the existing structure is too small.
If a structure is relatively new, information may still be available on a previous structure,
and why it had to be replaced. When structures upstream or downstream of the site under
study exist, they should always be inventoried for the factors just discussed. In addition to
highway structures, any other crossings, which might exist, should be investigated.
1.9.5 Sampling and Soil Investigation

Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators. Samples as specified in the prevailing version of
the ERA Site Investigation Manual should be collected, marking the station number where
they are collected. In this early stage, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the
final alignment of the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be
investigated to get a general view of the soil conditions.
If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site the investigations
could preferably be extended. This work should be made under the guidance of a
geotechnical engineer.
1.9.6 Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very
rough dimensions with approximate measurements (see Figure 1-1).
As a minimum, photographsshall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site
as well as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the
stream-bed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in
the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or
grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.

Chapter 1
1.9.7 Check List of Site Investigation

A form or checklist that can be used by the field investigator/designer in identifying and
cataloging field information is shown on (Form 1-1). A checklist for Inspection of existing
bridges is shown in (Form 1-2).
Figure 1-1: Sketch of Bridge Site

Chapter 1
Form 1-1 FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM
• PROJECT:…………..................................................………………......……………… Date: …................……….

Inv. by ……….........................…………………………….........................… Site Situated @ STA: .................……….
• WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow:

....................................High Water Mark:... ...................... Level: +...............Side Slopes:
..................................degrees: ............Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level:
.............................................................................................
% Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: ……(m) Height of Banks:…...... (m) Manning's Value n=..................Crossing
angle (estimated): …………degrees Meandering: ……………………………………(show figure below)Bottom/Base
material............................................................ Material on channel side: ......................... n=..........Up or Downstream
Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soilmtrl.):
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.................

Type: ..........................................................................................Piers: Type: .......................................................................
Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................Clear
Height: ……(m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width at HWL:............(m);
(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) .............................................................................................................................................
MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream:

......................................................................................................................Vegetation (Location, Type, Name):
......................................................................................................................................Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name):
..................................................................................................................................
Soil Conditions: .................................................................................................... at Roadway
STA: .....................Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN:
................; Sample no: ............ @ STA: ...................
Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: .................. Photos no:..........@STA:..............
Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos
no:..............@STN:................. Shows: ..........................
REMARKS:
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
(please, make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Rd alignment and continue the text on back side of this page,
ifneeded)

Chapter 1
Form 1-2 BRIDGE INSPECTION FORM Page 1(3)
Bridge Number:…………….
Name ……………………………………. Crossing……………………

At STA. kilometer…………. on the…………………………….. to…………………………………road
Instruction from the Engineer to the Inspector.……….…………… ………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
View of bridge looking from above:
Notes from the Inspector to the Engineer:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Inspected by ……………………………...……………Date…………… No of pages in report………..

Report accepted by…………….…………………… Date …………… (Including sketches, notes, etc)
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS (from the Inventory)

No Span…………………..Running surface…………………………… Deck……….……………………
Pier(s)………………….…………………….. Abutments……………………………………………….…..
Problem How Bad? How Much?

CONCRETE OR
Note or
Handbook MASONRY Not
Not sketch
(2) PARAPETS POSSIBLE No Yes very Bad Some A lot
Much reference
PROBLEM bad
Cracking?
Spalling
Corrosion of
reinforcement?
Poor Concrete?
Movement or bending of
parapet?
Deterioration of the
bricks or stonework?
MAIN CONCRETE
BEAMS
Cracking
Spalling
Corrosion of
reinforcement
Poor concrete?

Chapter 1
Notes: Page 2(3) Page 3(3)

SUPERSTRUCTURE Note or
Handbook Not
SPAN NO……………. Very Not Al sketch
(2) No Yes very Bad Some
POSSIBLE PROBLEM serious Much ot reference
bad
STEEL GIRDERS &
BRACING
Deterioration of paint /
galvanizing?
Bends in webs, flanges,
stiffeners
Loose bolts or rivets
Water coming through
the deck
SUPER STRUCTURE
Impact damage to beams,
girders, trusses or
bracing?
STEEL TRUSSES
Deterioration of paint or
galvanizing
Corrosion?
Bends in truss members?
Bent or damaged joints?
Bent or damaged
bracings
Loose bolts or rivets?
Cracking of steel
members
TIMBER BEAMS AND

TRUSSES
Decay
Insect attack?
Splitting of timber?
Separation of laminations
on glue laminated beams?
Loose or corroded nails
spikes or fixing wires?
BEARING S
ABUTMENT
NAME…………
Debris or vegetation
around bearings?
Bad drainage of bearing
shelf?
Not enough room for the
bridge span to move?
Bearing not seated
properly
Damaged bedding
mortar?

Chapter 1
Damage or loose
earthquake restraints
RUBBER BEARINGS
Splitting, tearing or
cracking of rubber
Damaged or loose bolts
or pins at fixed bearings?

BEARINGS Note or
Handbook Not
POSSIBLE Very Not sketch
page (2) No Yes very Bad Some Alot
PROBLEM serious Much reference
bad
METAL
BEARINGS
Parts not properly
seated?
Parts not free to move
Sliding surfaces
damaged?
Cracks or bends in
metal parts?
Corrosion of metal
parts
MASONRY ARCH
ES
Change of shape of
arch ?
Cracking of arch
barrel/ring
Cracking or bulging
of spandrel walls
Spandrel wall
separating from arch
Spalling of stones or
bricks
Poor pointing?
Water leaking
through arch?
Scour under arch
foundations?
ABUTMENTS,
WINGWALLS AND
RETAINING
WALLS
Erosion or scour near
abutment?
Movement of
abutment or retaining
wall
Water leaking down
through the expansion
joint?
Cracking of concrete?

Chapter 1
Spalling?
Corrosion of
reinforcement?
Poor concrete?
PIERS (Concrete
and masonry) PIER
NO………..
Scour near base of
pier?
Movement of pier?
Vegetation growing
on pier?
Water leaking past
expansion joint?
Corrosion of
reinforcement?
Poor concrete?
Cracking ?
Deterioration of
masonry?
Poor pointing of
masonry?
REFERENCES
1 AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 5th edition, 2010.

Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2 TRRL, 1992. A design manual for small bridges. Overseas Road Note 9.
Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
3 TRRL Overseas Road Note No 7, Vol. 2, ”Bridge Inspectors Handbook",
Crowtorne Berkshire UK, 1988, Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
4 TRRL Overseas Road Note No 9, ”A Design Manual for Small Bridges",
Crowtorne Berkshire UK, 1992, Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
5 Brokonstruktion -en handbok (Bridge Design −A Handbook), Publ. no 1996:63,
Swedish Roads Authority (Vagverket), Borlange 1996. In Swedish.
6 Design Standard, Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 -1989)
7 Design Manual for Roads and Bridges -Vol. 1: Highway Structures: Approval
Procedures and General Design, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
8 Design Manual for Roads and Bridges -Vol. 3: Highway Structures: Inspection and
Maintenance, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London.
9 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 1 Basis of Design and Actions
on Structures, 1995.
10 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 Structural Use of Concrete,
1995.
11 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 Design of Steel Structures,
1995.
12 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 Utilization of Timber, 1995.
13 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 Foundations, 1995.
14 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 Designof Structures for
Earthquake Resistance, 1995.

Chapter 2
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts
2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN/LAYOUT OF BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
2.1 General
Preliminary bridge design is a part of the road design. The site for a bridge is usually
governed by engineering, economic, social, environmental, aesthetic and safety
considerations.
The “best” preliminary bridge layout is not always the optimal solution. Because many
factors are contradictory, the material, labor, and construction prices may vary from the
time of preliminary design to actual construction. Also competition between bidders may
result in completely new layouts. Sometimes bidders have their own falsework, moulding
formwork, building methods and machines, which are not anticipated by ERA. This has to
be considered at the bidding procedure.
Subsequent to the Planning Stage (see Part 2,Chapter 1), the alignment of the road should
have been selected from the different proposed alternatives. The bridge designer may then
propose the stations and approximate size of the footings for a more detailed geotechnical
survey. Then the type and approximate depth of foundation shall be selected.
The layout will begin with an estimation of possible loads, such as traffic loads, earth
pressure, earthquake loads, temperature movements, etc. (see Part 1, Chapter 3). The
second step will be to consider in what way these loads affect the bridge. Then, with the
result from the soil investigation and in cooperation with the geotechnical surveyor, the
static system can be selected.
Once the bridge layout has been determined, a cost estimation should be made and
compared with that from the planning stage. The selected bridge type should then be
evaluated in terms of economics, aesthetics, constructability, maintenance, and
environment.
The bridge is normally shown on a layout drawing with plan, elevation and section. The
main dimensions should be given. Other necessary technical information shall be given in
the Preliminary Design Specification (PDS) for the particular bridge (see Part
2,Chapter 6).
2.2 Basic Information
2.2.1 Topographical Map

For the preparing of the Preliminary Design Drawings, the part of the road plan covering
the bridge site should be reproduced at scale 1:100 or 1:250. It should include levels with
contours at a one-meter interval from the field survey. It should also show:
• Proposed roadway including stations.
• The waterlines, and rivers with direction of flow indicated.
• Direction of north and if possible the coordinates.
• Islands or rock outcrops in the waterway.
• Name of the streams and of the road
• Other structures, which may affect the bridge such as buildings, walls, adjacent
roads, railways, electric power and telephone posts and drainage channels/ditches.
• Placement, levels and dimensions for ducts and cables.

Chapter 2
Preliminary Design/Layout of Bridges and Culverts Bridge Design Manual – 2014
2.2.2 Surveying, Benchmarks, and Measurement of Water Depths

Normally the ground at the bridge site should be surveyed along the road centerline, at
25 m increments, up to at least 20 m left and right from the alignment with 5 meters
interval. All break points shall be surveyed. At larger bridges this should be modified
according to the bridge designer. The length of the bridge survey should cover at least 20
m beyond the high-water-mark (HWM), or 2 m vertically above the HWM.
At rivers the leveling should include profile and cross sections of the river according to the
prevailing version of the ERA Drainage Design Manual,. The skew angle of the main
stream should be indicated to analyze possible erosion problems. In rivers with deposits of
silty loose material, the underlying harder strata should be measured if possible.
The water level at the time of survey shall be indicated to compare it with the theoretically
calculated levels determined as per the ERA Drainage Design Manual. Visible traces of
high water marks shall be surveyed and indicated.
A benchmarkshould be positioned as close to the bridge as possible. It shall however be
placed sufficiently far from the site such that it will remain undamaged during and after the
construction work. The ERA Geometric Design Manual gives an example of a benchmark.
At large rivers there should be one benchmark on each shore above the high-water mark.
The benchmark shall be described on the Preliminary Design Drawing. If a local level
system is used it shall be thoroughly described, and if possible tied to either the BMP,
BMS or BMT Trigonometrical Stations of the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (see ERA
Geometric Design Manual). Then the level for the calculation of the free board clearance
can be considered.
Coordinatesfor the plan of bridge should if possible be according to the 1000 m Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM Zone 36) or any other current system approved by the
Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
2.2.3 River Data

To decide upon the placement of piers, span length and clearance height, as well as
determining needs for realignment of the river and protection against scour/erosion, river
data is required. The following information if appropriate should be given on the
preliminary sketch:
• River basin (discharge area) and area of lakes in km²(square kilometers).
• Water flow quantities in m³/s (The statistical highest high water flow every 100
years, design water flow, medium water flow, lowest low water flow and if possible
also the normal high-water flow and normal low water flow).
• The elevations of important areas (fields, etc) upstream the proposed bridge site.
• Cross section of the waterway including river beds at least to 2-m above the high-
water mark.
• Collecting of opening dimensions and levels of adjacent bridges.
• Collection of data from adjacent irrigation projects/channels.
Sources of this information include the National Meteorological Services Agency, the
Ethiopian Mapping Agency, Water Power stations, and the Ministry of Water Resources.
2.2.4 Soil Investigations

For all bridge types, at least two soil investigation points for each pier, abutment or spread
footing should be made. In depth the borings shall be at least 3.0 m below the anticipated

Chapter 2
foundation level or the lower side of the footing. Settlement calculations on footings, in
friction soil or over consolidated clay, should normally be made to the depth of 4 times the
effective width of the footing.
2.2.5 Bridge Reference Number

Every bridge in Ethiopia is given a unique bridge reference number associated with the
road number (see ERA Geometric Design Manual) which can be obtained from the Bridge
Branch of ERA. All drawings should refer to that number, i.e. “road number” -"bridge
number" – drawing number (A2-45-6).
2.2.6 Miscellaneous
Other information to be collected at an early stage is:
• Type of roadway, type of ditch, typical section, traffic flow and velocity.
• Clearance height and width requirements
• Aesthetical (architectural) requirements
• Environmental requirements
• Type of curbing
• Type of railings −especially if a railing between the roadway and the walkway is to
be used.
• Existing and planned cables and ducts
• Material to be utilized for bridge slopes. This will give the maximum slope
inclinations, which in turn can give the total length of the bridge.
2.3 Geometric Requirements

For geometric requirements, refer to Part 1, Chapter 2.
2.4 Load Assumptions

For load assumptions, including design vehicle load, traffic load, accidental loads and
other loads, see Part 1, Chapter 3.
2.5 Foundations
2.5.1 General
The most suitable way of founding a bridge will be determined from the geotechnical
survey in cooperation with the geotechnical engineer.
The foundations and their levels are dependent upon:
• Soil conditions, given the coefficients to calculate the bearing capacity of the soil,
stability and settlement.
• Groundwater level or water level.
• Bridge type.
• Embankments of the adjacent road and the founding of them.
• Construction method.
• Proximity to existing structures.
The selection of foundation type and level depends heavily upon the impact of
underground conditions as indicated by the results of the soil investigation. The demands
on the founding of bridges and access road embankments include a sufficient safety factor

Chapter 2
and minimal settlement in order to achieve a maintenance-free and long-life structure.

During bridge design, stability and settlement should always be investigated.
Foundations on rock will usually provide the simplest and most economically favorable
solution, since the size of the footing will be less than that on soil. If the rock is not visible,
investigations should be made in all four corners of the footing. Sometimes investigation
pits are preferred. Bridges should not be placed on loose rock or sloping rock. It is
recommended in such case to remove loose rock and to level the rock surface by blasting
or other rock excavation and thereafter place the footing on compacted fill.
If the soil consists of thick layers of clay or loose silt, investigations may indicate that the
soil strata are not able to carry the load of the footing. If such layers are less than 3-4 m in
thickness, it is advisable to remove the layers and exchange them with compacted stonefill.
For conditions worse than this, piling is advisable.
Regarding longitudinal settlement, the calculated difference in settlement between two
supports should preferably not exceed 1/500 of the span length. Sometimes the transversal
settlement also has to be considered in the pre-design stage.
The construction method also affects the selection of foundation type. Temporary sheet
piling shall be needed to achieve a certain foundation type or to build foundations close to
existing structures such as railways. Generally the construction method should be
considered before deciding upon foundation types, the placing of the piers, and levels.
2.5.2 Spread Footings on Rock

The rock should usually be as horizontal as possible. Where this is not the case, it should
be blasted to achieve a horizontal plane. For sloping rock along a pier it shall be
advantageous to blast the rock in steps similar to a staircase.
A footing directly on rock will result in a very stiff support. In some cases it shall be
advantageous to place the footing on 0.5 m compacted gravel fill in order to have a more
elastic founding. This applies especially to open frame structures with short
legs/frontwalls.
It is often not possible to give an exact level of the bottom of the foundation on rocks.
Therefore often the level of the upper side of the footing is given on the “Preliminary
Layout Drawing”
2.5.3 Spread Footing on Soil

The foundation level is dependent on soil bearing capacity, settlement, scour/erosion and
the method of construction. Normally the bottom of the footing shall be given on the
“Preliminary Layout Drawing”.
It has proved practical to extend the footing 0.5 m at concrete piers and 0.3 m at masonry
piers as a cantilever from the face of the pier and 0.3 m at the sides for both types. At work
inside sheet piling it shall be necessary to increase these dimensions. If existing structures
are close to the footing or if the soil is very poor, it shall be necessary to make a rough
calculation of the size of the footing before it is drawn on the “Preliminary Layout
Drawing.”
In case of cohesive type soil or very soft friction soil, the footing should be placed on a bed
of at least 0.3 m compacted gravel fill. If the soil is very soft it is sometimes suitable to
compact the soil in a several-metre-thick layer with a heavy falling weight (deep

Chapter 2
compaction) combined with normal surface compaction. The foundation level shall be
raised several metres above the water level, as a foundation level above the water is often
cheaper than under the water. If the water surface is close to the foundation level,
consideration should be given whether it is possible to lower the groundwater level
temporarily by pumping to some 0.5 m under the bottom of the footing.
If the foundation level is less than 2 m under the water level it shall be advantageous to
cast the footing above the water. This can be accomplished using watertight sheet piling
and an underwater cast concrete slab heavy enough to resist the buoyancy when the water
inside the piling is pumped dry, before casting the footing itself.
2.5.4 Footings on Compacted Fill

Sometimes it shall be suitable to raise the footing above the hard soil layer. This consists of
excavating the soft material and replacing it with compacted well-graded stone fill. The
stone size should preferably be 0 -100 mm (d50≥70 mm). In that case intensive compaction
should be made in 0.3-0.6 m thick horizontal layers.
Figure 2-1 shows the normal method of constructing a fill with side supports made out of
quarried stones or similar.
Figure 2-1: Compacted Fill Under a Bridge Footing

Chapter 2
2.5.5 Pile Foundations

Piling should be considered when footings cannot be founded on rock, stiff-cohesive or
granular foundation material at a reasonable expense. At locations where soil conditions
would normally permit the use of spread footings, but the potential for erosion exists, piles
shall be used as a protection against scour.
Piling can be made either with in situ bored piles or with prefabricated (prefab) RC piles.
A typical prefab concrete pilewith the dimensions 290x290 mm reinforced with 4ø16 bars
may typically carry 450-600 kN in the service limit state. If the soil investigation shows
sulphuric soils, it should be indicated on the “Preliminary Design Drawing” that the
concrete cover of the prefab piles should be at least 45 mm. Cast-in-place concrete
pilesinclude piles cast in driven steel shells that remain in place and piles cast in unlined
drilled holes or shafts.
Should the soil investigation show many boulders in the soil, steel piles should be
considered. In some cases with very deep water it will be suitable to use RC filled steel
pipes with a diameter of 0.6m. Wooden piles should normally be avoided due to
deterioration and insect problems.
The soil investigation report must clearly indicate:
• If the piles are to be of end-bearing type or skin-friction type (the latter used where
the hard soil strata is deeper than some 30 m),
• Expected overall length of piles,
• The grade of difficulty to perform the piling, especially in water,
• Necessary soil parameters for the design
Pile foundations with simultaneous large horizontal load and small vertical load such as
retaining walls, will be large and should therefore be avoided. Often it will then be more
economical to increase the span length (to make the retaining wall smaller) or change the
type of bridge (to one without any retaining wall at all).
2.6 Scour/Erosion,Riprap,Sheet Piling,River Training,Etc

Scour protection is usually required where a bridge is built across a meandering stream,
when the natural stone protection is removed or when some restriction to the flow of the
design flood occurs at a bridge. Protection measures can take the form of:
• Riprap on slopes or river bed
• Gabion or reno mattress aprons or revetments
• Sheetpiled walls
• Vegetation with deep roots
• River training works
Riprapriverbed protection consists of a carpet of loose stones, heavy enough to resist being
washed away by maximum water velocities during a flood. If the velocity exceeds 1.0 m/s
this protection should not be installed in a manner which reduces the area of the waterway.
The main advantages of riprap are:
• Low construction cost
• Material often available close to the site
• A flexible protection
• Easy to install and repair with appropriate lifting gear such as tripod, ginpole or
tractor-crane.

Chapter 2
The stones should be well-graded. Durable and heavy stones with a cubic shape are
preferred. Flaky stones should be avoided. The thickness of the blanket should be at least
the length of the largest stones and about the nominal mean diameter (d50). If no separate
calculations of scour have been performed, scour protection should always be applied at
least 3 m around piers and abutments with riprap of a minimum stone size according to
Table 2-1 below.
Table 2-1: Maximum Design Water Velocity at Different Scour Protections
Crushed
Max. Velocity Max. Velocity Max. Velocity
No. of Stone
at Riverbed at stone slopes at gravel slopes d50mm
Layers Fraction
(m/s) 1,5:1 (m/s) 2:1 (m/s)
(mm)
1,3 0,9 0,8 1 ≥70 0-100
2,2 1,5 1,4 1 ≥200 0-300
3,0 2,0 1,8 2 ≥350 0-500
3,2 2,2 2,0 2 ≥400 0-600
Gabionsare rectangular baskets made of steel wire mesh with internal tie wires at every
half-meter. They are normally filled at the site with natural or quarried stone. The gabion
structure is more stable and durable if the stones are packed by hand. Standard sizes are 2,
3 and 4 m longby1 m wideby0.5 or 1 m high.
Filter blankets should be applied to the back of the gabions or beneath the riprap if the
riverbank consists of fine, non-cohesive material, to prevent such material from being
washed away through the voids in the riprap or gabion lining. The filter blanket can consist
2
of a 0.5 mm thick polyester non-woven textile carpet (minimum weight 250 g/m )or
multiple layers of stones with the finest layer closest to the river bank and the coarsest
layer towards the water. The polyester carpet should be protected from sunshine, and
should be placed, overlapped and anchored according to the manufacturer.
Sheet pilingof prefabricated RC or steel shall be driven to form a continuous wall. The
resulting wall is less flexible than gabions or riprap and may fail due to movements in the
ground. To withstand the earth pressure it should be designed through calculations. Only
temporary sheet piling shall be made out of wood.
Vegetationcan be used to protect riverbanks. The most successful plants are those found
growing naturally along the river. Plants with deep roots are preferred.
River training worksrequire extensive experience. It is useful to examine other structures in
the area, observe the flow during the rainy season or at flood, and to examine plans and
maps showing how the river shape has progressed, in order to understand where bank
strengthening and guide walls are needed (Ref. 1). For further guidance on river training,
refer to the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
2.7 Substructure (Abutments,Piers, Wingwalls, and Retaing Walls)

Every bridge is divided into substructure and superstructure. The division is normally
made at the bearings. For frame bridges the limit between substructure and superstructure
is at the joint between the top of the footing and the bottom of the front wall.

Chapter 2
An Abutmentis a free, independent end of a bridge. It normally carries both the load from
the superstructure and the load from the adjacent road embankment. Wing-walls are
sometimes placed parallel to the roadway in order to minimize the overturning moment of
the abutment (see Figure 2-2).
Many existing abutments and piers in Ethiopia are made of stone masonry or mass
concrete.
If an abutment is higher than 8 m, it should preferably be of an open type without a
frontwall under the level 1.5 m below the slope (see Figure 2-2 below). This configuration
will reduce horizontal forces from earth pressure and the traffic load on the embankment.
This type of abutment saves material and therefore more economical than one with a solid
front wall.
Piersare normally designed as a wall or as two braced columns. At large bridges a box type
is sometimes used. Piers in high velocity streams should preferably be made as one single
column or as a wall under the normal high water level (HWL), due to increased scour. For
the same reason, such pier walls should if possible be parallel to the main stream flow. The
minimum thickness of piers in water should not be less than 0.6 m or if the design water
velocity (DWV) exceeds 1.5 m/s not less than 0.8 m and if pier height at the same time
exceeds 8 m not less than 1.0 m. Edges should always be rounded at DWV exceeding 1.5
m/s or where debris is expected.
Figure 2-2: Two Types of Abutments
Wingwallsare made to take the difference in height at the abutments. In wingwalls attached
to the abutment the size of the horizontal main reinforcement in wingwalls should be as
small as possible (≤∅12 mm) and preferably not exceed ∅16 mm, to minimize the width of
the cracks in the face of the wall towards the soil. The front wall should always be made
0.1 m thicker than the wingwall, unless a FEM (Finite Element Modeling) analysis or
similar proves otherwise (See Figure 2-3).
The shortest length of a wingwall in a slope is obtained by directing the wingwall to the
bisector (half of the skew-angle, see Figure 2-3). In such case the bottom side of the
wingwall should be parallel to the slope and at least 1.0 m deeper than the slope, measured
perpendicular to the slope surface. If sheet piling is used for the footing, the wingwall will
interfere with it and hence a wingwall parallel to the roadway is preferred.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-3: Typical Parallel and 45º Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment
Aesthetically the length of the wingwalls should never exceed the overall width or the span
length. If the design length of the wingwall exceeds 5.0 m, the use of a retaining wall
usually saves material and is therefore more economical (see Figure 2-4). In that case the
attached wingwall should not exceed 3.0 m due to the deflection from earth pressure,
which should match the deflection of the retaining wall. If the wingwall is too short the
two footings may interfere with each other. To minimize the height of the retaining wall it
can be raised to a higher level than the abutment footing by placing it on a compacted
stonefill. Piled retaining walls in slopes should be avoided due to the large horizontal
loads, which make them very expensive.
Figure 2-4: Typical Combined Attached Wingwall and Retaining Wall
Examples of retaining wall design are given in the Appendix RW: Retaining Wall Design.

Chapter 2
2.8 Low Level Water Crossings (Fords, Irish Crossings, Vented Causeways,
Etc)
In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively
simple alternatives to conventional bridges. There are three basic types of low level
crossing:
• Fords (also called Irish crossings) and bed-level causeways, which are in essence
reinforced roadways on the bottom of the stream.
• Vented causeways, where low flow is handled by openings under the roadway level
• Submersible bridges, which are temporarily-submersed low bridges.
All types are appropriate for roads with low traffic volumes or where a reasonably short
detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. The crossing should be designed such that
for most of the year the maximum depth of water over the crossing is less than 0.15 m. The
service life of the structure will depend considerably on its hydraulic design as outlined in
the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional bridges, shall be constructed so that they
cause little interference with the design flood. Since all water flowing in the river channel
overtops fords and bed-level causeways, there is no reason to raise the road surface more
than 0.1 m above the streambed.
Fords (unpaved) are the simplest form of river crossing. They generally are placed where
the stream is wide, shallow and slow, the approach gentle, and the surface firm.
Improvements to the approaches are usually confined to reducing the gradient. The running
surface in the stream can be strengthened and made more driveable by using stones
imported and buried just below the surface (See Refs. 3 and 4). A more durable
improvement shall be made to the running surface by replacing the stones with gabions or
reno mattresses. The gabions should not rise more than 0.10 m above the natural bed level
of the river, otherwise they may cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing.
Bed level causeways (paved) shall be used where the traffic composition or the lack of a
nearby all-weather crossing justifies the expense; a pavement shall be laid on the riverbed.
A bed-level causeway is also called a paved ford, drift, paved dip or Irish bridge (Ref. 5).
Figure 2-5 below illustrates three common designs. Further detail for low-level water
crossings is presented in the prevailing version of the ERA Standard Detail Drawings.
Vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt river flow, and so are liable
to sustain damage or indirectly cause scour to the riverbed or banks, which in turn may
affect the road approaches to the crossing. These bridge types usually present a dry
roadway for ordinary flows and are designed to be overtopped at less than an annual flood,
or near the design flood as determined using the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
Vented causeways are built where the river flow is too great for too many days in the year
to allow the traffic to cross a ford or bed level causeway without significant disruptions.
Structures include multiple pipe culverts for low flow and should be designed following
the guidelines in the ERA Drainage Design Manual. However, the design flood used to
calculate the vent/culvert sizes will be less than the annual flood (see ERA Drainage
Design Manual), provided it is acceptable that the roadway shall be overtopped for a few
days each year during the annual high flood.
Submersible bridges shall be used where the traffic density justifies a dry crossing of a
substantial ordinary flood, but the annual high flood is much greater than this. A
submersible bridge designed to pass the ordinary flood but to be overtopped by the high

Chapter 2
flood will be considerably cheaper than a high level, all weather bridge. Submersible
bridges have the advantage of being able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a causeway
of the same height, but are more susceptible to damage by the river. Since the flood
horizontal forces on the piers and bridge decks are quite substantial, submersible bridges
should preferably be designed as multiple box culverts. Because of these difficulties
submersible bridges are not recommended above any foundation other than rock, and even
then a vented causeway or a conventional bridge is likely to be a more durable alternative.
To protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls are usually required on both
sides of the roadway and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design
flood.
It is recommended that curtain walls should be to the minimal depths upstream and
downstream as indicated in Figure 2-5, unless rock is reached before that depth. If the bed
is inerodible, the causeway need not have curtain walls but the bed on both the upstream
and downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.
Figure 2-5 type a) shows a section through a basic bed level causeway suitable for light
traffic and maximum water velocity below 2.0 m/sec. The crossing shown in Figure 2-5
type b) requires good concrete technology and may sustain damage to the apron that is
difficult to repair. Figure 2-5 type c) shows a design employing a good combination of
concrete pavement with flexible protection. Generally, lean concrete is used and slabs are
jointed using crack inducers every 5.0-m.
All low level crossings should have guideposts and a depth gauge to alert the driver to the
placement of the edges of the crossing and the water depth.
Depth gauges should indicate the depth of water at the lowest point of the crossing. Simple
black and white markings at every 0,1 m are best -with an indication of the units used.
Posts should be of concrete 0.3 m in diameter or square, placed within easy vision of the
approach but well away from possible impact damage by vehicles.
Guideposts should be set each side of the roadway between 2 and 4 m apart, depending on
the likelihood of catching floating debris. They should be sufficiently high to be visible
during the highest expected floods and be made of concrete. An additional guide for
vehicles shall be provided by building a ridge down the center of concrete causeways, as
shown in Figure 2-5 type b).This ridge also offers restraint against sideways drifting of
vehicles in strong currents.
Further information on these type of structures is provided in the ERA Design Manual for
Low Volume Roads, Part E, Explanatory Notes and Design Standards for Small Structures.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-5: Bed Level Causeways, Common Types
2.9 Frame Bridges

A reinforced concrete frame bridge is a simple and economical type of bridge. Its main
feature is a low design height, which is shown in Figure 2-6. It can be made in one or
several spans, several spans being a common configuration. The walls should preferably be
of an equal height in order to achieve a balance between the earth pressures. If piled
footings are necessary for an open single span frame bridge (without bottom slab) it is in
most cases favorable to add some beams between the footings to eliminate the horizontal
forces from the earth pressure on the piles.
The most economical span/opening for a single span frame bridge is 6 −20 m provided that
the height of the walls are more than ¼ of the span length and that the soil is sufficiently
stable, otherwise a slab or a girder bridge is preferred.
The span length of a multiple span frame bridge, such as a double or triple box culvert,
should not exceed 8 −10 m for each span due to the required footing thickness and because

Chapter 2
larger structures are sensitive to movements from earthquakes. Multiple open span frame
bridges (without bottom slabs) should be avoided because they are usually more expensive
than continuous slabs or girders, unless the latter employs a very expensive type of
bearings.
The standard Single Box Culvert may also be used as underpasses for pedestrians (internal
height 3.0 m), cattle (internal height 3.0 – 4.0 m) or for traffic (internal height 5.0 m).
Skewed single open frame bridges are quite difficult both to design and construct; therefore
3-span slab bridges are more preferable. For a one lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding
20°or a two-lane bridge with a skew angle exceeding 30°the design criteria according to
Figure 2-7 below should be checked. Otherwise the earth-pressure might cause the bridge
to “rotate” horizontally due to sliding and the sharp corners might have resulting uplift
forces. In such cases the bridge and especially the deck should be designed with a refined
method such as FEM-analysis or the finite strip method.
A Girder Frame Bridge is an open single span frame bridge with girders under the bridge
deck. It is economical for span lengths between 18 −25 m in non-earthquake areas, under
the same provisions as the single span frame bridge above.
Figure 2-6: Design Heights of Open Single Span Frame Bridges

Chapter 2
Figure 2-7: Requirements for Skewed Frame Bridges
Regarding the detailed design of frame bridges see Part 2,Section 3.7.
2.10 Slab Bridges

Single span slab bridges are perhaps the most common bridges in Ethiopia. They can be
economical for spans from 1 m to 18 m. Above 15 m they should preferably be ribbed as
shown in Figure 2-8 below. Instead of ribs there are several types of prefab forms
(Texaspan, etc) that can be used by contractors, if the designer has considered that
particular type.
Figure 2-8: Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks
Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge. The required
design depth is usually 5.5 -6 % of the span length, due to the width of the cracks. If
stressed reinforced concrete is used, the design depth shall be reduced to 4.5 % of the span
length.
The abutments at single or double span slab bridges should preferably be placed
perpendicular to the bridge in order to avoid a skew in earth pressure, which may cause
skew in the abutment front wall.
The abutments shall be designed as simple walls if an end-wall with at least 1.5-m height is
provided at each end of the slab. The end-wall must be designed for all the longitudinal
forces from the superstructure as well as part of the earth pressure, and the wingwalls are

Chapter 2
fixed, supported in the end-wall. If the Slab Bridge is continuous and long, the active earth
pressure on the end-wall may turn into a passive earth pressure, where the much larger kp-
coefficient should be used in the design of the end-wall. Recent results show that raised
piled footings “hidden” behind a rather high (approx. 3 -3.5 m) end-wall, deleting all
horizontal forces on the footing, has proved to be economical (see Figure 2-9).
The piers are usually designed as walls. At skewed slab bridges it is however sometimes
favorable to use one thick column if the width of the bridge is not more than 8 m. In such
cases a check for punching of the slab above the column should always be made.
Sometimes the top of the column can be tapered to avoid or minimize the punching
reinforcement.
Figure 2-9: Typical Elevated Footing with Endwalls
2.11 Girder Bridges

A girder bridge is usually used for a single span bridge, or non-continuous girders for a
multi-span bridge, in earthquake areas. They shall be used for span lengths between 12 and
20 m. Outside of earthquake zones, continuous girder bridges are preferred. In this case the
exterior span length should be approximately 0.8 times the interior span. The LRFD design
method usually minimizes materials used if the number of girders/beams is minimized.
The cantilever should preferably not exceed 40 % of the spacing of the girders, or 2.8 m
for a two-lane bridge.
The design depth of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length
depending on the number of beams used. If possible, a high stem of beam is preferred to a
certain extent, both technically and economically. For construction reasons however, the
height should be minimized. Esthetically a short bridge with a high superstructure close to
the water surface should be avoided. Here a slender structure (slab) is more appealing.
Regarding endwalls, the same restraints mentioned for slab bridges applies to girder
bridges, as long as the total length of the continuous superstructure does not exceed 70-
90 m.
RC Box girder bridges are sometimes used for span lengths of between 30-90 m, especially
if a slender structure is desired or for curved bridges with small horizontal curves where a
great resistance to torsion is required. The interior height should not be less than 1.0 m and
a 0.6-m wide manhole is required for maintenance reasons.

Chapter 2
Steel girder bridges are most favorable over deep or muddy waters since scaffolding from
the ground is not necessary. The scaffolding is braced from the bottom flanges of the steel
beams. Cost competitiveness versus a concrete bridge depends almost solely on the steel
price compared to the concrete price, but also on the availability of competent welders,
sizes of workshops and similar.
Today rolled beams of 1.1m height made of high quality steel shall be obtained from some
of the largest steel plants. Such beams may span some 20m, and for composite bridges they
may span 24m. However the most economical construction would be to import high tensile
steel plates with a thickness between 10 mm (webs) and 50 mm (flanges) and fabricate the
beams in local workshops. This however requires highly trained and licensed welders. The
limited transportation facilities in the country make it practical to fabricate relatively short
bridge pieces in the workshop and assemble them at the site.
Steel box girders are quite complicated sections and should be considered only if most of
the requirements for steel girder bridges above are fulfilled.
Composite steel girder bridges will be used more in the future due to new research results
on the interaction between the steel beams and the concrete bridge decks through shear
connectors (studs). These are some 200 mm high with diameter ø19, 22 or 25 mm welded
to the top of the upper flange, which should be at least 20 mm thick. The reduction in
material use is quite remarkable and makes steel bridges more competitive, although the
design calculations are somewhat more difficult. The design depth of the superstructure is
reduced to some 4-6 % of the span length. Since the weight is much less, this type of
bridge can be used to replace an old concrete bridge, especially if the live load is increased.
If an end-wall type of bridge is used, the overall length of the continuous bridge deck
should not exceed 80-100 m due to temperature movements, which create a large passive
earth pressure at the end-walls.
The most common construction methods are either to lift the steel beams with one or more
cranes from one or both the river shores, or to slide the steel structure on temporary sliding
bearings from one abutment. The launching forces should be considered as Construction
load.
2.12 Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges

Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from
granite or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe
several 2000 year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred
where weather-resistant rocks shall be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow
any horizontal gliding between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be
found.
Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions, and
south of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium
sized bridges (below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and
limestone can also be used, and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of stone
masonry bridges. Hard burned clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized for this
type of bridge.
At span lengths over 20-25 m it is often advantageous to apply secondary arches on top of
the main arch barrel. This requires both skilled and experienced designers and contractors.

Chapter 2
Regarding the structural design of this type of bridge it should be noted that temperature
forces and settlement might cause pressure on the under side of the arch barrel at the crown
and pressure on the topside of the arch barrel at the abutments.
The preliminary main dimensions of the arches should be as in Table 2-2:
Table 2-2: Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)
Span opening (m) 8 9 10 12 15 20

Thickness at crown (top) m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.90
Thickness at abutment m 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.35
Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite
Element Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided. For detailed design
see Part 2Section 6.7.
Concrete arch bridges should preferably be designed with 3 hinges (joints) in order to
minimize stresses in the arch barrel. This applies especially for earthquake zones.
The design and construction of the hinges requires special skill and experience. The
simplest type is the cross-reinforced hinge shown in Figure 2-10 at right. The highest
accuracy is needed in placing the bars. The joint must be waterproofed and sealed to avoid
corrosion.
Figure 2-10: Cross-Reinforced Hinge
2.13 Prefabricated Bridges

Prefabricated bridges usually have the following advantages:
• Falsework is not needed, e. g. crossing waterways or deep gorges.
• The erection time is reduced, which could be useful if there is no other place to
cross the river.
• The same formwork made out of steel plate can be used over and over again, which
reduces the need for timber formwork.
• Usually quality is high since the personnel in a pre-casting factory perform the
same type of work repeatedly, compared to temporary laborers at a bridge site.

Chapter 2
Due to transport and lifting difficulties the weight of each panel should not exceed 20 tons
(200 kN) and the length should be less than 12 -20 m unless adequate hauling devices are
prevalent. Prestressed RC beams up to some 35 m length may however be used for bridges.
The available design depth should be at least 5% of the span length.
Sometimes prefabricated bridge deck panels are used together with composite steel or RC
girders. In such cases the transversal joints should be made to interact with each other.
Recent research has shown that high tensile steel dowels are most suitable to withstand the
fatigue load.
Prefab slab bridges shall be used for culverts up to 6-m spans. See Figure 2-11.
Figure 2-11: Section of a Typical Slab Panel
Prefab Girder bridges could be made of U-shaped panels as shown in Figure 2-12 or of T-
shaped panels of stressed RC according to Figure 2-13. Another very common shape is the
I-shaped beam panel shown in Figure 2-14. This type may also be used for pedestrian
bridges with a slight alteration, as in Figure 2-15.
Figure 2-12: Section of U-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels

Chapter 2
Figure 2-13: Section of a Normal T-Shaped Type of Stressed RC Girder Panel
Figure 2-14: Section of Stressed I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panels
Figure 2-15: Section of I-Shaped Type of RC Girder Panel Bridge for Pedestrians

Chapter 2
2.14 Pedestrian Footbridges

Pedestrian footbridges are different from other bridges only regarding live loads and
widths.
2.15 Cattle Underpasses

The dimensional requirements of cattle underpasses should be designed as the normal
height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5 m and for horse riding the clear height should
not be less than 3.4 m.In all other respects, they are the same as standard single box or slab
culverts, with the most favorable design including fill with gravel to a depth of 0.2m on the
bottom slab. Sometimes guiding cattle fences are need at both ends of the culvert for road
safety. Drainage by open channels is required from the lowest point.
2.16 Other Types of Bridges (Cable Stay,Suspension,Truss,Railway)

Cable stayed bridges contain three main parts: cables, pylons (cable towers), and
horizontal bracing, usually the bridge deck. The cables shall be arranged either parallel or
fan shaped. This type of bridge is usually more economical than trusses, arches and
suspension bridges for span lengths 100 -500 m. The main advantage is that it can be built
without falsework. It requires extraordinary experience both from designers and
constructors apart from special types of cranes. During erection it is sensitive to strong
sideways wind if it is not anchored horizontally with temporary stays.
Suspension bridges contain the same parts as cable bridges and in addition, an anchor-
block for the cables. The anchor-block may preferably be anchored in the rock itself. The
suspension bridge is well suited for span lengths above 500 m, which are not common at
present in Ethiopia.
Truss bridges are usually made of steel. They are more economical than steel girder
bridges in this country. Another advantage is that they are quite lightweight which makes
them suited as temporary bridges during the time of construction, since they are easier to
transport than a girder bridge. This type of bridge is especially suited to pedestrian bridges
across highways, since they can be erected without interfering with the traffic on the
roadway. The mounting of the superstructure can be made during nighttime when the
traffic is low. The bridge deck can be made of some kind of steel plate, special
impregnated wood or plastic planks. The free clearance above the roadway should be at
least 5.3 m due to the risk of collision with overloaded trucks. They require a significant
amount of welding.
Railway bridges differ from highway bridges in the increased live load and dynamic
allowance. Load induced fatigue strength state sometimes govern, which is almost never
the case for highway bridges. At the transition between the abutment and the railway
embankment the skew angle should not exceed 20 degrees and the joint should be square
(90°). Some typical sections together with suitable span lengths are shown in Figure 2-16.
2.17 Temporary Bridges

Temporary bridge structures are intended to provide quick solutions to short-term access
problems. Decisions relative to such construction include the high expense of a quick
solution and the likelihood that benefits will accrue for only a limited period, hence the
need to keep costs low. The principal reasons for requiring a temporary crossing are:
• Damage to an existing bridge results in the need for a temporary structure on a
nearby site while the disabled bridge is being repaired or replaced. (this could be an

Chapter 2
opportune time to consider upgrading the existing structure in terms of width,

traffic capacity, clearance height above the water and durability.)
• Upgrading the road requires a wider, higher or stronger bridge and a temporary
crossing is needed for a detour to carry traffic while the new road and bridge are
built on the old alignment.
• A river crossing is required urgently and for a short term by an organization other
than a roads department, e.g. An aid organization concerned with the delivery of
emergency relief supplies
• Temporary access to a construction site is needed in advance of the construction of
a permanent roadway.
The time factor is central to the decisions relative to such a crossing, influencing in
particular the type of structure to be used. For example, a washed-out bridge on a strategic
road will require substitution at the earliest possible moment, whereas a detour for a road
upgrading project can be planned well in advance, enabling the most economic solution to
be employed.
The length of time that the temporary structure will be in service also influences its design
and cost. A low-level structure shall be adequate for a short period, but if it is likely to be
needed beyond the end of the dry season, a ford or culvert may not suffice and a temporary
bridge with associated bank protection shall be required. A realistic estimate of the time
needed to build a permanent replacement is necessary, together with a worst-case view of
the weather and the projected traffic loading, before a firm decision can be made regarding
the type of temporary structure to be built.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-16: Typical Sections of Railway Bridges and Their Suitable Span Lengths

Chapter 2
Generally, the order of preference for the type of structure will follow the order of
increasing cost, unless specific skills or materials are unavailable. This order of preference
is likely to be:
• Fords
• Causeways
• Temporary Beam Bridges
• Prefabricated Decks.
A ford shall be no more than a prepared descent to and exit from a river bed, taking into
account the traction requirements of known traffic on the slopes (See “Low Level Water
Crossings” previously).
A vented earth causeway can be built using pipes stocked in most state road department
depots, taking measures to prevent erosion of the fill around the pipes. A temporary
surfacing may also be required.
Though a ford or causeway may not be serviceable for use by general traffic at times of
high water, it might be acceptable in the short term; an existing crossing of this type might
even be found on a nearby older alignment.
A Timber Beam Bridge shall be the best solution if material is readily available in the
locality.Further information on these type of structures is provided in the ERA Design
Manual for Low Volume Roads, Part E, Explanatory Notes and Design Standards for
Small Structures.
Timber truss decks of the trestle type require special skills and it is no longer easy to build
one quickly.
If steel or concrete beams are available for short-term use, it is necessary to ascertain their
bending and shear characteristics and to employ them in a similar manner to timber beams
with timber decking.
Steel panel bridges such as aBailey Bridgeshave been used worldwide for 50 years. The
steel panels to make bridges of different lengths, widths and load capacity are assembled in
a matter of days.
Parts of old Bailey bridges can be found in most countries, but great care should be taken
to identify these parts correctly. Detail design modifications for greater load-carrying
capacities have been made over the years. New and old panels should not be assembled in
the same structure. Old components must be used only in accordance with the
corresponding manuals.
Prefabricated steel bridges are unlikely to offer an economic solution to the need for
temporary bridging, unless their facility for being dismantled and re-used can be properly
exploited. However, their component parts are so easily transported that a stock held
centrally by the Ethiopian Roads Authority could be made available at short notice
nationwide in most instances.
Abutments and Piers are often not needed since most temporary bridge decks can be
assembled on existing or temporary abutments. Existing abutments, if they are sound and
located on an acceptable alignment, have three important advantages:
• They have a proven record of sustaining the dynamic and static applied loads;
• They have shown satisfactory resistance to attack by the river;
• Their use avoids the time and expense of building new abutments.

Chapter 2
Temporary abutments shall be made from gabions (see Figure 2-17), temporary steel sheet
piling or logs. However, they are highly susceptible to scour and erosion, and should be
constructed with great care using ties and anchors where possible, as they can be destroyed
by a single flood.
Figure 2-17: Temporary Bridge on Gabion Abutments
Where water flow is low, timber piled abutments and piers have proved successful. The
use of piers reduces the section of the road bearing beams, and a whole bridge can be built
with timber no larger than 0.3 m in diameter.
If the engineer is satisfied that there is material of sufficient strength at bed level, or a little
below, open caisson piers shall be constructed using pre-cast concrete rings (See Figure 2-
18). The first ring is placed in position and excavation takes place from inside it. Rings are
added as the first progresses downwards until a firm base material is reached, then more
rings are added until the required deck height is achieved. Lean concrete can be used to fill
the caisson and stronger concrete is used at the top to take anchor bolts for the transoms. A
height to diameter ratio of 3:1 should not be exceeded without careful calculations. The
caisson pier type will also obstruct the water-flow, which could increase the scour.
Temporary bridges must nonetheless offer reliable service over the required period of use.
Guidance to the selection of the design flood and flow characteristics for smaller
temporary structures is given in the ERA Drainage Design Manual,.The two key aspects
of durability in temporary bridging are:
• Load carrying adequacy
• Protection from water damage.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-18: Bridge Pier Made of Concrete Rings
A temporary bridge may not be completely adequate for all vehicles that normally use the
road. If the temporary structure has any limitation in load capacity, width or height, this
must be clearly marked at the entrances to the road on which the bridge is located and
repeated on the approaches to the bridge. It shall be possible to divert large vehicles to a
prepared ford, while small ones are permitted to use the bridge. If possible, physical
barriers should be erected to prevent drivers of large vehicles from infringing the
temporary regulations in areas where drivers are known to ignore warning signs.
For most applications the two main precautions to be taken are:
• To allow adequate clearance between high water level and the temporary deck
• To build the sub-structure so that there is a minimum of interference to the flow.
2.18 Backwater
Regarding a bridge over a stream, the opening must be large enough not to cause any
damage due to backwater. Sometimes it shall be necessary to compensate for the
backwater by means of training or relining the stream. If the local populace and/or
livestock normally wander along the shores, sometimes the bridge opening needs to be
widened to provide for such passage under the bridge at normal water levels.
Calculation of backwater should always be made if the Design Water Velocity exceeds
1.0 m/s. Examples are shown in the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
2.19 Selection of Bridge Type
2.19.1 Skewed Crossings

Generally skewed crossings should be avoided, because skewed bridges are more difficult
to calculate, are longer, and need more reinforcement, which means they are more costly.
One lane open, framed, skewed bridges should be avoided due to the eccentric earth

Chapter 2
pressure on each of the frontwalls that may cause the whole structure to rotate. The
moment from rotation has to be taken in consideration when the slide between the footing
and the ground is calculated.
However the bridge shall be made perpendicular even if the crossing is skewed as shown at
Figure 2-19.
Figure 2-19: Skewed Bridge Crossing
2.19.2 Economical Aspects

The most economic overall bridge length and span length depends to a large extent upon
the foundation costs. If the piers have to be founded deep under the water or if piling is
needed, then longer spans up to a certain limit shall be more economical. At larger bridges
and difficult soil conditions the most favorable locations of the piers should be sought. If
no such locations can be located it may in some cases be more economical to realign the
road to a more suitable bridge site, although all aspects should be re-investigated.
The cost of the superstructure mainly depends on the span length and the available design
depth.
To compare the construction costs of different bridges it is practical to use the specific cost
per square meter of bridge deck area. The construction costs from recently constructed
bridges are valuable and therefore should be collected. If possible the costs should exclude
costs for extraordinary scour protection, realignment of the river, etc, which do not form a
portion of the bridge structure cost itself. Hence different bridge type alternatives can be
compared at the same bridge site.

Chapter 2
As mentioned before, the geotechnical/soil conditions are very important in the total cost
of the structure. If the soil conditions for the adjacent road embankment are very poor and
require piling or a pile deck, this should be compared to the cost of a longer bridge. The
same applies for very high embankments, where a longer bridge sometimes might be more
economic due to the savings in earthworks
2.19.3 Architectural and Sculptural Aspects

Close to cities or large towns the architectural and sculptural aspects of a bridge should be
considered. If a pleasing bridge is desired a competition between architects shall be
arranged before or parallel with the actual pre-design of the bridge. Preferably the winning
sketch should be converted and elaborated into “photographs” of the proposed bridge by
means of suitable computer software. The architect's viewpoints must be “translated” into
the structural limitations available for the particular bridge. To avoid misunderstandings
both the sketch and the actual bridge layout drawings should be submitted to the bidder.
The winner may be invited to participate in the final design of the bridge and its details.
2.19.4 Appearance and Safety

There are some basic facts regarding the appearance of the bridge that the structural
designer and the road engineer should consider:
• Normally the form of the bridge should coincide with the road both horizontally
and vertically.
• If the bridge is close to a horizontal curve the skew transition should preferably be
moved from the bridge deck.
• Curves and especially reverse-curves on a bridge should be avoided for safety
reasons since the railing always reduces the sight length in the curve.
• A sag vertical curve should have the lowest point at the adjacent road embankment,
not at the bridge, to achieve sufficient drainage of the bridge deck.
• A crest vertical curve with the highest point at the bridge is suitable as long as the
sight length is sufficient. At longer bridges with esthetical demands it is advisable
to arrange a horizontal curve as well. Then the bridge and its main superstructure
shall be viewed from the side before entering the bridge itself. If the bridge is
attractive, a parking facility shall be provided before the bridge to allow people to
view the bridge and the water.
2.20 Railings, and Parapets

Railings are designed as a part of the overall bridge design. For details, refer to Part
2,Chapter 3the Appendix for worked examples; and the ERA Standard Detail Drawings
for design.
2.21 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Drawing(s)

Information on the layout and sizing of the drawings is given in Part 2,Chapter 6. The
following information is required in the preliminary design stage:
General Information:
• The name and direction of the nearest town and/or the beginning and end of
project;

Chapter 2
• Benchmarkusedand its locationand elevation(if alocal benchmarkisuseditshall be

described in detail and connected to the national level benchmark network);
• Coordinates, coordinate system used and north arrow;
• Water / sewerage pipes;
• Electrical cables or lines;
• Fixed and expanding bearings and type of bearings;
• Type of expansion joints if any, type of hinges;
• Type of drainage outlets of bridge deck if any;
• Type of fill behind the abutments (at frame structures the filling should be made at
the same time at the same level behind both abutments, at abutments not founded
on rock the backfill shall be made before the measure between the superstructure
and the abutment is decided upon);
• Which loading specifications and accidental loads have been used;
• Which pavement type is to be used for the bridge deck;
• Which guardrail / pedestrian railing / parapets are to be used;
• Scale shown at each figure;
• Run-on-slabs for roadway, cables, water-pipes, etc.;
• Protection pipe for water-pipe;
• Standards to be used for the detail design;
• Specifications to be used for the construction;
• Title block information, name of the bridge, scale used, bridge number;
• Plan with the contours or spot levels of the river bed and the surroundings.
Foundations - Provide details of:

• Founding method for bridge supports;
• Proposed elevations of footings;
• Replacement of soft layer with compacted fill;
• Piling and length of piles;
• Type of piles (cast-in-place etc.);
• Proposed level of pile cap;
• Embankment reinforcement, i.e. Piling, replacement with light weight material,
etc.;
• Compaction methodology, requirements for fill;
• Scour protection, type, material, thickness, protected area;
• Sub water excavation, sub water casting of lean concrete slab under foundation;
• Types of soil at every support;
• Sheetpiling.
Soil Conditions - Provide the following:

• Reference to the Soil Investigation Report for the bridge;
• Inclination of embankment slopes;
• Cross sections in the alignment as well as 5 m up-/downstream at elevation;
• The levels of different soil layers, level of bedrock;
• The type of soil at every proposed support;
• Ground water level with the date it was observed,.

Chapter 2
Bridge Dimensions and Geometry - overall length of bridge, span lengths:

• Width of road, width of bridge;
• Grade of bridge;
• Angle of skew, angle of abutments and piers;
• Width of columns (minimum thickness requirements);
• Lowest allowable level of superstructure;
• Length of wingwalls adequate;
• Type of supports, i.e. Masonry or concrete, rounded piers, etc;
• Crossfall of bridge deck and/or superelevation;
• Depth of substructure, chamfers to be utilized;
• Retaining walls;
• Type of bearings (fixed/expansion);
• Profile of the road –schematic.
Information on the Stream:

• Name of the waterway,
• Direction of flow, design water speed (=water speed at design water flow);
• Quantities of flow, design water flow, normal and lowest water flow;
• Design water level, normal and lowest water level;
• Clearance heights;
• Cross sections of the waterway in the alignment.
A sample preliminary design drawing is given in Figure 2-20.
2.22 Checklist for the Preliminary Design Standards (PDS)

The contractor shall follow these requirements for the design of the bridge:
• General Requirements
o Main tender (Preliminary Design Drawing No., minimum dimension
requirements);
o Contractors alternative Preliminary Design (requirements of width, height,
radius, grade, other given dimensions, skew angle, bridge cones, slope and
placement, profile);
o Water levels and ground water levels (usually from the Drainage
Investigation);
o Formwork requirements;
o Traffic conditions during the Construction time (ADT; required width,
height and speed; provisional bridge/load; fencing, etc.);
• Design Requirements
o Earth Pressure (backfill material);
o Piling (tension forces, drag forces, etc.);
o Buoyancy (Design Water Level shall be indicated on the drawing, level of
pumping, etc.);
o Settlement differences (if different from the LRFD Code);
o Allowable creep of concrete (applicable only for unusual designs);

Chapter 2
o Allowable deformations and frequency (only if different from the LRFD

Code);
o Expansive soils (if the soil investigation indicates it);
o Clearance requirements (over Design Water Level, roadway, walkway,
railway, etc.) -Design Life requirements (according to the LRFD Code).
• Loading
o General (Traffic load, if different from the LRFD Code);
o Permanent loads (launching forces, dead load of unusual materials,
displacement loads);
o Live Loads (emergency traffic load on pedestrian bridges, load on walkway
intended to be used as a traffic lane in the future, fatigue load, measured
wind load for special bridges, stream pressure/drag, etc.);
o Accidental Loads (level of collision load, etc.);
o Loading combinations (if different from the LRFD Code).
• Foundation Works
o Soil Investigation used (dated, by whom);
o Construction method proposed-Excavation works;
o Excavation and casting of concrete above water;
o Pumping of ground water (assumed method, 2 000 l/min. normally);
o Sheetpiling (underwater excavation and casting of lean concrete under the
footing);
o Reporting to the Engineer at least 5 days before fill, casting of footings,
etc.);
o Fill works (level of fill, if different from Bridge Specifications);
o Embankment piling (usually the embankment piling shall be made before
the abutment piling);
o Footings;
o Piling works:
Prefab piles or cast-in place piles, concrete cover of piles;
Tip bearing or skin friction piles (results of test piling already made,
design length of piles at different supports, required number of test
piles at each support, etc.);
Checking of foundation work (highest allowable groundwater level
under the excavation level -normally 0.5 m; required additional
checking of piling);
o Protection works (erosion protection, sheet piling, scour protection).
• Concrete Works
o Superstructure (edgebeam type, larger concrete cover than required in the
LRFD Code, if the slab shall be assumed continuous over supports, if
expansion joints are necessary over supports, maximum allowable
crossfall/superelevation);
o Construction (if special methods are required, detail design drawings will be
provided later);
o Substructure;
o Footing (assumed bottom levels, if footing is allowed to be cast
underwater);

Chapter 2
o Pier, Abutments, Retaining Walls and Cones (filling material, cone

material, minimum dimension of pier/abutment if different from the LRFD
Code).
• Steel and Timber works

o Superstructure (coating, construction methods).
• Bridge Details
o Drainage (only for curbs: type, outlet; drainage of box piers and girders);
o Pipes and Ducts (dimensions, nos., placing and dead load of content);
o Paving (water insulation under the surface coat, pavement type, coat
thickness,material, traffic lane/pedestrian lane, islands);
o Edge beam (type, standard or special);
o Bearings (type, brand -only if required by ERA; lifting requirements at
exchange of bearings; if bearings are excluded from the tender/delivered by
ERA);
o Expansion joints (type -open or waterproof, required brand -only if required
by ERA);
o Railing (type, parapet type, length, painting of railing and parapet).
• Miscellaneous
o Inspection devices (manholes, inspection platforms, ladders);
o Test loading (test program, calculations and evaluation to be made by the
Contractor/by ERA);
o Built-as specifications and drawings (only additional requirements not
stated in the LRFD Code);
o If military load should be applied or not.
All drawings and specifications supplied shall be signed and dated.
2.23 Sample Preliminary Design Specifications

Sample preliminary design specifications for a bridge are given in the following example:

Chapter 2
Example: PRELIMINARY BRIDGE SPECIFICATIONS (PBS)
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY BRIDGE No. A1-123

OROMIYA REGION
ADDIS ABABA −DJIBOUTI HIGHWAY A1
EXAMPLE
For the Construction of the

MOJO RIVER BRIDGE
1KMNWOFMOJOVILLAGE
At Sta. 7+090, in the Oromiya Region
Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999

SABA Engineering, PLC 794509-72

Chapter 2
I GENERAL
I.1 General Requirements
Main Tender
In the Main Tender, the Bridge shall be built according to Preliminary Design Drawing No.
A1-123: 01.
Dimensions shall be according to the requirements of Part 2 Chapter 6: Calculations,
Drawings, and Specifications.
Contractors Alternative Tender
If an alternative tender is given by the Contractor, the bridge shall be constructed with
thesame width, height, radius, grade, skew angle and other dimensions given on
PreliminaryDesign Drawing No. A1-123: 01. Bridge Cones shall not be steeper, or be
placed closer to the water, than stated on thePreliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123:
01.The profile of the road may not be altered.
I.2 Construction Requirements

Water Levels and Ground Water Levels
Water levels shown have been calculated according to the ERA Drainage Design Manual-
2002, and ground water levels shall be as shown in the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo
River Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998. The normal (mean) water level has been estimated after
several field level measurements.
Formwork Requirements
Formwork requirements shall be as given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123:
01.
I.3 Design Requirements
Earth Pressure
Backfill material shall be granular soil graded in accordance with the Technical
Specifications.
Piled Footings
All soil parameters which are not given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123:
01, shall be according to "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River Bridge," dated 25
Dec 1998.
Tension forces in each pile shall not exceed 50 kN. Downdrag need not be considered.
Buoyancy
When designing the buoyancy for the pile slabs, the water level +2062.50 shall be used.
Clearance Requirements
Clearance above the Design Water Level (DWL) shall not be less than 0.9 m.
II LOADINGS (NOT APPLICABLE)
III FOUNDATIONS
Soil Conditions

Chapter 2
The soil parameters shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River
Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998.
Construction Work
Excavation and Casting of Footings for the supports shall be assumed above the water
surface. The excavation shall be according to the "Soil Investigation Report for Mojo River
Bridge," dated 25 Dec 1998 and Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01. Excavation
and Casting of Footings above water shall include pumping of ground water. At least 5
days before the casting of the lean concrete under the footing ERA shall be notified, in
order to inspect the compaction of the fill under the footing.
Tip Bearing Piles
The length of the piles shall be determined by the contractor by 2 nos. of testpiles at each
abutment. The Contractor is responsible for using the right length of the piles. The design
length at each abutment given on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01 is to be
used only for the bidding.
Protection for Scour
Temporary Protection for scour shall be included in the Bridge Construction
work.Protection for scour shall be made of a 0.1-m layer of natural stones on top of 0.5 m
layerof stones with the size 0-100 mm (d50≥70 mm) up to 3.0 m from the bridge
abutmentedge according to Preliminary Design Drawing no. A1-123: 01.Bridge Cones
surface shall be protected with a 0.3-m layer of stones sized 16-32 mm.
IV CONCRETE WORK
IV.1 Superstructure
Edge Beams
Edge beams shall be developed under the deck surface.
IV.2 Substructure
Footings
The elevations of the bottom side of the footings shall not exceed the levels given
on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
Piers, Abutments, Retaining walls
Fill shall be made with material with equal parameters as assumed in the design and stated
in section 1.31 above. Fill shall be as shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123:
01.
V BRIDGE DETAILS
V.1 Drainage
The drainage of the bridge deck includes the delivery and casting in place of one no. of
Standard Scupper Drain Type D1 according to Standard Detail Drawing No. DR-01.
V.2 Bearings
The bearings shall be of the steel reinforced elastomeric type, of a brand approved by
ERA.

Chapter 2
When lifting the superstructure for the replacement of the bearings it shall be assumed that
the jacks are 500 mm high and placed 600 mm inside the centerline of the bearings, as
shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.
V.3 Railings
Guardrail
Guardrail shall be made of concrete according to Standard Detail Drawing No.GR-
1asfaras shown on Preliminary Design Drawing No. A1-123: 01.The adjacent four nos. of
RC Parapet Panels are not included in the Bridge Constructionwork.
Addis Ababa, 28 Jan 1999
SAVA Engineering, PLC

Tsahai Bekila (Bridge Engineer, BSc)

Chapter 2
REFERENCES
1 Farraday and Charlton, Hydraulic Factors in Bridge Design, Wallingford, Hydraulic
Research Station Ltd., 1983.
2 Parry J D, 1981. The Kenyan Low Cost Modular Timber Bridge. TRRL Laboratory
Report 1970. Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research Laboratory, England.
3 Bingham J, 1979. Low Water Crossings. Compendium 4. Washington:
Transportation Research Board.
4 Hindson J, 1983. Earth Roads -A practical guide to earth road construction and
maintenance. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
5 Roberts P, 1986. The Irish Bridge -a low cost river crossing. Southampton:
University of Southampton, Department of Civil Engineering.
6 TRRL Overseas Road Note no 9, “A Design Manual for Small Bridges”, Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne Berkshire UK, 1992.
7 Brokonstruktion -en handbok (Preliminary Bridge Design −A Handbook),
Publication no. 1996:63, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority), Borlange, Sweden,
1996. In Swedish.
8 "Design Standard", Ethiopian Roads Authority, compiled May 1993 (1961 -1989)
9 “Brobygging – I. Jernbeton, sten og trae” (Bridge Design – part I Reinforced
Concrete, stone and tree) in danish, Prof Anker Engelund, Copenhagen 1934.
10 TRRL OverseasRoad Note no 7, Vol. 2, “Bridge Inspectors Handbook", Crowtorne
Berkshire UK, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1988.
11 “RTIM3-Road Transport Investment Model", TRRL Overseas Centre Transport
and Research Laboratory, TRRL, Berkshire UK, 1988.
12 Design manual for roads and bridges -Vol. 1: "Highway structures: approval
procedures and general design", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998.
13 Design manual for roads and bridges -Vol. 3: "Highway structures: inspection and
maintenance", The Stationary Office Ltd., London, 1998.
14 Ethiopian Building CodeStandard (EBCS), Volume 1 "Basis of Design & Actions
on Structures", 1995.
15 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 2 "Structural Use of
Concrete", 1995.
16 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 3 "Design of Steel Structures",
1995.
17 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 5 "Utilization of Timber",
1995.
18 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 7 "Foundations", 1995.
19 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS), Volume 8 "Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance", 1995.
20 Eurocode 1 "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures -Part 3 Traffic Loads on
Bridges", European Prestandard ENV 1991-3, March 1995.
21 Eurocode 2 "Design of Concrete Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1992.
22 Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1993.
23 "BRO 94 -Brokonstruktionsbestammelser" (Bridge Design Code), Publication no.
1994:1-8, 57-1998, Vagverket (Swedish Roads Authority, in Swedish.), Borlange,
Sweden, 1998.
24 "Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works", American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, 1995.

Chapter 3
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Detail Design of Bridges and Structures
3 DETAIL DESIGN OF BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
3.1 General
These detail design recommendations deal only with culverts, retaining walls, and small
and medium size bridges of certain types. Other types or larger bridges should be designed
according to Part 1,Chapter 3.
Detail design shall be made either according to the empirical methods in Part 2Chapter 4:
(based on Ref. 1) or any other refined design methods, as long as they follow accepted
static and general design rules.
Loads, force effects and minimum requirements stated in Part 1,Chapter 3 shall be used
for the detail design.
Construction Loads: In addition to the loads specified in Part 1,Chapter 3, all the
appropriate construction loads, such as construction live load from machinery and other
equipment, segment unbalance, etc., shall be considered. Construction loads and conditions
frequently determine section dimensions and reinforcing and/or prestressing requirements
in segmentally constructed bridges. It is important that the designer shows these assumed
conditions in the contract documents.
Forms are placed in appropriate sections of the text for checklists in the design of various
piles, piers, abutments, slabs, girders, frame bridges, masonry arch bridges, prestressed
superstructure, and bearings. A final Form 3-12 at the end of the chapter gives a checklist
for the basic steps in the design of concrete bridges. Worked examples of detailed design
are given in an appendix.
3.2 Notations
The following notations have been used in the recommended methods of calculation:
2
Acp = Total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm )
2
Ag = Gross area of section (mm )
Ao = Area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if
2
any(mm )
2
A′s = Area of compression reinforcement (mm )
2
As = Area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement; area of reinforcing steel (mm )
2
As-BW = Area of steel in the band width (mm )
2
As-SD = Total area of steel in short direction (mm )
2
At = Area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm )
2
Av = Total area of steel (mm )
2
Av = Area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm )
2
Av = Area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s (mm )
b = Design width, usually taken as 1.0 (mm)
bc = Perimeter of slab
bo = Perimeter of the critical section (mm)
B = Footing dimension
B’ = Reduced footing dimension
Bc = Outside width of culvert (mm)
Bd = Horizontal width of trench (mm)

Chapter 3
Detail Design of Bridges and Structures Bridge Design Manual – 2014
bv = Effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm)
Cd = Coefficient for trench installations
c = The distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
d = Depth of slab or footing
de = Effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
dv = Effective shear depth (mm)
D = Pile width (mm)
eB = Eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)
eL = Eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
E = Equivalent width (mm)
f2b = Stress corresponding to M2b (mpa)
f2s = Stress corresponding to M2s (mpa)
f’c = Compressive strength of concrete
fc = Factored stress
fcp = Compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the
web and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (mpa)
fpe = Effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (mpa)
fr = Modulus of rupture of concrete
fy = Yield strength of reinforcement (mpa)
Fe = Soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installations
Ft = Soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations
2
g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s )
H = Depth of backfill; notional height of earth pressure diagram; height of soil face
(mm)
Hs = Depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
i = Backfill slope angle (DEG)
I = Importance category
Ie = Effective moment of inertia
Ig = Gross moment of inertia
kap = Dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient
kh = Horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kh = Humidity factor
ks = Size factor
kv = Vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
K = Effective length factor to compensate for rotational and translational boundary
conditions other than pinned ends
l = Unbraced length (mm)
L = Footing dimension
L = Span length (mm)
L’ = Reduced footing dimension
L1 = Modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000
(mm)
M = Moment (Nmm)
M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results in
no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic frame
analysis, always positive (Nmm).

Chapter 3
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads that
results in no sidesway, ∆, greater than lu/500, calculated by conventional first
order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
Ma = Maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is
computed (N-mm)
Mc = Factored moment
Mcr = Cracking moment (N-mm)
Mu = Moment from factored loads (Nmm)
NL = Number of design lanes
P = Load (N)
Pc = The length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
Pu = Factored axial load (N)
QR = Factored uplift resistance (N)
Qs = Nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)
qp = Nominal end bearing resistance of piles driven into rock (mpa)
qu = Average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (mpa)
r = Minimum radius of gyration (mm)
R = Reduction factor for longitudinal force effects
s = Effective span length; spacing of stirrups (mm)
S = Spacing of transverse reinforcement
Sd = Spacing of discontinuities (mm)
t = Drying time (Days)
t = Thickness (mm)
td = Width of discontinuities (mm)
Tcr = Torsional cracking moment (Mnn)
Tn = Nominal torsional resistance
Tr = Factored torsional resistance
Tu = Factored torsional moment (Mnn)
Vc = Shear strength (N)
Vc = Nominal shear resistance, concrete
Vn = Nominal shear resistance (N)
Vp = Vertical component of prestressing force (N)
Vp = Component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
Vr = Factored shear resistance (N)
Vs = Shear resistance, steel
Vu = Factored shear force, in section (N)
W = Physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
W1 = Modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane loading
(mm)
WE = Total unfactored earth load (N/mm)
Weff = Effective width of footing
yt = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)
Α = Angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also taken
as the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member (DEG)
αo = Bedrock acceleration coefficient
Β = Slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 3-5 (DEG)

Chapter 3
Β = Factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension

βc = Ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which the concentrated
load or reaction force is transmitted
3
γs = Density of backfill (kg/m )
3
γ = Density of soil (kg/m )
δ = Angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
∈sh = Strain due to shrinkage
θ = Angle of shear resistance; arc tan (kh /(I -kv)) (DEG)
θ = Angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
θ = Angle of crack, usually 45°
θ = Skew angle (DEG)
ϕ = Resistance factors; angle of friction of soil (DEG)
ϕu = Resistance factor for uplift capacity
3.3 Seismic Design Methods

Seismic methods are outlined in Part 1Chapter 3. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard
(EBCS), Vol. 8 “Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance” (Ref. 2) shall be used as
a compliment for seismic design of bridges in the country. The “importance category” (I)
for bridges should be set to I = 1.4. Other load factors and coefficients are given in Part
1Chapter 3.
Table 3-1: Comparison Between Bedrock Acceleration Coefficients
Seismic zones 1 2 3 4
AASHTO (Ref. 1) (αo) ≤0.09 ≤0.19 ≤0.29 ≥0.29
EBCS (Ref. 2) (αo) ≤0.03 ≤0.05 ≤0.07 ≤0.10
As shown in the Table 3-1, zones 1 to (and including) zone 3 in EBCS correspond
approximately to zone 1 in the AASHTO (Ref.1), meaning that few special precautions
have to be considered for common bridge types. Only for special substructures and large or
sensitive bridge typesin EBCS zone 4, seismic design should be performed according to
Part 1, Chapter 3or any generally recognized method of seismic design that might be
accepted by ERA. The bedrock acceleration ratios above should be compared. Regarding
the limits of the zones see Figure 3-10-2-1 of Part 1.
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION METHODS

The most common method used in Ethiopia is shown in the Ethiopian Building Code
Standard, Vol. 7, “Foundations,” Chapter 6.6.3 Estimation of Settlements in the
Serviceability Limit State (Ref. 3). It can also be recommended for bridges of small and
medium size. However for certain silty soils or deep cohesive soils, as well as for large
bridges, more exact methods are recommended. There are at least three methods where the
soil under the footing is divided into 8 or more strata to a depth, z, under the footing
z = 4*Weff; where Weffis the effective width of the footing, and the compression of each
strata is calculated with its specific properties.

Chapter 3
3.4 Foundations
3.4.1 Effect of Load Eccentricity

For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a reduced effective area, B' x L', within
the confines of the physical footing shall be used in geotechnical design for settlement or
bearing resistance, as indicated in Figure 3-1. The design bearing pressure on the effective
area shall be assumed to be uniform. The reduced effective area shall be concentric with
the load.
Figure 3-1: Reduced Footings Dimensions
The reduced dimensions for an eccentrically loaded rectangular footing shall be taken as:
B′=B–2eB (3.1)
L'=L-2eL (3.2)
where: eB= eccentricity parallel to dimension B (mm)
eL= eccentricity parallel to dimension L (mm)
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to ensure that:
• The factored bearing resistance is not less than the effects of factored loads, and
• For footings on soils, the eccentricity of the footing, evaluated based on factored
loads, is less than 1/4 of the corresponding footing dimension, B or L.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foundation, a triangular or trapezoidal
contact pressure distribution based on factored loads shall be used.
For footings that are not rectangular, similar procedures should be used based upon the
principles specified above.

Chapter 3
For purposes of structural design, it is usually assumed that the bearing pressure varies
linearly across the bottom of the footing. This assumption results in the slightly
conservative triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distribution.
For footings that are not rectangular, the reduced effective area is always concentrically
loaded and can be estimated by approximation and judgment.
3.4.2 Spread Footings

Provisions herein shall apply to the design of isolated footings, combined footings and
foundation mats. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 “Foundations,” Chapter 6
(Ref. 3) deals with shallow foundations.
Class A concrete is generally used for most elements of structures, except when another
class is more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class B
concrete is used in footings, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
In sloped or stepped footings, the angle of slope or depth and location of steps shall be
such that design requirements are satisfied at every section. Circular or regular polygon-
shaped concrete columns or piers shall be treated as square members with the same area,
for location of critical sections for moment, shear and development of reinforcement in
footings.
Where an isolated footing supports a column, pier or wall, the footing shall be assumed to
act as a cantilever. Where a footing supports more than one column, pier or wall, the
footing shall be designed for the actual conditions of continuity and restraint.
Flexure
The critical section for flexure shall be taken at the face of the column, pier or wall. In the
case of columns that are not rectangular, the critical section shall be taken at the side of the
concentric rectangle of equivalent area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical
section shall be taken as halfway between the center and edge of the wall.
Moment at any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through
the footing and computing the moment of the forces acting on one side of that vertical
plane.
In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be distributed
uniformly across the entire width of the footing. The following guidelines apply to the
distribution of reinforcement in two-way rectangular footings:
• In the long direction, reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire
width of footing;
• In the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement as specified by
equation 3-3, shall be distributed uniformly over a band width equal to the length of
the short side of footing and centered on centerline of column or pier. The
remainder of reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed
uniformly outside of the center band width of footing. The area of steel in the band
width shall satisfy the following equation:

As-BW=As-SD

(3.3)
where: β = The ratio of long side to short side of footing

Chapter 3
As-BW = Area of steel in the band width (mm2)

As-SD = Total area of steel in short direction (mm2)
Shear
Critical Sections: In determining the shear resistance of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
concentrated loads or reaction forces, the more critical of the following conditions shall
govern:
• One-way action, eg. Longitudinal to the bridge, with a critical section extending in
a plane across the entire width and located at a distance taken at either:
o "d", the overall depth of the slab or footing, from the face of the
concentrated load or reaction area, or from any abrupt change in slab
thickness where the load introduces compression in the top of the section; or
o At the face of the concentrated load or reaction area where the load
introduces tension in the top of the section.
• Two-way action, eg. longitudinal and transverse to the bridge, with a critical section
perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so that its perimeter, bc, is a
minimum, but not closer than 0.5d to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area:
o Where the slab thickness is not constant, critical sections located at a
distance not closer than 0.5d from the face of any change in the slab
thickness and located such that the perimeter, bc, is a minimum.
For one-way action, the shear resistance of the footing or slab shall satisfy the
generalrequirements for shear.
For two-way action for sections without transverse reinforcement, the nominal
shearresistance,Vn in (N), of the concrete shall be taken as:
.
Vn=0.17 −
f’ b d ≤ f′ b d (3.4)
where: βc = ratio of long side to short side of the rectangle through which
the concentrated load or reaction force is transmitted
bo = perimeter of the critical section (mm)
dv = effective shear depth (mm)
Where the factored shear force, in section, Vu >φVn (see Figure 3-2), shear reinforcement
shall be added such that Vn =Vc+Vs in compliance with Nominal Shear Resistance with
o
angle θtaken as 45 .
If a haunch has a rise-to-span ratio of 1:1 or more where the rise is in the direction of the
shear force under investigation, it shall be considered an abrupt change in section and the
design section shall be taken as "d" into the span with “d” taken as the depth past the
haunch.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-2: Example of Critical Sections for Shear in Footings
Vu = factored shear force, in section (N)

M = moment (Nmm)
P = load (N)
H = horizontal load (N)
W = weight (N/mm)
Fr = field reaction (N/mm)
For two-way action for sections with transverse reinforcement, the nominal shear
resistance, in N, shall be taken as:
Vn =Vc +Vs ≤0.504√f′ *bo dv (3.5)
for which: Vc = 0.166f′ *bo dv , and (3.6)
Vs =Avfydv/ s (3.7)
For the development of shear reinforcement in slabs and footings, the provisions above
shall apply.
If shear perimeters for individual loads overlap or project beyond the edge of the member,
the critical perimeter bo should be taken as that portion of the smallest envelope of
individual shear perimeter which will actually resist the critical shear for the group under
consideration.
3.4.3 Piled Foundations

General Design
Calculations of piled footings for bridges follow the same rules as buildings. Therefore the
Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol.7 “Foundations”, Chapter 7: Pile Foundations
(Ref. 3) can be used. The special requirements for bridges in Part 1, Chapter 4should
however be considered.
All loads resisted by the footing, and the weight of the footing itself, shall be assumed
transmitted to the piles. Piles installed by driving shall be designed to resist driving and
handling forces. For transportation and erection, 1.5 times the self-weight of a precast pile
should be considered for the design.
Any portion of a pile, where lateral support adequate to prevent buckling may not exist at
alltimes, shall be designed as a column.The points or zones of fixity for resistance to lateral

Chapter 3
loads and moments shall be determinedby an analysis of the soil properties.

Concrete piles shall be embedded into footings or pile caps, as specified below. Anchorage
reinforcement shall consist of either an extension of the pile reinforcement or the use of
dowels. Uplift forces or stresses induced by flexure shall be resisted by the reinforcement.
The steel ratio for anchorage reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 and the number of
bars shall not be less than four. The reinforcement shall be developed sufficiently to resist
the force 1.25 fy As.
For the design of footings, unless the use of special equipment is specified to assure
precision driving of piles, it shall be assumed that individual driven piles shall be out of
planned position in a footing by either 150 mm or one quarter of the pile diameter, and that
the center of a group of piles shall be 75 mm from its planned position. For pile bents, the
contract documents may require a 50 mm tolerance for pile position, in which case that
value should be accounted for in the design.Splices in concrete piles shall develop the
axial, flexural, shear and torsional resistance of thepile. Details of splices shall be shown in
the contract documents.
If possible piles in tension should be avoided, although this is sometimes not possible in
high abutments. Piers should preferably be designed symmetrically so that the center of
rotation of the entire pile group will be below the bearings.
Required pile penetration should be determined based on the resistance to vertical and
lateral loads and the displacement of both the pile and the subsurface materials. In general,
unless refusal is encountered, the design penetration for any pile should be not less than
3000 mm into hard cohesive or dense granular material and not less than 6000 mm into
soft cohesive or loose granular material.
Where a portion of a pile lies inside the critical section, the pile load shall be considered to
be uniformly distributed across the width or diameter of the pile, and that portion of the
load which is outside the critical section shall be included in the calculation of shear on the
critical section.
If a large diameter pile is subjected to significant flexural moments, the load on the critical
section shall be adjusted by considering the pile reaction on the footing to be idealized as
the stress distribution resulting from the axial load and moment.
Piling Design (Driven Piles)

The calculations shall be made in the order presented in Form 3-1.
Skin friction pile group may have total strength limit bearing capacity considerable greater
than or less than the sum of the bearing capacity of each pile.
Tip bearing pile group usually has the total strength limit bearing capacity equal to the sum
of the bearing capacity of each pile. Tip bearing piles are usually assumed to behave like
elastic compressed members loose hinged into the pile footing. The settlement of the group
is usually very small and need not to be calculated for the common types of bridges.
Usually batter piles are used to resist horizontal forces. If the piles penetrate friction
material or certain types of over-consolidated clays the side bearing stability shall be used,
but then the horizontal displacement should be calculated as well.
The pile group of abutment and piers should be designed so that the rotation center is
abovethe bearings.

Chapter 3
If the Soil Investigation Report indicates downdrag (negative skin friction), especially for
tip bearing piles, this case must be considered. To minimize the downdrag there are
different methods to be used:
• A tip with larger area than the pile itself, combined with:
o Asphalt dipped or painted on the surface of the pile
o Preboring of a hole before inserting the asphalt painted pile itself.

Chapter 3
FORM 3-1: CHECKLIST FOR PILING DESIGN (DRIVEN PILES)

□ 1. List all acting vertical and horizontal forces.
□ 2. Assume a number of piles and their batter.
□ 3. Calculate the resultant roughly by the lever rule method (moment equation through
the bottom edge of the pile cap).
□ 4. Check that the tension in the piles is limited otherwise increase the batter of the
piles.
□ 5. Check the approximate compression force in each pile and optimize the number of
piles.
□ 6. Calculate the center of the pile group.
□ 7. Merge all the piles with the same batter and distance from the centerline in stacks.
□ 8. Calculate the distance of the resultant exactly.
□ 9. Check the rotational center point.
□ 10. Calculate the moment of inertia at the center of rotation.
□ 11. Calculate the pile forces in each pile by the lever method (moment equations).
□ 12. Table the result, check that every pile is not different from the assumed value.
□ 13. If downdrag is given in the Soil Investigation Report, add the downdrag (= negative
skin friction) to the pile load.
□14. If skin friction piles, calculate the long-term settlement of the entire pile group.
(Usually the initial settlement of cohesion piles is neglected). If tip bearing piles,
the settlement usually corresponds to the compression of the piles.
□15. Note: Usually the pile group needs design checking after the piling due to
misplacements, broken piles, wrong batter, etc.
Date: ................................ Designer Date: ..................... Responsible Engineer ……………….......................

Chapter 3
Piles Bearing on Rock:

The resistance factor for the tip resistance of piles bearing on rock shall be taken as
specified in Part 1,Section 4.3.1: Limit States and Resistance Factors. The same applies
for the axial resistance obtained from the pile driving analyzer, where:
• Pile width exceeds 290 mm, and
• Rock discontinuity spacing exceeds 300 mm, and
• Unfilled discontinuity thickness is less than 6.4 mm, or
• Discontinuities filled with soil or rock debris are less than 25 mm wide
The nominal unit end bearing resistance (qp) of piles driven to rock, in MPa, shall be taken
as:
qp=3quKapd (3.8)
for which:
Kap=(3 +Sd/D)/10*1 + 300 t " ⁄S" %& (3.9)

d = 1 + 0.4Hs/D ≤ 3.4
where: qu= average uniaxial compression strength of the rock core (MPa)
Kap= dimensionless bearing resistance coefficient from the formula above.
Sd= spacing of discontinuities (mm)
td= width of discontinuities (mm)
D = pile width (mm)
Hs= depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock taken as 0.0 for piles resting on
top of bedrock (mm)
When this method is applicable, the rocks are usually so sound that the structural capacity
will govern the design.
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects, calculated based on the appropriate
strength limit state load combinations, are tensile. When piles are subjected to uplift, they
should be investigated for both resistance to pullout and structural ability to resist tension
and transmit it to the footing.
The uplift resistance of a single pile shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the skin friction resistance of piles in compression. Factored uplift resistance
QR, in N, shall be taken as:
QR=ϕQn = ϕuQs (3.10)
Where: Qs = nominal uplift capacity due to shaft resistance (N)

ϕu= resistance factor for uplift capacity
The factored load effect acting on any pile in a group shall be estimated using the
traditional elastic strength of materials procedure for a cross-section under thrust and
moment. The cross-sectional properties should be based on the pile as a unit area. The
resistance factors for axial tension are lower than those for compression. One reason for
this is that piles in tension unload the soil; this reduces the overburden effective stress and
hence the uplift skin friction resistance of the pile.

Chapter 3
3.5 Retaining Walls
3.5.1 General
The design of retaining walls is usually made by classic soil pressure theory, similar to that
of abutments. In earthquake zone 4 however, it might be necessary to check sliding by the
Manonobe-Okabe method (Ref. 4) given later in this chapter.
Usually the stability /overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be
checked in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service
limit state.
3.5.2 Gravity Walls (Stone Masonry)

See also following subchapter on masonry abutments.
Stone masonry retaining walls are designed as gravity walls, usually using Masonry
Class B (see Technical Specifications). The methods used are general for all similar
structures. The Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 7 “Foundations”, Chapter 8:
Retaining Structures and in particular subchapter 8.6.3 Foundation Failure of Gravity
Walls of that document (Ref. 3), are recommended. The Live Load Surcharge according to
Part 1 Chapter 3 should be applied, if the retaining wall is close to the traffic.
Class B concrete is usually used in gravity walls and footings. Usually the stability
/overturning, lateral sliding and bearing resistance failure should be checked in the strength
limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service limit state.
3.5.3 Cantilevered RC Wall Design

The cantilevered retaining wall design usually is a tedious iteration problem. Therefore it is
most suited for computers. There are a few commercial programs available at present but a
designer could also prepare his own EXCEL-sheet. If possible, the prevailing version
ofStandard Detail Drawing Manual(No RW-1 for RC Cantilever Retaining Walls with 2-
6 m height) should be used.
Regarding the initial settings of dimensions, for common types of soil the footing width
shall be set to 0.6-0.8 of the height, and depending on the soil bearing capacity, the toe
should be 0.2-0.3 of the total footing. If the heel is too short, a "shear wall" is needed under
the footing to resist sliding. In other words, if the safety factor of sliding is not obtained,
the heel dimension should be increased, and if the safety factor of overturning too low,
then the toe should preferably be increased. For practical reasons the top of the wall shall
not be less than 0.2 m. The backfill should be granular or of stone, whichever is available
at the site.
Generally, Class A concrete is used for RC retaining walls and Class B concrete is used for
concrete gravity walls and footings.
Regarding loads, the temperature and shrinkage deformation effects and the earthquake
loads should also be applied. For stability computations, the earth loads shall be multiplied
by the maximum and/or the minimum load factors given in Part 1 Chapter 3. Structural
failure, lateral sliding, stability /overturning and bearing resistance failure shall be checked
in the strength limit state. Excessive displacement shall be checked in the service limit
state.

Chapter 3
In the general case of a cantilever retaining wall where the downward load on the heel is
larger than the upward reaction of the soil under the heel, the critical section for shear in
the footing is taken at the back face of the stem.
A worked example of a concrete retaining wall design is given in the appendix.
3.6 Culverts
3.6.1 General
One of the most common types of culvert is a simple supported reinforced concrete slab on
two or three masonry walls. In this case the bearings shall be made only of a layer of
bitumen felt on top of concrete shelves cast on the stone masonry. The design should
however be according to simple statics as a bridge with the loads from Part 1 Chapter 3,
with the following exceptions:
• Expansion joints need not to be considered.
• For buried structures with more than 0.6 m fill, earthquake forces in all zones shall
be omitted.
3.6.2 Design of RC Culverts

General
Buried structures shall be designed so that no movement of any part of the structure will
occur as a result of scour. In areas where scour is a concern, the wingwalls shall be
extended far enough from the structure to protect the structural portion of the soil envelope
surrounding the structure. For structures placed over erodible deposits, a cutoff wall or
scour curtain, extending below the maximum anticipated depth of scour or a paved invert,
shall be used. The footings of structures shall be placed not less than 600 mm below the
maximum anticipated depth of scour.
Uplift shall be considered where structures are installed below the highest anticipated
groundwater level. To satisfy this provision, the dead load on the crown of the structure
should exceed the buoyancy of the culvert, using load factors as appropriate.
Pipe structures and footings for buried structures shall be investigated for bearing capacity
failure and erosion of soil backfill by hydraulic gradients.
Design criteria, as specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual for hydraulic design
considerations shall apply. See also the ERA Standard Detail Drawingsfor standard single
and multiple box culverts.
Design
RC Cast-In-Place and Precast Box Culverts: The provisions herein shall apply to the
structural design of cast-in-place and precast reinforced concrete box culverts and cast-in-
place reinforced concrete arches with the arch barrel monolithic with each footing.
These structures become part of a composite system comprised of the box or arch culvert
structure and the soil envelope.
Precast reinforced concrete box culverts shall be manufactured using conventional
structural concrete and forms, or they shall be machine-made with dry concrete and
vibrating form pipe making methods.

Chapter 3
Loads and Live Load Distribution: Loads and load combinations specified in Table 3.4.1-1
of Part 1shall apply. Live load shall be considered as specified in Part 1 Chapter 3.
Distribution of wheel loads and concentrated loads for culverts with less than 600 mm of
cover shall be taken as specified for slab-type superstructures. Requirements for bottom
distribution reinforcement in top slabs of such culverts shall be placed in the secondary
direction in the bottom of slabs as a percentage of the primary reinforcement for positive
moment. For primary reinforcement parallel to the traffic:
1750√s ≤50% (3.11)
Where s = effective span length (mm).
For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:

3840√s ≤67% (3.12)
Distribution of wheel loads to culverts with 600 mm or more of cover shall be as specified
in Part 1,Chapter 3.
The dynamic load allowance for buried structures shall conform to Part 1 Chapter 3.
Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction: In lieu of a more refined
analysis, the total unfactored earth load, WE, in N/mm, acting on the culvert shall be taken
as:
• For embankment installations:
-9
WE =gFe γsBcH*10 (3.13)
(
in which: Fe =1 + 0.20 )* (3.14)
• For trench installations:
-9
WE =gFtγsBcH*10 (3.15)
./)/ 0
In which: +, = ≤ +1 (3.16)
()
2
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s )
Fe = soil-structure interaction factor for embankment installation specified herein
Bc = outside width of culvert (mm)
H = depth of backfill (mm)
Ft = soil-structure interaction factor for trench installations specified herein
3
γs = density of backfill (kg/m )
Bd = horizontal width of trench (mm)
Cd = a coefficient specified in Figure 3-3
Fe shall not exceed 1.15 for installations with compacted fill along the sides of the box
section, or 1.40 for installations with uncompacted fill along the sides of the box section.
For wide trench installations where the trench width exceeds the horizontal dimension of
the culvert across the trench by more than 300 mm, Ft shall not exceed the value specified
for an embankment installation.

Chapter 3
Precast Box Structures: At all cross-sections subjected to flexural tension, the primary
flexural reinforcement in the direction of the span shall be not less than 0.2% of the gross
concrete area. Such minimum reinforcement shall be provided at the inside faces of walls
and in each direction at the top of slabs of box sections having less than 600 mm of cover.
Where the fabricated length exceeds 5 m, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement for
shrinkage and temperature should be in conformance with Part 1 Chapter 7.
If the height of the fill is ≤600 mm, the minimum cover in the top slab shall be 50 mm for
all types of reinforcement.
Figure 3-3: Coefficient Cd for Trench Installations
Where welded wire fabric is used, the minimum cover shall be the greater of three times
the diameter of the wire or 25 mm.

Chapter 3
Shear in Slabs of Box Culverts: The provisions for shear and torsion in general shall apply
unless modified herein. For slabs of box culverts under 600 mm or more fill, shear strength
Vc shall be computed by:
45 67 "8 ∗
2* = 0.178f + 9"8 :7
bd< (3.17)
but: Vc shall not exceed 0.332f′ bde (3.18)

2
where: As = area of reinforcing steel (mm )
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile
force in the tensile reinforcement (mm)
Vu = shear from factored loads (N)
Mu = moment from factored loads (Nmm)
b = design width usually taken as 1.0 (mm)
For single cell box culverts only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken less
than
0.25f′ bde (3.19)
and Vc for slabs simply supported need not be taken less than
0.207f′ bde (3.20)
The quantity
V> d< ⁄M> ≤ 1.0 (3.21)
Where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section

considered. For slabs of box culverts under less than 600 mm of fill and for sidewalls, the
provisions for shear and torsion in general and in slabs and footings shall apply.
3.6.3 Design of RC Pipes

Generally the detail design of Reinforced Concrete Pipes should be avoided due to the
prevalence of manufactured pipes. Precast Concrete Pipes shall meet the requirements of
the Technical Specifications.
It should be noted that “Bedding Classes,” also referred to as “Standard Installations,” shall
be as indicated in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings.
3.7 Substructures for RC Bridges
3.7.1 General
Regarding earthquake design within Zone 4, see the following subsection of that title.
Creep Coefficient
The creep coefficient shall be estimated as in Part 1 Chapter 7.

Chapter 3
Shrinkage
In the absence of more accurate data, the shrinkage coefficients shall be assumed to be
0.0002 after 28 days and 0.0005 after one year of drying. When mix-specific data are not
available, estimates of shrinkage and creep shall be made using the provisions below.
Shrinkage of concrete can vary over a wide range from nearly nil if continually immersed
in water to in excess of 0.0008 for either thin sections made with high shrinkage aggregates
or for sections which are not property cured.
Shrinkage is affected by aggregate characteristics and proportions, average humidity at the
bridge site, water/cement ratio, volume to surface area ratio of member, and duration of
drying period.
For moist cured concretes, devoid of shrinkage-prone aggregates, the strain due to
shrinkage,
∈sh, at time t, shall be taken as:
,
∈AB = −CD CE F. , 0.51∗ 10H (3.22)
where: t = drying time (Days)
ks = size factor (see Figure 3-4)
kh = humidity factor specified in Table 3-2
If the moist-cured concrete is exposed to drying before five days of curing have elapsed,
the shrinkage as determined in equation above should be increased by 20%.
3.7.2 Piers (Masonry,Walls,Framed, Columns)

Design schedules for the most common three types of piers are presented here. Class A
concrete is generally used for all elements of structures. Class B concrete is used in
footings, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
Figure 3-4: Factor Ks for Volume-to-Surface Ratio

Chapter 3
Table 3-2: Factor Kh for Relative Humidity
Average Ambient
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Humidity %
kh 1.43 1.29 1.14 1.00 0.86 0.43 0.00
Masonry Piers shall be designed in the order presented in Form 3-2.
RC Wall Pier Design

The procedure of calculation will follow the schedule presented in Form 3-2 with the
following alterations:
• The bending and shear reinforcement shall be calculated also at some points (at
least at the bottom and at the midpoint) of the wall.
• The spalling effect under the bearings should be checked if the bearing plate is
small (i.e. steel girders).
• If the stream velocity is high, the pier is high and the water is deep, the load
combination without vertical load from the superstructure and the full stream force
shall be dangerous and should therefore be checked.
RC Frame Pier Design
Framed piers shall be designed according to the schedule in Form 3-3.
3.7.3 Abutments (Stone Masonry,RC Closed,RC Opened)

Abutment seats constructed on modular units shall be designed by considering earth
pressures and supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat beam and earth
pressures on the backwall. The top module shall be proportioned to be stable under the
combined actions of normal and supplementary earth pressures. The minimum width of the
top module shall be 0.9 m. The centerline of bearing shall be located a minimum of
300 mm from the outside face of the top precast module. The abutment beam seat shall be
supported by and cast integrally with the top module. The front face thickness of the top
module shall be designed for bending forces developed by supplemental earth pressures.
Abutment beam-seat loadings shall be carried to the foundation level and shall be
considered in the design of footings.
The minimum dimensions of RC abutments shall be as follows:
• Footing : t ≥0.3m;onrock trock ≥0.25m, usually ≥0.6 m
• Abutment : frontwall/stem and headwall t ≥0.25m, usually ≥0.5/0.3 m respectively.
• Wingwall : t ≥0.2m, usually ≥0.3 m
• Differential settlement provisions shall apply.
A design schedule of the most common type of abutment, stone masonry, is shown here.

Chapter 3
FORM 3-2: CHECKLIST FOR MASONRY PIERS DESIGN

□ 1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used
(if any).
□2. Assume some preliminary dimensions. e.g. top width of seat & side batterings. The
sides are to be rounded if the design velocity exceeds 1 m/s and the battering of the
sides usually are chosen as 1:20 upstream and equal downstream, or 1:10 if high
water velocity and high pier.
□3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
□ 4. Divide the wall into parts so that it will be simple to calculate the dead load of the
parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an arbitrary selected point,
usually at the toe.
□ 5. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads.
□ 6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind load if applicable and
stream force.
□ 7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
□ 8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the type of foundation material.
□ 9. Check if the ground pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable
bearing capacity of the founding material.
□10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil either increase the battering and/or provide a reinforced
concrete footing. Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum bearing
pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil.
□11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability
limit stage. Sometimes the soil stability regarding circular gliding in friction soil
should be checked in cooperation with the Soil Engineer.
□12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage. Note if
a RC footing is used the sliding surface is between the concrete and the ground.
The surface between the stone masonry and the concrete should be checked for
”shear friction”. Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom
of the pier is usually not necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil
bearing capacity. If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following order
could be applied:
□ 13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing
□ 14. Calculate the moment per meter of footing at halfway between the middle and edge
of wall
□ 15. Check the adequacy of the footing thickness for flexure and shear.

Chapter 3
□ 16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the four sides of the cantilever.
□ 17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement (if any)

Chapter 3
Form 3-3: Checklist for RC Frame Pier Design

□1. Specify the quality of reinforcement steel; concrete used and their strengths
□ 2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat/cap depth of cap,
column dimensions, footing dimensions
□3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
□4. Calculate the dead load of the parts of the pier and their centroidal distance from an
arbitrary selected point, usually the toe of the footing.
□5. Calculate the load transferred from superstructure to the pier; i.e. dead load, live
load, wind loads, longitudinal forces and thermal loads, usually from the bearing
design.
□6. Calculate the loads directly applied on the pier; i.e. wind loads, stream forces,
collision loads (if the river is navigable)
□7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of pier with the
above loads.
□8. Check whether the eccentricity for the maximum soil bearing pressure is within the
allowable range for the actual type of foundation material.
□9. Check that the pressure at the base of the footing is less than the allowable bearing
capacity of the founding material.
□10. If the bearing pressure at the base of the wall exceeds the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide
reinforced concrete footing. Revise the dead load of the pier. The final maximum
bearing pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable
bearing capacity of the soil.
□11. Check the stability of the pier for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning shall usually be greater or equal to 2.0 according to the serviceability
limit stage.
□12. Check the stability of the pier for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding shall
usually be greater or equal to 1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
□13. Draw a sketch with the loads from superstructure and directly applied on the pier.
□14. Analyze the frame with the different load conditions.
□15. Design the pier cap for flexure and shear.
□16. Design the bracing for flexure and shear (if any)
□17. Design the columns (Hint: Calculate the moment magnification factor for the
slenderness effect, prepare the column interaction curve with the assumed
dimension and reinforcement, check if the factored axial load with the
simultaneously applied magnified moment is within the column interaction curve.)
□18. Check the minimum steel ratio of the column reinforcement.
□19. Design the footing in the longitudinal and transversal direction for flexure; wide
beam and punching shear (a circular column should be converted to an equivalent
square one).

Chapter 3
□20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the pier cross section with the footing
reinforcement.
□21. Prepare bar schedule table.

Chapter 3
Form 3-4: Checklist for Masonry Abutments Design
□ 1. Specify the class of masonry (usually B) and strength of other materials to be used.
□ 2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat usually 0.5 m, front
battering, back battering, etc.
□ 3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
□ 4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load,
live load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and
thermal loads −all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
□ 5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point, usually
takentobethe toe.
□ 6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the
front soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence
not effective in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in
depth.
□ 7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment
with the above loads.
□ 9. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
□ 10. If the bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing capacity of
the soil either increase the front and/or back battering and/or provide reinforced
concrete footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The final maximum bearing
pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil.
□ 11. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning ≥2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
□ 12. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be ≥1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
• Note that checking of the stone compression strength at the bottom is usually not
necessary, since the stone masonry is stronger than the soil.
• The battering of the sides usually follow the outer side of the wingwalls.
If RC footing is provided under the masonry the following applies:

□ 13. Calculate the bearing pressure on top and bottom surface of footing.
□ 14. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing at the point B/4 (which is halfway
between the middle and edge of wall)
□ 16. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.

Chapter 3
□ 17. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the
footing reinforcement (if any)

Chapter 3
FORM 3-5: CHECKLIST FOR RC ABUTMENT DESIGN
□ 1. Specify the class of concrete (usually B) and strength of reinforcement steel to be

used. 28-Day Strength Classes are: 28 Mpa for Concrete A and 17 Mpa for
Concrete B.
□ 2. Assume some preliminary dimensions: i.e. top width of seat (usually 0.6 m),
thickness of wall, thickness of footing, etc.
□ 3. Draw a sketch with the above preliminary dimensions.
□ 4. Calculate the loads transferred from superstructure to the abutment; i.e. dead load,
live load, wind loads, longitudinal forces (breaking force, shrinkage, creep and
thermal loads −all transferred through friction forces from bearings).
□ 5. Divide the wall into parts to make it simple to calculate the dead load of the parts of
the abutments and their centroidal distance from an arbitrarily selected point
(usually the toe).
□ 6. Calculate the active soil earth pressure from back of wall and the passive earth
pressure from front of wall. Usually the passive earth pressure is neglected since the
front soil adjacent to the wall is susceptible for scour, is loose backfill and hence
not effective in developing the resistance, as well as relatively more shallow in
depth.
□ 7. Calculate the maximum and minimum bearing pressure at the base of abutment
with the above loads.
□ 8. If piled calculate the pile group according to text. (Usually all rows are battered).
□ 10. Check if the pressure at the base of the wall is less than the allowable bearing
□ 11. If the soil bearing pressure at the base of wall exceeds the allowable bearing
capacity of the soil increase the footing. Revise the dead load of the abutment. The
final maximum bearing pressure from the substructure shall be less than or equal to
the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
□ 12. Check the stability of the abutment for overturning. The factor of safety against
overturning is ≥2.0, according to the serviceability limit stage.
□ 13. Check the stability of the abutment for sliding. The factor of safety against sliding
shall usually be ≥1.5 according to the serviceability limit stage.
□ 14. Check the compression strength at the bottom of wall
□ 15. Calculate the moment of frontwall (base)/stem at 2-4 points and headwall at base
□ 16. Calculate the moment per linear width of footing and check for shear
reinforcement.
□ 18. Calculate the flexural reinforcement at the toe and heel cantilever.
□ 19. Calculate the settlement of the abutment footing.

Chapter 3
□ 20. Draw a sketch of the final dimensions of the abutment cross section with the
footing reinforcement

Chapter 3
Masonry Abutmentsshall be designed as presented in Form 3-4.

The closed reinforced concrete abutment shall be calculated according to the checklist
presented as Form 3-5. Detailed design is similar to that for retaining walls, as presented in
the appendix.
RC Closed and Open Abutment (with counterforts)
This shall be calculated according to the Checklist in Form 3-5 (Refer Part 2 Chapter 2,
Figure 2-2).
Earthquake Design of Abutments, Retaining Walls etc
There is some possibility of damage to bridge abutments due to earthquakes in Ethiopia.
Damage is typically associated with fill settlement or slumping, displacements induced by
high, seismically caused, lateral earth pressures, or the transfer of high longitudinal or
transverse inertia forces from the bridge structure itself.
Movements of freestanding abutments follow the general pattern of outward motion and
rotation about the top after contact with and restraint by the superstructures. Fill
settlements can be 10 -15% of the fill height.
Design features of abutments vary tremendously and depend on the nature of the bridge
site, foundation soils, bridge span length, and load magnitudes. Abutment types include
freestanding gravity walls, cantilever walls, tied back walls, and monolithic diaphragms.
Foundation support may use spread footings, vertical piles, or battered piles, whereas
connection details to the superstructure may incorporate roller supports, elastomeric
bearings, or fixed bolted connections. Considering the number of potential design
variables, together with the complex nature of soil abutment superstructure interaction
during earthquakes, it is clear that the seismic design of abutments necessitates many
simplifying assumptions.
For freestanding abutments, such as gravity or cantilever walls, which are able to yield
laterally during an earthquake (i.e., superstructure supported by bearings that are able to
slide freely), the well-established Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static approach, outlined
below, is widely used to compute earth pressures induced by earthquakes. On the basis of
this simplified approach, recommendations are made for the selection of a pseudo-static
seismic coefficient and the corresponding displacement level for a given effective peak
ground acceleration.
Mononobe-Okabe Analysis
The method most frequently used for the calculation of the seismic soil forces acting on a
bridge abutment is a static approach developed in the 1920s by Mononobe (Ref. 4) and
Okabe (Ref. 5). The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is an extension of the Coulomb sliding-
wedge theory, taking into account horizontal and vertical inertia forces acting on the soil.
The analysis is further described by Seed and Whitman (Ref. 6), and Richards and Elms
(Ref. 7). The following assumptions are made:
1 The abutment is free to yield sufficiently to enable full soil strength or active
pressure conditions to be mobilized. If the abutment is rigidly fixed and unable to
move, the soil forces will be much higher than those predicted by the Mononobe-
Okabe analysis.
2 The backfill is cohesionless, with a friction angle of ϕ.
3 The backfill is unsaturated, so that liquefaction problems will not arise.

Chapter 3
Equilibrium considerations of the soil wedge behind the abutment, then lead to a value,
EAE, of the active force exerted on the soil mass by the abutment and vice versa. When the
abutment is at the point of failure, EAE is given by the expression:

E4J = gγH 1 − k %K 4J ∗ 10HP (3.23)

where the seismic active pressure coefficient KAE is:

∗ H
A0 QHRH% AUV QS%AUV QHR%
K 4J = ARA0A SR% T1 + A SR%A UH%
W (3.24)
2
where: g = acceleration of gravity (m/s )
3
γ = density of soil (kg/m )
H = height of soil face (mm)
ϕ = angle of friction of soil (DEG)
θ=arc tan(kh /(I -kv)) (DEG)
δ = angle of friction between soil and abutment (DEG)
kh = horizontal acceleration coefficient (DIM)
kv = vertical acceleration coefficient (DIM)
i = backfill slope angle (DEG)
β = slope of wall to the vertical, negative as shown in Figure 3-5 (DEG)
3.7.4 Wingwalls
The most common type is stone masonry, which could be designed principally in the same
way as abutments according to the design schedule given for stone masonry above.
RC Wing walls are usually attached to the RC Abutment (as in Figure 2-3) or to the
endwall (as shown in Figure 2-4). They shall be calculated either by an approximate
method in two points or by a refined method using i.e. the integral analysis method.
Regarding seismic design in zone 4, see Mononobe-Okabe Analysis above

Chapter 3
Figure 3-5: Active Wedge Force Diagram
3.8 Superstructure for RC Bridges
3.8.1 Concrete General

Unless otherwise stated, the Ethiopian Building Code Standard, Vol. 2 Structural Use
ofConcrete, 1995 (Ref. 8), shall be used.
Flexure
Regarding flexural design, see Part 1 Section7.4: Reinforcement: Flexural Reinforcement.
Shear
The factored shear resistance, Vr, shall be taken as:
Vr = ϕVn (3.25)
Vn = nominal shear resistance specified in Equation 3.26 and 3.27 (N)
ϕ = resistance factor as specified in Part 1 Section 7.3: Concrete
The shear resistance Vn of a concrete member shall be separated into a component,
Vc,which relies on tensile stresses in the concrete, a component, Vs which relies on tensile
stresses in the transverse reinforcement, and a component, Vp, which is the vertical
component of the prestressing force.
The nominal shear resistance,Vn shall be determined as the lesser of:
Vn = Vc+Vs+VP (3.26)
or
Vn =0.25f'c bv dv +VP (3.27)
for which:
Vc =0.083βf′ bvdv (3.28)
and

Chapter 3
4X YX "X ZRZ[%AUV∝
VA = (3.29)
A
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv as
determined above (mm)
dv = effective shear depth as determined above (mm)
s = spacing of stirrups (mm)
β = factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension,
θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses (DEG)
α = angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to longitudinal axis, also
taken as the angle between a strut and the longitudinal axis of a member
(DEG)
2
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s (mm )
VP = component in the direction of the applied shear of the effective prestressing
force, positive if resisting the applied shear (N)
An approximate method – the Sectional Design Model – with βand θis described in Part 2
Section 4.7: Shear-Sectional Design Model.
Torsion
The factored torsional resistance, Tr, shall be taken as:
Tr = ϕTn (3.30)
where: Tn = nominal torsional resistance specified in Equation 5.37 (Nmm)
ϕ = resistance factor specified in Part 1 Section 7.1: Concrete
For normal density concrete, torsional effects shall be investigated where:
Tu >0.25ϕTcr (3.31)
0
4`a Y`a
For which: T^ = 0.328f′ b`
√1 + .cYd (3.32)
`
where: Tu = factored torsional moment (Nmm)

Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Nmm)
2
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm )
Pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
fcp = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at
the centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of
the web and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
Regions Requiring Transverse Reinforcement: Except for slabs, footings and culverts,
transverse reinforcement shall be provided where either:
Vu >0.50(Vc +Vp) or (3.33)
Where consideration of torsion is required by Equation 3.31 above.

Chapter 3
where: Vu = factored shear force (N)

Vc = nominal shear resistance of the concrete (N)
VP = component of prestressing force in direction of the shear force (N)
Minimum Transverse Reinforcement: Where transverse reinforcement is required, as
specified above, the area of steel shall not be less than:
9X f
A = 0.083f′ (3.34)
Yg
2
where: Av = area of a transverse reinforcement within distance s (mm )
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable, as specified in
Equation 3.36 below (mm)
S = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
fy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (MPa)
A minimum amount of transverse reinforcement is required to restrain the growth of
diagonal cracking and to increase the ductility of the section. A larger amount of transverse
reinforcement is required to control cracking as the concrete strength is increased.
Transverse reinforcement, which usually consists of stirrups, is required in all regions
where there is a significant chance of diagonal cracking. Transverse reinforcement may
consist of:
• Stirrups making an angle not less than 45°with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement,
• Welded wire fabric, with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member,
provided that the transverse wires are certified to undergo a minimum elongation of
4.0%, measured over a gage length of at least 100 mm including at least one cross
wire, or
• Anchored prestressed tendons, detailed and constructed to minimize seating and
time-dependent losses, which make an angle not less than 45°with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement.
Torsional reinforcement shall consist of both transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed stirrups perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the member.
Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement: The spacing of the transverse
reinforcement shall not exceed the following:
if Vu <0.1 f'c bv dv, then: s ≤0.8 dv ≤600 mm (3.35)
if Vu ≥0.1 f'c bv dv then: s ≤0.4 dv ≤300 mm (3.36)
where: bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within the depth dv,
modified for the presence of ducts where applicable
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
neutral axis, between the resultants of the tensile and compressive forces

Chapter 3
due to flexure, but it need not be taken less than the greater of 0.9d, or 0.72h
(mm)
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement (mm)
In determining bv at a particular level, the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the
diameters of grouted ducts, at that level, shall be subtracted from the web width.
Design and Detailing Requirements: Transverse reinforcement shall be anchored at both
ends. For composite flexural members, extension of beam shear reinforcement into the
deck slab shall be considered when determining if the development and anchorage
provisions are satisfied.
The design yield strength of non-prestressed transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 400
MPa.
Components of inclined flexural compression and/or flexural tension in variable depth
members shall be considered when calculating shear resistance.
Sections near Supports: Regions of members where the plane sections assumption of
flexural theory is not valid shall be designed for shear and torsion using for example the
strut-and-tie model. Where the reaction force, in the direction of the applied shear,
introduces compression into the end region of a member, the location of the critical section
for shear shall be taken as the larger of 0.5 dv cot θor dv from the internal face of the
support.
The nominal torsional resistance Tn, in Nmm, shall be taken as:
4h 4i Yg jZR
TV = f
(3.37)
where: Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
2
(mm )
2
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm )
θ = angle of crack, usually 45°.
Deformations – Deflection and Camber
Deflection and camber calculations shall consider dead load, live load, prestressing,
erection loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation. For determining
deflection and camber, the elastic behavior shall apply.
In the absence of a more comprehensive analysis, instantaneous deflections shall be
computed using the modulus of elasticity for concrete and taking the moment of inertia as
either the gross moment of inertia, Ig, or an effective moment of inertia, Ie, given by
Equation 3.38:
: :
I< = :`l In + o1 − :`l p I^ ≤ In (3.38)
m m
for which:
M^ = f^ In /yZ (3.39)
where: Mcr = cracking moment (N-mm)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete computed (N-mm)
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber (mm)

Chapter 3
Ma = maximum moment in a component at the stage for which deformation is

computed (N-mm)
For prismatic members, effective moment of inertia shall be taken as the value obtained
from Equation 3.38 at mid-span for simple or continuous spans, and at support for
cantilevers. For continuous non-prismatic members, the effective moment of inertia shall
be taken as the average of the values obtained from Equation 3.38 for the critical positive
and negative moment sections.
Unless a more exact determination is made, the long-time deflection shall be taken as the
instantaneous deflection multiplied by the following factor:
• If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ig, the factor: 4
• If the instantaneous deflection is based on Ie, the factor: 3.0 -1.2 (A′s/As)>1.6
2
where: A′s = area of compression reinforcement (mm )
2
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (mm )
The contract documents shall require that deflections of segmentally constructed bridges
shall be calculated prior to casting of segments based on the anticipated casting and
erection schedules and that they shall be used as a guide against which actual deflection
measurements are checked.
For structures such as segmentally constructed bridges, camber calculations should be
based on the modulus of elasticity and the maturity of the concrete when each increment of
load is added or removed, as specified in Part 1 Chapter 7.
Axial Deformation: Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to loads shall be
determined using the modulus of elasticity of the materials at the time of loading.
Instantaneous shortening or expansion due to temperature shall be determined with the
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion given in accordance with Part 1,Chapter 3.
Seismic Lateral Load Distribution:
These provisions shall apply to diaphragms, cross-frames and lateral bracing, which are
part of the seismic lateral force resisting system in common slab on-girder bridges in
Seismic Zone 4. The provisions of Part, 1 Chapter 3 shall apply to Seismic Zones 1-3.
The designer shall demonstrate that a clear, straightforward load path to the substructure
exists and that all components and connections are capable of resisting the imposed load
effects consistent with the chosen load path. The flow of forces in the assumed load path
must be accommodated through all affected components and details including, but not
limited to flanges and webs of main beams or girders, cross-frames, connections, slab-to--
girder interfaces and all components of the bearing assembly from top flange interface
through the confinement of anchor bolts or similar devices in the substructure.
The analysis and design of end diaphragms and cross-frames shall consider horizontal
supports at an appropriate number of bearings. Slenderness and connection requirements of
bracing members that are part of the lateral force resisting system, shall comply with
applicable provisions specified for main member design.
SLABS (RIBBED,PLAIN)
A recommended design checklist/schedule for RC simple span solid slab bridge is given in
Form 3-6. A worked example of a slab bridge design is given in the Appendix.

Chapter 3
Form 3-6: Checklist for Single Span RC Slab Design
□ 1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

□ 2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
□ 3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
□ 4. Calculate the preliminary thickness of Slab
□ 5. Draw a sketch of the cross section (of the superstructure) with the above
preliminary dimensions
□ 6. Calculate the dead load moment at some fraction intervals of the span length
□ 7. Calculate the dead load shear force per unit width of slab at support
□ 8. Calculate the lateral live load distribution width
□ 9. Calculate the impact factor
□ 10. Tabulate the standard truck & Military loading live load moments at the above-
specified intervals and take the maximum of the two at every point for strategic
bridges.
□ 11. Calculate the pedestrian live load (if any)
□ 12. Calculate the live load shear force per unit width of slab at support
□ 13. Prepare envelop for the maximum factored moment at the specified points
□ 14. Prepare the maximum factored shear force at support
□ 15. Calculate the reinforcement required at mid-span and some other bar cutoff points
□ 16. Check the steel ratio of the reinforcement provided at mid-span
□ 17. Calculate the transversal distribution reinforcement required as some percentage of
the reinforcement required at mid-span.
□ 18. Check the adequacy of the slab thickness for shear at support. If the section is not
sufficient, either increase the slab thickness or provide shear reinforcement.
□ 19. Design the edge beam (or the curb, if any)
□ 20. Prepare sketch of the final dimensions of the superstructure with the reinforcement
□ 21. Calculate all the vertical, longitudinal & transversal loads for substructure design
and bearing design

Chapter 3
Cast-in-place longitudinally reinforced slabs shall be either conventionally reinforced or

prestressed and shall be used as slab-type bridges and culvert tops. The concrete slab,
which shall be solid, voided (with hollow spares), or ribbed (i.e. Texspan), is supported
directly on the substructures.
The distribution of live load shall be determined by a two-dimensional analysis as per the
subchapter above or by the approximate method as specified in Part 2Chapter 4. Slabs and
slab bridges designed for moment in conformance with the above-mentioned subchapter,
shall be considered satisfactory for shear, otherwise also the shear should be checked.
If a refined method (Part 1Chapter 3) is used the aspect ratio of finite elements and grid
panels should not exceed 5.0. Abrupt changes in size and/or shape of finite elements and
grid panels should be avoided.
Nodal loads shall be statically equivalent to the actual loads being applied.
Edge beams shall be provided, unless otherwise specified at lines of discontinuity. The
edge of the deck shall either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line
component, which shall be either composite with, or integrated in, the deck. The edge
beams shall be designed as beams whose width shall be taken as the effective width of the
deck. If the edge of a deck is composite with a structurally continuous barrier, no
additional edge beam is required.
Equivalent strip widths: The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear
and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
E = 250 + 0.42L W (3.40)
(the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect).
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear
and moment with more than one lane loaded shall be determined
as:
v
E = 2100 + 0.12L W ≤ w (3.41)
x
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)

L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000
(mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual
width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane
loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in Part 1 Section 3.8: Gravity Loads:
Vehicular Live Load.
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:
r = 1.05–0.25tan θ≤1.00 (3.42)
Where: θ = skew angle (DEG)
Transverse distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the bottoms of all slabs, except
culvert tops or bridge slabs, where the depth of fill over the slab exceeds 600 mm, (see
Part 1,Chapter 4) The amount of the bottom transverse reinforcement shall be determined

Chapter 3
either by two-dimensional analysis, or the amount of distribution reinforcement shall be

taken as the percentage of the main reinforcement required for positive moment taken as:
yF
For longitudinal reinforced concrete construction: ≤ 50%
√z
yF |}~ &
For longitudinal prestressed construction: ≤ 50%
√z∗ &
where: L = span length (mm)

fpe = effective stress in the prestressing steel after losses (MPa)
Transverse shrinkage and temperature reinforcement in the tops of slabs shall be provided
near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass
concrete. Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement shall be added, so that the total
reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that specified herein.
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature shall be in the form of bars, welded wire
fabric or prestressing tendons. For bars or welded wire fabric, the area of reinforcement As
in each direction shall not be less than:
As ≥0.75 Ag/fy (3.43)
2
Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm )
fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than either 3.0
times the component thickness or 450 mm.
The provisions are based on the performance of relatively small-span structures
constructed to-date. Any significant deviation from successful past practice for larger units,
which shall become both structurally and economically feasible under these specifications
should be reviewed carefully.
GIRDERS (SIMPLE SPAN,CONTINUOUS,BOX)

Simple Span RC Deck Girder Design
Simple span RC Deck Girder Bridges are relatively easy to calculate, but will generally
give a more expensive superstructure than a continuous one. A recommended design
checklist/schedule for RC single span RC Deck girder bridge is given in Form 3-7. A
worked example of a girder bridge design is given in the appendix.
Some recommended dimensions for cast-in-place girders, box and T-beams
are: The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slab:
• same as for bridge decks
• not less than 5% of the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
And for the bottom flange thickness not less than either:
• 140 mm,
• 1/16 of the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams,
or
• 1/30th of the clear span between fillets, haunches or webs for prestressed girders,
unless transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.

Chapter 3
The thickness of webs shall be determined by requirements for shear, torsion, concrete
cover and placement of concrete. For adequate field placement and consolidation of
concrete, usually a minimum web thickness of 200 mm is needed for webs without
prestressing ducts. For girders over about 2.4 m in depth, the above dimensions should be
increased to compensate for the increased difficulty of concrete placement. Changes in
girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12.0 times the difference
in web thickness.
Reinforcement for Cast-in-place Girder, Box and T-beams
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be
determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab
does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the
transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the exterior face of the
outside web and anchored by a standard 90°hook. If the slab extends beyond the exterior
web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement shall be
extended into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of
the web not less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook.
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks: The live load flexural moment for interior beams
with concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Part
3
2Chapter 4. For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L*ts ) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
For the concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
• Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution.
• If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a
refined analysis shall be used.
Bridge deck overhangs shall be designed for the following design cases considered
separately:
• Design Case 1: the transverse and longitudinal forces specified in Table 3-1 -
extreme event limit state.
• Design Case 2: the vertical forces specified in Table 3-1-extreme event limit state.
• Design Case 3: the loads, specified in Part 1, Chapter 3, which occupy the
overhang -strength limit state.
Continuous RC Deck Girder Design
In the design of continuous Bridge Girders it is essential that the settlement at one support
is not considerably greater than the others −called uneven settlement.
Moment Redistribution: In lieu of more refined analysis, where bonded reinforcement is
provided at the internal supports of continuous reinforced concrete beams and where the
c/de ratio does not exceed 0.28, negative moments determined by elastic theory at strength
limit states shall be increased or decreased by not more than the following percentage:
± % ≤20 (1 – 2.36*c/de ) (3.44)
With c = The distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis (mm)
de = The effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis
(mm)
Positive moments shall be adjusted to account for the changes in negative moments to
maintain equilibrium of loads and force effects.

Chapter 3
Unless otherwise specified, diaphragms (secondary beams) shall be provided at abutments,

piers and hinge joints to resist lateral forces and transmit loads to points of support.
Intermediate diaphragms shall be used between beams in curved systems or where
necessary to provide torsional resistance and to support the deck at points of discontinuity
or at angle points in girders. For curved box girders, having an inside radius less than 240
m, and for spread box beams, intermediate diaphragms shall be used.
In certain types of construction, end diaphragms shall be replaced by an edge beam or a
strengthened strip of slab, made to act as a vertical frame with the beam-ends. Such types
are low I-beams and double T-beams. These frames should be designed for wheel loads.
The diaphragms should be essentially solid, except for access openings and utility holes,
where required. It should however be remembered that the diaphragms at abutments and
piers usually are used as jacking support for the exchanging of bearings.

Chapter 3
FORM 3-7: CHECKLIST FOR SINGLE SPAN RC DECK GIRDER DESIGN
□ 1. Specify the quality of construction materials used and their strengths

□ 2. Calculate material properties( maximum steel ratio, modulus of rupture, etc...)
□ 3. Assume preliminary dimensions for the different parts of the superstructure
□ 3.1 Assume No of girders, depth, spacings, etc…
□ 3.2 Thickness of Slab (between girders and cantilever overhang part)
□ 3.3 Prepare sketch of the cross section of the superstructure with the above preliminary
dimensions
□ 3.4 Specify the number of diaphragms (in the longitudinal sections)
□ 3.5 Prepare sketch of the longitudinal cross section of the superstructure with the above
preliminary dimensions
□ 4. Design of slab in between girders
□ 4.1 Compute the dead load and live load moment and shear forces (with impact)
□ 4.2 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
□ 4.3 Calculate the main slab reinforcement
□ 4.4 Calculate the distribution reinforcement
□ 4.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
□ 5. Design of overhang / cantilever slab
□ 5.1 Compute the dead load moment and shear force
□ 5.2 Compute the live loads moments from railing load and truck wheel load and take
the maximum of the two
□ 5.3 Multiply the above values with the specified coefficients
□ 5.4 Design the section for flexure with the above factored moment
□ 5.5 Check the slab thickness used above for adequency in shear
□ 6. Design of Edge beam or Curb (if any)
□ 7. Design of girders
□ 7.1 Exterior Girder load analysis
□ 7.2 Compute the dead loads at some fraction interval of the span length and at the
maximum moment location
□ 7.3 Compute the impact factor for the girder Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-39
□ 7.4 Compute the truck live loads moment and shear forces at the above specified points
□ 7.5 Ditto, but lane load
□ 7.6 Multiply the maximum of the truck and lane moments and shear values with the
specified coefficients
□ 7.7 Ditto the above five steps, but for Interior girder (if more than two girders)

Chapter 3
□ 7.8 Tabulate the summary of girder factored shear force and moment values at different
points for design
□ 7.9 Check if the Exterior girder shear and moment are equal to or greater than the
Interior girder
□ 7.10 Prepare envelop for the maximum moment at every specified points
□ 7.11 Compute the effective flange width of slab for exterior (and interior) girders
□ 7.12 Compute the amount of reinforcement required at midspan
□7.13 Compute the deflection at midspan and compare with the allowable. If the
preliminary depth of girder is not sufficient, increase the depth and revise starting
from step 7.1
□7.14 Compute the length of reinforcement at bar cut off points
□ 7.15 Check the Serviceability requirements at midspan and bar cutoff points
□7.16 Compute the extension length required at bar cutoff points
□ 7.17 Prepare shear force diagrams for stirrup spacing
□ 7.18 Compute the stirrup spacing at support and some other points
□ 7.19 Check the maximum stirrup spacing
□ 7.20 Compute the skin reinforcement required
□ 8. Compute the reactions (maximum and minimum at supports)
□ 8.1 Compute the reaction forces for bearing design
□ 8.2 Compute the reaction forces for abutment and pier design

Chapter 3
RC Box Girder (and Hollow Pier Column) Design

Box girder bridges are different from ordinary girder bridges in the way the torsion and
buckling of webs have to be considered.
In the absence of more exact analysis, one quarter of the wind force on a box section shall
be applied to the bottom flange of the exterior box beam. The section assumed to resist the
wind force shall consist of the bottom flange and a part of the web. The other ¾ of the
wind force on a box section, plus the wind force on vehicles, barriers, and appurtenances,
shall be assumed to be transmitted to the supports by diaphragm action of the deck.
Lateral bracing in the box shall be provided if the section assumed to resist the wind force
is not adequate.
The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow rectangular cross-section shall be taken as (same as
Equation 5.5.2.1-1 of Part 1):
7
λv = Z
(3.45)
where: Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall (mm)
t = thickness of wall (mm)
λw = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns
See section 5.5: Girders for other parameters.
Spacing of Reinforcement
The center-to-center lateral spacing of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than
the lesser of 1.5 times the wall thickness or 300 mm. The center-to-center longitudinal
spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than the lesser of 1.25 times the wall
thickness, or 300 mm.
Cross-ties shall be provided between layers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross-ties
shall include a standard 135°hook at one end, and a standard 90°hook at the other end.
Cross-ties shall be located at bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties shall enclose
both lateral and longitudinal bars at the intersections. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and
each lateral reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a cross-tie at spacing no
greater than 600 mm.
Splices
Lateral reinforcing bars shall be joined at the corners of the cross-section by overlapping
90°bends. Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars shall not be permitted unless the
overlapping bars are enclosed over the length of the splice by the hooks of at least four
cross-ties located at intersections of the lateral bars and longitudinal bars.
Hoops
Where details permit, the longitudinal reinforcing bars in the corners of the cross-section
shall be enclosed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be provided, then pairs of ”U”-
shaped bars with legs at least twice as long as the wall thickness, and oriented 90° to one
another, shall be used.
Bearings for single box sections shall be placed in pairs at supports where practical.
Double bearings shall be placed either inboard or outboard of the box section webs.

Chapter 3
Placing bearings outboard of the box reduces overturning loads on the bearings and may
eliminate uplift.
3.9 Frame Bridges
3.9.1 General
There are two common types of frame bridges −open frame and closed or cyclic frame.
The open frame is designed as a continuous bridge with some simple frame computer
program (see Part 2, Chapter 2). For multi span frame bridges with different span lengths
and different heights of support, the calculations will be complicated and use of a computer
program is highly recommended.
It is common to make the deck with 45°chamfers if small span or 1:3 if larger than 8 m
span. If the height of the front-walls exceeds some 5 m it is usually advantageous to batter
the rear side. The moments and shear forces should be computed for every 1/10 of the
theoretical height and the same for the bridge slab.
3.9.2 Design
Advantages:
• Horizontal forces are resisted by framed hinges, which provide a more slender
structure.
• Moments from vertical loads are distributed to corners as well as to span which
results in less maximum moments than a simply supported slab.
• Footings will be less than conventional abutment with the same height because
some of the earth pressure on the front-walls is resisted through friction under the
footing.
• Bearings and expansion joints are not necessary, which make it easier to maintain.
Disadvantages:
• Larger spans give a thick and heavy structure with large concrete and steel
quantities, which may give more expensive foundations, than a lighter structure.
• Voids (0.5 meters 45°-type or 1:3 for larger spans than 12 m) shall be placed at the
ends of the slab, to minimize the quantity of concrete (self weight), which however
then increases the difficulties of reinforcing and casting.
• The structural system is indefinite, which gives an increased sensitivity to
settlements.
There are two different ways of tackling the design. The latest method is to consider the
stiffness of the soil by means of springs under the foundation when calculating the statical
system. This however makes the calculation difficult such that computer programs usually
are needed.
Earlier it was common to assume the moment between the foundation and the soil to be
equal to zero, since it then may easily be calculated by hand. In the system calculation it is
most economically favorable to assume that the frame is one single monolithic structure –
including the footings. This will give less stiffness, the moment between the footing and
the frame will be less, and a smaller footing and less reinforcement will be required.
Footings on rock shall be provided with a so-called “reinforced joint” between the footing
and the frame. It should however be checked if the soil is sulfuric (corrosion of the

Chapter 3
reinforcement) or if the contractor is familiar with the construction of this type of joint.
The design shall be made in the following order:
At cyclic frames the design begins with an estimate of the dimensions and calculation of
the stiffnesses of each member/node. If appropriate the stiffness or spring coefficients of
the ground should be calculated and inserted in the frame program. The thickness of the fill
on top of the slab is very important for placing of the load (shear) as well as the magnitude
of the load (moments).
Sharply skewed frame bridges (see Part 2 Figure 2-7) should be avoided since the earth-
pressure might cause the bridge to “rotate” horizontally due to sliding and the sharp
corners might have resulting uplift forces. Then the bridge and especially the deck should
be designed with some refined method such as FEM-analysis or finite strip method. The
requirements are: a >0.3 b as indicated in Part 2 Figure 2-8.
FORM 3-8: CHECKLIST FOR FRAME BRIDGE DESIGN
□ 1. Assume preliminary dimensions
□ 2. Determine the Moment of Inertia and gross area for the non-cracked sections.
□ 3. Load from lateral support displacement (usually 10 mm) should be considered for
an open frame bridge. In earthquake zone 4, a larger displacement shall be needed.
□ 4. Calculate the statical system as an elastic frame analysis.
□ 5. Check moment and shear capacity both in the service-and strength limit state.
□ 6. Check Service limit state: cracking, crack widths, deflection
□7. Check the Fatigue limit state of some points (corners and mid span)
□8. Calculate the moment in at least two directions.
□9. Calculate the reinforcement in at least 5 points of the frame deck.
□10. Direction of main moment shall be assumed as parallel to the support line usually.
o
For alignment skewed < 45 or wider bridge the direction of moment varies from
point to point.
□11. Draw the envelope of maximum moments and develop the reinforcement
□12. Calculate the footings and check for shear.
3.10 Precast Concrete Bridges
3.10.1 General
Precast concrete bridges are designed in the same way as cast in-situ bridges. But since the
transport and hauling weight is limited to a maximum of some 200 kN (20 tons) for each
panel, several joints need to be made in this bridge type. For example a 10-m slab for a
bridge has to be spliced at every 1,6 m width not to exceed 20 tons. As many as five trucks
have to transport it to the site, which could be quite costly. Safe dimensions of panels
should be considered by the designer for each particular site.
These joints are the weak point of the structure. If possible they should be filled with
concrete, and reinforced to interact with and achieve the same strength as the adjacent
structure. The panels could also be kept in position by post tensioned tendons inserted in
ducts through the panels. For minor structures (culverts) the joints are often designed to
take shear forces only.

Chapter 3
3.10.2 Design
In the design of precast concrete components, all loading, restraint and instability
conditions from initial fabrication to completion of the structure, including, but not limited
to, form removal, storage, transportation and erection shall be considered. For
transportation and erection, the component should be designed for not less than 1.5 times
its self-weight. Field splices shall be used where precast members exceed transportable
lengths.
The minimum thickness of any part of precast concrete beams shall be as follows:
• Top flange: 50 mm (bulb-Tee and double-Tee types)
• Web, non post-tensioned: 125 mm (only with high quality performance)
• Web, post-tensioned: 165 mm (only with high quality performance)
• Bottom flange: 125 mm (bottom flange thickness of box-type sections)
Anchorages for lifting devices should not be cast into the face of a member that will be
exposed to view or to corrosive materials in the completed structure.
The Detail Design and preparation of working drawings are usually made by the
Contractor. All details of reinforcement, connections, bearing seats, inserts or anchors for
diaphragms, concrete cover, openings, and fabrication and erection tolerances shall be
shown in the contract documents.
3.11 Arch Bridges (Masonry and Concrete)
3.11.1 Masonry Arch Bridges

The design of a masonry arch bridge shall follow the checklist given in Form 3-9. A
worked example of a masonry arch bridge design is given in the appendix.
The first step of the design is to choose the most optimal shape of the arch and estimate the
thickness of the arch barrel from Table 3-3 below. At spans less than 25 m the arch should
preferably be a multiple circular curve as in Figure 3-6 below. The quality of stones that
can be obtained at the bridge site must be determined using the compressive strength given
in Part 2 Table 2-2.

Chapter 3
Figure 3-6: Recommended Arch Shape
Note: for see Part 2 Equation 2.19
Table 3-3: Normal Thickness of Arch Barrel (Arch Ring)
Span opening (length) m 8 9 10 12 15 20
Thickness at crown (top) (d) m 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.90
Thickness at abutment (d1) m 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.35
Skewed arch bridges are very complicated both to construct and design (with Finite
Element Modeling, FEM-analysis) and should therefore be avoided.
The stones can be placed either with or without mortar. If with mortar the joints should be
as small as possible, preferably not exceeding 25 mm. The 0.3 -0.5-m thick stones in the
arch barrel should be placed in some kind of bond. The length of the stones may vary
between 0.4 -0.8 m. The falsework should not be removed until the joints are fully
hardened. In order to compensate for the settlement when falsework is removed, a certain
”camber” should be applied at the top curve of the falsework.
A hinge made of a 20 mm rolled lead plate with 5 % antimony (yield strength of 40 MPa)
placed in the center of the crown (highest point) of the arch barrel has proved to reduce the
moments to almost zero. The spandrel walls should not be built until the falsework has
been removed, or it will crack due to the deflection from the shrinkage of the mortar. To
avoid all cracks, vertical joints every 5-m should preferably be applied. To reduce the dead
load of the filling on top of the arch but under the roadway, lightweight volcanic stones
shall be used as long as they are strong enough to carry the traffic load. Water outlets near
the abutments in the arch barrel must not be forgotten.

Chapter 3
Form 3-9: Checklist for masonry Arch Bridge Design

□ 1. The shape of an arch shall be selected so as to minimize flexure under the effect of
combined permanent and transient loads.
□ 2. Calculate the dead load.
□ 3. Place the live load on half of the arch and check the compression in point A, B and
C. Usually the crown C is most critical for compression strength (Figure 3-6).
□ 4. The abutments A and B should be checked for the position of the compression line,
which should be within the core. If not, the shape of the arch should be changed.
□ 5. The shear at the abutments at point A should be checked
□6. Finally the forces on the superstructure should be calculated.
3.11.2 Concrete Arch Design

Non-reinforced concrete masonry bridges are calculated in the same way as stone masonry,
and the design schedule given above shall be used.
The in-plane stability of the arch rib(s) shall be investigated using a modulus of elasticity
and moment of inertia appropriate for the combination of loads and moment in the rib(s).
In lieu of a rigorous analysis, the effective length for buckling shall be estimated as the
product of the arch half-span length and the factor δb =5/2*K as specified in Table 3-4
below:
Table 3-4: K- Values for Effective Length of Arch Ribs
Rise to Span 3-hinged 2-hinged Fixed Arch

Ratio Arch Arch
0.1-0.2 1.16 1.04 0.70
0.2-0.3 1.13 1.10 0.70
0.3-0.4 1.16 1.16 0.72
Where δb = moment magnifier for braced mode deflection

For the analysis of arch ribs, the factored moments or stresses shall be increased to reflect
effects of deformations as follows:
Mc = δb M2b + δs M2s (3.46)
where: M2b = Moment on compression member due to factored gravity loads that results
in no appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional first order elastic
frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
M2s = Moment on compression member due to factored lateral or gravity loads
that results in no sidesway, ∆, greater than lu/500, calculated by
conventional first order elastic frame analysis, always positive (Nmm).
fc = δb f2b + δs f2s (3.47)
where: f2b = stress corresponding to M2b (MPa)
f2s = stress corresponding to M2s (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor for axial compression
δb =Cm /(1-(Pu / ϕPe)) ≥1.0 (3.48)

Chapter 3
where: Cm = 1.0
Pu = factored axial load (N)
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
ϕ = resistance factor for axial compression
δs =1/ (1-(ΣPu / ϕΣPe)) (3.49)
When using the approximate second order correction for moment above, an estimate of the
short-term secant modulus of elasticity shall be calculated, as specified in Part
2,Chapter 2, based on a strength of 0.40 f′c.
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in arches when analyzed as
planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading through
the deck or deck system shall be used.
Arch ribs shall be reinforced as compression members. The minimum reinforcing of 1.0%
of the gross concrete area shall be evenly distributed about the section of the rib.
Confinement reinforcement shall be provided as required for columns.
Stability under long-term loads with a reduced modulus of elasticity may govern the
stability. In this condition, there would typically be little flexural moment in the rib and the
appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the long-term tangent modulus and the
appropriate moment of inertia would be the transformed section inertia. Under transient
load conditions, the appropriate modulus of elasticity would be the short-term tangent
modulus and the appropriate moment of inertia would be the cracked section inertia,
including the effects of the factored axial load.
Unfilled spandrel walls greater than 7.5 m in height shall be braced by counter-forts or
diaphragms. Spandrel walls shall be provided with expansion joints, and temperature
reinforcing shall be provided corresponding to the joint spacing. The spandrel wall shall be
jointed at the springline. The spandrel fill shall be provided with effective drainage. Filters
shall be provided to prevent clogging of drains with fine material.
Drainage of the spandrel fill is important for durability of the concrete in the rib and in the
spandrel walls and to control the unit weight of the spandrel fill. Drainage details should
keep the drainage water from running down the ribs.
3.12 Composite Steel/Concrete Bridges

Steel and Concrete Composite Bridges should be calculated according to Part 1Chapter 3:
(see also Ref. 1). They should be calculated as an ordinary girder bridge with the following
important exceptions.
The data for the assumed transformed section in which the concrete slab is interacting
together with the steel girders should be calculated. Then the system calculation and the
concrete slab should be designed, first transversally and then longitudinally. If end-walls
with attached wingwalls are used, the punching effect from the end plate of the steel beams
must be considered for the design of the end-walls. Before the end-wall is designed
however the wingwalls should be calculated in order to use the continuous moments in the
end-walls. In order to distribute the compression forces in the concrete slab a minimum
longitudinal reinforcement of 1% shall be inserted with a certain spacing.
The steel girders are sometimes made as a hybrid structure i.e. of different steel qualities
with a high tensile steel in the bottom flange that is more strained, and with intermediate
steel in the web and in the top flange. The girders used are to be checked for fatigue, and if

Chapter 3
continuous, also for construction loads, i.e. order of concreting the bays if the beams are
used as falsework.
Steel structures should be cambered during fabrication to compensate for dead load
deflection of the whole superstructure and for vertical alignment. Selective changes to
component length, as appropriate, shall be used for truss, arch and cable-stayed systems to:
• Adjust the dead load deflection to comply with the final geometric position;
• Reduce or eliminate rib shortening;
• Adjust the dead load moment diagram in indeterminate structures.
Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types of gusset plates, except for
webs of rolled shapes, closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers and in railings, shall be not
less than 8 mm in thickness.
The web thickness of rolled beams or channels and of closed ribs in orthotropic decks shall
not be less than 7.0 mm.
Where the metal is expected to be exposed to severe corrosive influences, it shall be
specially protected against corrosion, or sacrificial metal thickness shall be specified. The
need for diaphragms or cross-frames shall be investigated for all stages of assumed
construction procedures and the final condition. This investigation should include, but not
be limited to, the following:
• Transfer of lateral wind loads from the bottom of the girder to the deck and from
the deck to the bearings;
• Stability of the bottom flange for all loads when it is in compression;
• Stability of the top flange in compression prior to curing of the deck; and
• Distribution of vertical dead and live loads applied to the structure.
If permanent cross-frames or diaphragms are included in the structural model used to
determine force effects, they shall be designed for all applicable limit states for the
calculated force effects. As a minimum, diaphragms and cross-frames shall be designed to
transfer wind loads, and shall meet the following slenderness requirements:
l/r ≤140 for Tension members subject to stress reversals;
l/r ≤240 for Bracing members subject to stress reversals;
K* l/r ≤120 for Compression main members;
K* l/r ≤140 for Compression bracing members;
where: l = unbraced length (mm)
r = minimum radius of gyration (mm)
K = effective length factor. Physical bracing lengths shall be multiplied by an
effective length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational
boundary conditions other than pinned ends. For bolted or welded end
connections at both ends: K = 0.750. For pinned connections at both ends:
K = 0.875
Connection plates for diaphragms and cross-frames shall be welded or bolted to both
compression and tensioned flanges of the cross-section.
At the end of the bridge and intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is broken,
the edges of the slab shall be supported by diaphragms or other suitable means.

Chapter 3
Connections and splices for main members shall be designed at the strength limit state for
not less than the larger of:
• The average of the flexural moment, shear or axial force due to the factored
loadings at the point of splice or connection and the factored flexural, shear or axial
resistance of the member at the same point, or
• 75% of the factored flexural, shear or axial resistance of the member.
End connections for diaphragms, cross-frames, lateral bracing or floorbeams for straight
flexural members shall be designed for the factored member loads.
An example of a composite bridge design is presented in the appendix CB.
3.13 Timber Bridges

Further information on these type of structures is provided in the ERA Design Manual for
Low Volume Roads, Part E, Explanatory Notes and Design Standards for Small Structures.
3.14 Other Types of Bridges
3.14.1 Prestressed Concrete Bridges

To calculate prestressed concrete bridges without software is a tedious job, especially for
continuous bridges. Post tensioned simply supported single span beams may however be
calculated by hand. They should be calculated according to Part 1Chapter 3 (see also Ref.
1).
FORM 12-10: CHECKLIST FOR PRESTRESSED SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

□ 1. Interaction between deck and girder shall be assumed
□ 2. Calculate the Moment of Inertia with the Modulus of Elasticity
□ 3. Calculation of system for the following cases:
• Construction stage
• Mounting of beams, if precast beams
• Casting of deck in different construction stages
• Pavement loads
• Traffic loads
□ 4. Calculation of the cross-sections with cracked section
□ 5. Joints perpendicular to the strands shall be reinforced with at least 0.5% in every
part (deck, web, etc.)
For prestressed bridges or parts thereof the following shall apply:
• Tensioning Schedule shall be made by the designer for post-tensioned beams, etc.
• Construction Schedule if necessary (complicated structures)
• Quality Control Schedule shall be made for concreting, welding, piling etc., by the
Designer. It shall consist of a general part and documentation, reporting
requirements, and a technical part for sensitive and essential parts of the bridge
construction.

Chapter 3
3.14.2 Steel Truss Bridges

In half-through-trusses the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be designed
to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a permanent load for
the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly (note: Rectangular hollow pipes
are especially well suited as compressed members in this case).
The lever rule shall be used for the distribution of gravity loads in trusses when analyzed
as planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or direct loading
through the deck or deck system shall be used.
Where loads, other than the self-weight of the members and wind loads thereon, are
transmitted to the truss at the panel points, the truss shall be analyzed as a pin-connected
assembly.
Effective Length Factor, K: Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective
length factor, K, to compensate for rotational and translational boundary conditions other
than pinned ends. In the absence of a more refined analysis, where lateral stability is
provided by diagonal bracing or other suitable means, the effective length factor in the
braced plane, K, for the compression members in triangulated trusses, trusses and frames
shall be taken as:
• for bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750
• for pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875
Minimum Thickness of Steel: Structural steel, including bracing, cross-frames and all types
of gusset plates, except for fillers and in railings, shall be not less than 8 mmin thickness.
An example of a steel truss bridge is given in the appendix GB. This is a pedestrian bridge,
and was chosen to give an example of a loading significantly different from that of a
standard bridge.
3.14.3 Large Span Bridges (Above 50m Span)

Large span bridges (≥50 m) should be calculated according to AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, 5th edition (Ref. 1) or later, together with Part 1Chapter 3.
3.15 Bearing Design

Regarding recommended bearing types, see Part 1 Chapter 3. The suitability of various
types of bearings as depicted in Figures 6-3-1-1, 6-3-1-2 and 3-7 is indicated in Table 3-5.
The most common bearing design in Ethiopia is the "Steel Plate Bearing" with two steel
plates on top of each other without a PTFE layer in between. A dowel is used as guide and
to resist transversal loads. This bearing is economical and usually made out of local
"Medium Grade Steel." Although it is likely that this type of bearing will loose some of its
mobility after some decades of corrosion, it functions quite well. It is however,
recommended to use a PTFE layer. An example of such a design is given in the appendix.

Chapter 3
The design Flow Chart should be as follows;
FORM 3-11: CHECKLIST FOR BEARING DESIGN

□ 1. Calculate all relevant vertical and horizontal loads on the bearing
□2. Select steel quality
□3. Check the steel plates according to Part 1 Chapter 6
□4. Check horizontal forces resisted by the friction steel – concrete (i.e. µ=0.5)
□5. Check the necessary dimension of dowels and anchor bolts to resist the remaining
horizontal force.
□ 6. Check the actual concrete pressure
□7. If PTFE is used, check the actual PTFE pressure

Chapter 3
Table 3-5: Suitability of Different Bearing Types
Rotation about Bridge

Movement Resistance to Loads
Type of Bearing Axis Indicated
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Vert. Long. Trans. Vert.
Plain Elastomeric
S S S S L L L L
Pad
Fiberglass-
S S S S L L L L
Reinforced Pad
Stell-Reingorced
Elastomeric S S S S L L L S
Bearing (eg PFTE)
Plain Sliding
S S U U S R R S
Bearing
Curved Sliding
R R S S S R R S
Spherical Bearing
Curved Sliding
Cylindrical R R U S U R R S
Bearing
Disc Bearing R R S S L S R S
Double Cylindrical
R R S S U R R S
Bearing
Pot Bearing R R S S L S S S
Single Roller
S U U S U U R S
Bearing
Multiple Roller
S U U U U U U S
Bearing
Note: S = Suitable
U = Unsuitable
L = Limited Suitability
R = Rarely Used
Since the steel reinforced elastomeric bearing is economical compared to a steel roller
bearing, it is recommended as a first choice for medium/larger bridges with moderate loads
and movements. The catalogue from an approved manufacturer usually gives the allowable
vertical and transverse loads. It is however important to check if the bearing can resist the
deflection angle for the selected type of bearing. If not, a thicker bearing with more layers
must be selected. If the transverse load exceeds the capacity of this type of bearing, a steel
roller bearing or a type such as apot bearing needs to be selected, even though they are
likely to be more expensive. Bearing types are shown in Figure 3-7 (see also Figures 6-1
and 6-2).
The behavior of bearings is quite variable, and there is very little experimental evidence to
precisely define ϕ for each limit state. ϕis taken to be equal to 1.0 where a more refined
estimate is not warranted. The resistance factors are often based on judgment and
experience, but they are generally thought to be conservative.
GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking into account both the contact stresses
and the movement of the contact point due to rolling. Each individual curved contact

Chapter 3
surface shall have a constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved surface shall be
symmetric about a line joining the centers of their two curved surfaces.
Figure 3-7: Common Bearing Types
Bearings shall be designed to be stable. If the bearing has two separate cylindrical faces,
each of which rolls on a flat plate, stability shall be achieved by making the distance
between the two contact lines no greater than the sum of the radii of the two cylindrical
surfaces.
A cylindrical roller is in neutral equilibrium. The provisions for bearings with two curved
surfaces achieve at least neutral, if not stable, equilibrium.
A worked example of a roller bearing design is also given in the appendix RB.

Chapter 3
3.16 Software for Bridge Design
3.16.1 General
There are hundreds of different computer programs used by Design Engineers in different
countries. It has proven most practical to use a simple 2D-frame program, which allows for
movable loads and load groups, as long as it is easy to insert the input data. These are used
more frequently than the more sophisticated FEM programs, which generally are more
tedious to use, although they usually give a more exact result. There are also called
"modified FEM-programs" adapted to the USA Codes: AASHTO LRFD Specifications,
AISC, ACI, AITC, etc. Sometimes these are combined with a CAD-program such as
Vision Draw or Visio PRO, which can import and export .dxf-files.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROGRAMS

StripStepII is a simple general program for 2-dimensional frames, which is inexpensive.
Unfortunately it is not useful for movable loads, which means the designer has to place the
loads in the most unfavorable position, before calculating the moments and forces in each
node or for each member.
STRUCT.etc PLUS (USA) is a general "modified Matrix"-program using STAAD3-2D for
two-dimensional multiple analysis of Concrete, Steel or Timber Structures in the same run.
It has a built-in AISC Steel beam Section Library and CAD facilities able to generate
corresponding STAAD3-2D input tables.
CONSPAN LRFD 1.0 (Leap software, USA) is used for simple and continuous prestressed
concrete bridge superstructures. It is a Windows 95/NT program available in metric units
and it works with automatic Moving Load Analysis with predefined LRFD-loads as well as
user-defined loads. It optimizes for the least number of Strands and uses all common
Strand types.
Curved & Straight Steel Bridge Design & Rating (MDX Software, USA) is mainly used
for composite steel girder and box girder bridges with complex girder systems and/or
complex geometry. It generates an optimal girder design according to AASHTO LRFD,
ASD or LFD Code, including shear connectors, transverse stiffeners, bearings, bracings,
etc. in metric system.
Brigade (Sweden) is a program, with an English Manual, tailor-made for RC Frame
Bridges, which unfortunately is quite expensive.
Otherwise most structural design calculations, without complicated iterations and loops,
can quite easily be written in EXCEL and/or MathCAD. MathCAD is one of many
mathematical programs, that makes it relatively easy to handle difficult mathematical
expressions such as Differential Equations, Fourier series, etc. It is written in clear formula
expression and may easily be imported by Excel and included in an Excel sheet. Some
examples of other simple but time saving and quality improving programs are:
• “RC beam moment and shear design”, “Properties of Cross section of RC
Girder Deck”, “RC T-beam design”, “Design of RC End wall”, “RC Wingwall
design”, “Bearing design”, “RC Punching design”, “RC Column design”, “RC
Footing design”, “RC Footings for Masonry Abutments”, “Cantilever RC
Retaining wall”, “Gravity Retaining wall design”, “Properties of Cross section
of welded steel beam”, “Welded Steel Beam shear design”, “Prestressed (post
tensioned) RC beam design”, etc.

Chapter 3
It is very important that such programs are thoroughly checked before use by others than
the programmer, otherwise it is almost impossible to find errors or “bugs” in the design.
A skilled EXCEL programmer can of course make even more complicated programs,
which shall be different combinations of the above mentioned small sheets, such as:
• RC Slab superstructure design program
• RC T-girder superstructure design program
• RC Box girder superstructure design program
• Piers with framed columns on either combined or isolated footings
3.16.2 Finite Element Modeling (Fem) Programs

STAAD III is probably the most widespread (110 000 worldwide users) 3-dimensional
FEM program for structural design. It is especially suited for certain curved and/or box
girder large bridges. It is often sold together with Stardyne and Visual Draw in a packet
called STAAD/Pro Core (at present 29 000 Br/each; "upgrade version" is available for 3
500 Br).
SAP 2000/NL PUSH is another similar widely used structural design analysis program. It is
very suitable for bridges since it includes movable loads. Its earlier versionsSap 80 and 90
have been used by students at Addis Ababa University.
These large and universal programs shall be adapted to the specific design wanted. This
will make them faster and easier to use for the “common designer” who does not need all
the features in the general programs.
FORM 3-12: CHECKLIST FOR BASIC STEPS FOR THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES
This outline is intended to be a generic overview of the design process using the simplified
methods for illustration. It should not be regarded as fully complete, nor should it be used
as a substitute for a working knowledge of the provisions of this section.
BEAM AND GIRDER SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

A. Develop General Section
Roadway Width (Highway Specified)
Span Arrangements
Select Bridge Type

B. Develop Typical Section
Top Flange
Bottom Flange
Webs
Structure Depth
Reinforcement
Minimum Reinforcement
Temperature and Shrinkage Reinforcement
Effective Flange Widths
Identify Strut and Tie Areas, if any
C. Design Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Deck

Deck Slabs
Minimum Depth
Empirical Design
Traditional Design

Chapter 3
Strip Method
Live Load Application
Distribution Reinforcement
Overhang Design
D. Select Resistance Factors

Strength Limit State (Conventional)
E. Select Load Modifiers

Ductility
Redundancy
Operational Importance
F. Select Applicable Load Combinations and Load Factors

G. Calculate Live Load Force Effects
Select Live Loads and Number of Lanes
Multiple Presence
Dynamic Load Allowance
Distribution Factor for Moment
Interior Beams with Concrete Decks
Exterior Beams
Skewed Bridges
Distribution Factor for Shear
Interior Beams
Exterior Beams
Skewed Bridges
Reactions to Substructure
H. Calculate Force Effects from Other Loads identified
I.Investigate Service Limit State
Evaluate P/S Losses
Stress Limitations for P/S Tendons
Stress Limitations for P/S Concrete
Before Losses
After Losses
Investigate Durability
Crack Control
Investigate Fatigue, if applicable
Calculate Deflection and Camber

J. Investigate Strength Limit State
Flexure
Stress in P/S Steel -Bonded Tendons
Stress in P/S Steel -Unbonded Tendons
Factored Flexural Resistance
Limits for Reinforcement
Shear (Assuming no Torsional Moment)
General Requirements
Sectional Design Model
Nominal Shear Resistance
Determination of βand θ
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Transverse Reinforcement
Horizontal Shear

Chapter 3
K. Check Details
Cover Requirements
Development Length -Reinforcing Steel
Development Length -Prestressing Steel
Splices
Anchorage Zones
Post Tensioned
Pre Tensioned
Ducts
Tendon Profile Limitation
Tendon Confinement
Curved Tendons
Spacing Limits
Reinforcement Spacing Limits
Beam Ledges
SLAB BRIDGES
Generally, the design approach for slab bridges is similar to beam and girder bridges with
some exceptions as noted below.
A. Check Minimum Recommended Depth
B. Determine Live Load Strip Width
C. Applicability of Live Load for Decks and Deck Systems
D. Design Edge Beam
E. Shear
F. Distribution Reinforcement
G. If Not Solid
Check if Voided Slab or Cellular Construction
Check Minimum and Maximum Dimensions
Design Diaphragms
Check Design Requirements
SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
A. Establish Minimum Seat Width
B. Compile Force Effects Not Compiled for Superstructure
Water
Effect of Scour
Earthquake
Temperature
Superimposed Deformation
Vehicular Collision
Braking Force
Centrifugal Force
Earth Pressure
C. Analyze Structure and Compile Load Combinations

Load Combinations
Special Earthquake Load Combinations
D. Compression Members
Factored Axial Resistance

Chapter 3
Biaxial Flexure
Slenderness Effects
Shear (Usually Earthquake Induced)
Reinforcement Limits
Bearing
Durability
Detailing and Seismic
E. Foundations (Structural Considerations)

Scour
Footings
REFERENCES
1 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, 2nd Edition, 1998.
Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.
2 The Ethiopian Building Code Standard (EBCS),Vol.8,“Design of Structures for
Earthquake Resistance,” 1995.
3 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 7, “Foundations,” 1995.
4 Mononobe, N. “Earthquake-proof Construction of Masonry Dams.” In Proc.,
World Engineering Conference, Vol 9, 1929.
5 Okabe, S. “General Theory of Earth Pressure.” Journal of the Japanese Society of
Civil Engineers, Vol 12, No. 1, 1926.
6 Seed, H. B. and R. V. Whitman. “Design of Earth Retaining Structures for
Dynamic Loads.” In Proc., ASCE Specialty Conference on Lateral Stresses in the
Ground and Design of Earth Retaining Structures, American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, 1970.
7 Richards. R. and D. G. Elms. “Seismic Behavior of Gravity Retaining Walls.”
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol 105, No. GT4,
1979.
8 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 2, “Structural Use of Concrete,”
1995
9 Taylor, A. W., R. B. Rowell, and J. E. Breen. Design Behavior of Thin Walls in
Hollow Concrete Bridge Piers and Pylons. Research Report 1180-1F. Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
10 Ethiopian Building Code Standard (ECBS), Vol. 5, “Utilization of Timber,”
1995.

Chapter 4
Drainage Design Manual – 2014 Approximate Methods of Analysis
4 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS
4.1 General
This chapter describes methods of analysis suitable for the design and evaluation of
bridges and is limited to the modeling of structures and the determination of force effects.
Other methods of analysis that are based on documented material characteristics and that
satisfy equilibrium and compatibility (see Part 1 Chapter 3) may also be used.
In general, bridge structures are to be analyzed elastically. However, this chapter permits
the inelastic analysis or redistribution of force effects in some continuous beam
superstructures. It specifies inelastic analysis for compressive members behaving
ineleastically and as an alternative for extreme event limit states.
If the span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed cross-sections exceeds
2.5 times its width, the superstructure shall be idealized as a single steel spine within a
concrete beam.
Segments of horizontally curved superstructures with torsionally stiff closed sections
whose central angle subtended by a curved span or portion thereof is less than 12°shall be
analyzed as if the segment were straight.
4.2 Notations
The following notation shall apply to this chapter:
2
A = Area of concrete (mm )
2
A = area of cross-section (mm )
Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 4-
2
5(mm )
2
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm )
Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in
Figure 4-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
2
investigation (mm )
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member, as
shown in Figure 4-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
2
investigation (mm )
b = width of plate element (mm)
bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm)
C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans
dv = effective shear depth (mm)
D = stiffness ratio: Dx/Dy
2
Dx = flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm /mm)
2
Dy = flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm /mm)
E = equivalent width (mm)
EB = modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)
ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of gravity of
the pattern of girders (mm)
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
fpe = effective stress after losses (MPa)

Chapter 4
Approximate Methods of Analysis Bridge Design Manual – 2014
fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0
(MPa)
h = depth of deck (mm)
4
I = moment of inertia of beam (mm )
4
Ip = polar moment of inertia (mm )
4
Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm )
4
J = St. Venant's torsional inertia (mm )
K = effective length factor
Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter
Ks = strip stiffness
lt = tire length along direction of traffic (mm)
L = span of beam (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken ≤of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
+M = positive moment (Nmm/mm)
-M = negative moment (Nmm/mm)
Mu = factored moment (Nmm)
Nb = number of beams, stringers or girders
NL = number of design lanes
Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N)
p = tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa
R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
s = length of a side element (mm)
sx = crack spacing parameter
S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
S = span length (mm)
t = thickness of plate-like element (mm)
ts = deck slab thickness (mm)
V = shear stress on concrete
Vu = factored shear force (N)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤of the actual width or 18,000
mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each
girder (mm)
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the
exterior girder (mm)
εx = strain in reinforcement
θ = skew angle (DEG)
ϕ = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7.
4.3 Decks
4.3.1 General
An approximate method of analysis in which the deck is subdivided into strips
perpendicular to the supporting components shall be considered acceptable for decks other
than fully filled and partially filled grids, for which the provisions of Part 2 Section 4.3.8
Live Load Distribution on Fully and Partially Filled Grids, shall apply.

Chapter 4
Where the strip method is used, the extreme positive moment in any deck panel between
girders shall be taken to apply to all positive moment regions. Similarly, the extreme
negative moment over any beam or girder shall be taken to apply to all negative moment
regions.
In determining the strip widths, the effects of flexure in the secondary direction and of
torsion on the distribution of internal force effects are accounted for to obtain flexural force
effects approximating those that would be provided by a more refined method of analysis.
Depending on the type of deck, modeling and design in the secondary direction may utilize
one of the following approximations:
• Secondary strip designed in a manner like the primary strip, with all the limit states
applicable;
• Resistance requirements in the secondary direction determined as a percent of that
in the primary one as specified in the traditional approach for reinforced concrete
slabs (as in Ref. 1); or
• Minimum structural and/or geometry requirements specified for the secondary
direction independent of actual force effects, as is the case for most wood decks.
The approximate strip model for decks is based on rectangular layouts. While skew
generally tends to decrease extreme force effects, it produces negative moments at corners,
torsional moments in the end zones, substantial redistribution of reaction forces, and a
number of other structural phenomena that should be considered in the design.
4.3.2 Applicability
The use of design aids such as computer software for decks containing prefabricated
elements shall be permitted in lieu of analysis if the performance of the deck is
documented and supported by sufficient technical evidence. The Designer shall be
responsible for the accuracy and implementation of any design aids used.
For slab bridges and concrete slabs spanning more than 4.6 m and with span primarily in
the direction parallel to traffic, the provisions of Part 2 Section 4.5: Equivalent Strip
Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, shall apply.
4.3.3 Width of Equivalent Interior Strips

The Width of the equivalent strip of a deck shall be taken as specified in Table 4-1. Where
decks span primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, strips supporting an axle load shall
not be taken to be greater than 1.0 m for open grids, and not greater than 3.0 m for all other
decks where multilane loading is being investigated. For deck overhangs, where
applicable, the provisions of Part 1 Chapte 3 for Gravity Loads/Deck Overhang Loadshall
be used in lieu of the strip width specified in Table 4-1 for deck overhangs. The equivalent
strips for decks that span primarily in the transverse direction shall not be subject to width
limits.
Values provided for equivalent strip widths and strength requirements in the secondary
direction are based on past experience. Practical experience and future research work may
lead to refinement.
To get the load per unit width of the equivalent strip, divide the total load on one design
traffic lane by the calculated strip width.

Chapter 4
Table 4-1: Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks
Direction of Primary Strip Width of Primary

Type of Deck
Relative to Traffic Strip (mm)
Concrete:
• Cast-in-place Overhang 1140 + 0.833X
Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
-M: 1220 + 0.25S
• Cast-in-place with stay-in-place
concrete formwork Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
-M: 1220 + 0.25S
Wood:
• Spike-laminated
o Continuous decks or Parallel Perpendicular 2.0h + 760
interconnected panels 4.0h + 1020
o Non-interconnected Parallel Perpendicular 2.0h + 760

panels 4.0h + 1020
• Planks Plank Width

Note: S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
H = depth of deck (mm)
+M = positive moment
-M = negative moment
X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
4.3.4 Width of Equivalent Strips at Edges of Slabs

For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced deck strip
width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening or similar protrudence
acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be assumed to support one line of
wheels and, where appropriate, a tributary portion of the design lane load.
Longitudinal Edges: Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective
width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance
between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half
of the strip width, specified in either Part 2 Section4.3.3, or Part 2Section 4.5 as
appropriate. The effective width shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1800 mm.
Transverse Edges: The effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be
taken as the sum of the distance between the transverse edge of the deck and the centerline
of the first line of support for the deck, usually taken as a girder web, plus one-half of the
width of strip as specified in Part 2Section 4.5. The effective width shall not exceed the
full strip width specified in Part 2Section 4.5.
4.3.5 Distribution of Wheel Loads

If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction exceeds 1.5 times the
spacing in the primary direction, all of the wheel loads shall be considered to be applied to
the primary strip, and the provisions specified in the traditional approach shall be applied
to the secondary direction.

Chapter 4
If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction is less than 1.5 times
the spacing in the primary direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting
strips.
The width of the equivalent strips in both directions shall be taken as specified in Table 4-
1. Each wheel load shall be distributed between two intersecting strips. The distribution
shall be determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the sum of stiffnesses
of the intersecting strips. In the absence of more precise calculations, the strip stiffness, ks,
shall be estimated as:
∗
CD = (4.1)

4
where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm )
S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
4.3.6 Calculation of Force Effects

The strips shall be treated as continuous beams or simply supported beams, as appropriate.
Span length shall be taken as the center-to-center distance between the supporting
components. For the purpose of determining force effects in the strip, the supporting
components shall be assumed to be infinitely rigid.
The wheel loads shall be modeled as concentrated loads or as patch loads whose length
along the span shall be the length of the tire contact area, as specified in Part 1,Chapter 3,
plus the depth of the deck. The strips should be analyzed by classical beam theory.
The design section for negative moments and shear forces, where investigated, shall be
taken as follows:
• For monolithic construction and concrete box beams at the face of the supporting
component;
• For steel and wood beams: one-quarter the flange width from the centerline of
support;
• For precast I-shaped and T-shaped concrete beams: one-third the flange width, but
not exceeding 380 mm from the centerline of support.
For the purpose of this chapter, each web of a steel or concrete box beam shall be treated
as a separate supporting component.
For short-spans, the force effects calculated using the footprint could be significantly
lower, and more realistic, than force effects calculated using concentrated loads.
Past practice has been not to check shear in typical decks. A design section for shear is
provided for use in nontraditional situations. It is not the intent to investigate shear in every
deck.
4.3.7 Cross-Sectional Frame Action

Where decks are an integral part of Box or Cellular cross-sections, flexural and/or torsional
stiffnesses of supporting components of the cross-section, i.e., the webs and bottom flange,
are likely to cause significant force effects in the deck. Those components shall be
included in the analysis of the deck.
If the length of a frame segment is modeled as the width of an equivalent strip, provisions
of above sections Width of Equivalent Interior Strips, Distribution of Wheel Loads, and
Calculation of Force Effects, shall be used.

Chapter 4
The model used is essentially a transverse segmental strip, in which flexural continuity
provided by the webs and bottom flange is included. Such modeling is restricted to closed
cross-sections only. In open-framed structures, a degree of transverse frame action also
exists, but it can be determined only by complex, refined analysis.
In normal beam-slab superstructures, cross-sectional frame action may safely be neglected.
If the slab is supported by box beams or is integrated into a cellular cross-section, the
effects of frame action could be considerable. Such action usually decreases positive
moments, but may increase negative moments resulting in cracking of the deck. For larger
structures, a three-dimensional analysis shall be appropriate. For smaller structures, the
analysis could be restricted to a segment of the bridge whose length is the width of an
equivalent strip.
Extreme force effects shall be calculated by combining the:
• Longitudinal response of the superstructure approximated by classical beam theory,
and
• Transverse flexural response modeled as a cross-sectional frame.
4.3.8 Live Load Distribution on Fully Filled and Partially Filled Grids
Moments in Nmm/mm of grid due to live load in filled and partially filled grids shall be
determined as:
• Main bars transverse to traffic:
M = C lt pD0.25 [42.3 * ln(0.039S) -74] (4.2)
• Main bars parallel to direction of traffic
0.29 0.46
M = Cp[8060D ln(0.039S) −10200D lt ／200
] (4.3)
where: S = span length (mm), 500 mm < S < 10 000 mm in Equation 4.2, and 500 mm
< S < 5000 mm in Equation 4.3
C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans
lt = tire length, along direction of traffic,as specified in section 3.6.1 Gravity
Loads: Tire Contact Area (mm)
p = tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa
D = Dx/Dy
2
Dx = flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm /mm)
2
Dy = flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm /mm)
Where test results are not available, the stiffness ratio, D, shall be taken as:
• For fully filled grids with at least 38mm monolithic overfill ............................2.0
• For all other fully filled grids.............................................................................2.5
• For partially filled grids with at least 38 mm monolithic overfill .....................8.0
• For all other partially filled grids.....................................................................10.0

Chapter 4
The moment equations have been derived from orthotropic plate theory and stiffness ratios
obtained in full-scale laboratory tests of filled and partially filled grids based on a 500 mm
wide, 200 mm long tire contact area. Moments resulting from these equations compare
well with full-scale test results and finite difference and finite element solutions. The tire
contact area, specified in Part 1,Chapter 3, factored for the Strength I Load Combination,
is a 510 mm by 385 mm rectangle, therefore Equations 4.2 and 4.3 are expected to produce
conservative results.
For on-the-road tire loads greater than those indicated by the design truck, the factored tire
pressure should not be taken to be greater than 0.86 MPa, unless supported by condition-
specific data, which includes the tire contact area.
4.3.9 Inelastic Analysis

The inelastic finite element analysis or yield line analysis shall not be used unless
otherwise permitted by ERA.
4.4 Beam-Slab Bridges
4.4.1 Application
The provisions of this Article may be applied tostraight girder bridges and horizontally
curved concretebridges, as well as horizontally curved steel girderbridges complying with
the provisions ofAASHTO LRFD Bridge Design SpecificationsArticle 4.6.1.2.4. The
provisions of this Article may alsobe used to determine a starting point for some methodsof
analysis to determine force effects in curved girdersof any degree of curvature in plan.
Except as specified in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design SpecificationsArticle 4.6.2.2.5,
theprovisions of this Article shall be taken to apply tobridges being analyzed for:
• A single lane of loading; or
• Multiple lanes of live load yielding approximatelythe same force effect per lane.
If one lane is loaded with a special vehicle orevaluation permit vehicle, the design force
effect pergirder resulting from the mixed traffic may bedetermined as specified in
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design SpecificationsArticle 4.6.2.2.5.
For beam spacing exceeding the range of applicability as specified in Tables 4-3 to 4-9, the
live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes based on the lever rule
unless specified otherwise herein.
The V-load method is one example of a method ofcurved bridge analysis which starts with
straight girderdistribution factors (United States Steel, 1984).
The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the reaction at another
support by assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior supports.
When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as
shown in Figure 4-1. Moments should be taken about the assumed, or notional, hinge in the
deck over the middle girder to find the reaction on the exterior girder.

Chapter 4
Figure 4-1: Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three Girder Bridges
The provisions of Part 1 Section 3.6.1: Gravity Load: Multiple Presence of Live Load
specify that multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load
assignment methods other than statical moment or lever arm methods because these factors
are already incorporated in the distribution factors.
Bridges not meeting the requirements of this chapter shall be analyzed as specified in
Part 2 Chapter 3.
The distribution of live load, specified in the two following sections of this subchapter,
shall be used for girders, beams, and stringers, other than multiple steel box beams with
concrete decks that meet the following conditions and any other conditions identified in
tables of distribution factors as specified herein:
• Width of deck is constant;
• Number of beams is not less than four, unless otherwise specified;
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness;
• Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed
0.9m;
• Curvature in plan is less than the limit specified in Part 2 Section 4.1; and
• Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Table 4-2.
Where moderate deviations from a constant deck width or parallel beams exist, the
equations in the tables of distribution factors shall be used in conjunction with a suitable
value for beam spacing.
In Strength Load Combination II, applying a distribution factor procedure to a loading
involving a heavy permit load can be overly conservative unless lane-by-lane distribution
factors are available. Use of a refined method of analysis will circumvent this situation.
Cast-in-place multicell concrete box girder bridgetypes may be designed as whole-width
structures. Suchcross-sections shall be designed for the live loaddistribution factors in
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design SpecificationsArticles 4.6.2.2.2 and 4.6.2.2.3 forinterior
girders, multiplied by the number of girders, i.e.,webs.
Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as
specified in section “Interior Beams with Concrete Decks,” below.
Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck
shall be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers.
Live load distribution factors, specified herein, shall be used for permit and rating vehicles
whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck.
Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of inertia and torsional
stiffness used herein and indicated in the following text shall be taken as those of the cross-
section to which traffic will be applied, i.e., usually the composite section.

Chapter 4
The longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg, shall be taken as:

2
Kg = n(I+Aeg ) in which: n=EB/ED (4.4)
where: EB = modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)
ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
4
I = moment of inertia of beam (mm )
eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
2
A = Area of concrete (mm )
The parameters A and I in Equation 4.4 shall be taken as those of the non-composite beam.
The bridge types indicated in Tables 4-3 through 4-9, with reference to Figure 4-1, shall be
taken as representative of the type of bridge to which each approximate equation applies.
Except as permitted by Part 1,Chapter 2, and regardless of the method of analysis
used(i.e., approximate or refined), exterior girders of multi-beam bridges shall not have
less resistance than an interior beam.
Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant deck width
andparallel beams. Past designs with moderate exceptions to these two assumptions have
performed well when the "S/D" distribution factors were used. While the distribution
factors specified herein are more representative of actual bridge behavior, common sense
indicates that some exceptions are still possible, especially if the parameter "S" is chosen
with prudent judgment, or if thefactors are appropriately varied at selected locationsalong
the span.
Whole-width design is appropriate for torsionallystiffcross-sections where load-sharing
between girdersis extremely high and torsional loads are hard toestimate. Prestressing force
should be evenly distributedbetween girders. Cell width-to-height ratios should
beapproximately 2:1.
In lieu of more refined information, the St Venant torsional inertia, J, shall be determined
as:
• For thin-walled open beam:
3
J ∼1/3 Σbt (4.5)
• For stocky open sections, e.g., prestressed I-beams, etc., and solid sections:
4
J ∼A /40Ip (4.6)
For closed thin-walled shapes:
0
J∞ ∑
(4.7)

where: b = width of plate element (mm)

t = thickness of plate-like element (mm)
2
A = area of cross-section (mm )
4
Ip = polar moment of inertia (mm )
2
Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm )
s = length of a side element (mm)

Chapter 4
Equation 4.6 substantially underestimate the torsional stiffness of some concrete I-beams
(a more accurate, but more complex, approximation can be found in Ref. 2).
For beams with variable moment of inertia, Kg shall be based on average properties.
In some cases, the lower limit of deck slab thickness, ts shown in the range of applicability
column in Tables 4-3 through 4-9 is less than 180 mm. The research used to develop the
equation in those tables reflects the range of slab thickness shown.
Table 4-2 below describes how the term L (length) shall be determined for use in the live
load distribution factor equations given below.
In the rare occasion when the continuous span arrangement is such that an interior span
does not have any positive uniform load moment (i.e. no uniform load points of
contraflexure) the region of negative moment near the interior supports would be increased
to the centerline of the span, and the L used in determining the live load distribution factors
would be the average of the two adjacent spans.
Table 4-2: “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations
Force Effect L (mm)

Positive Moment The length of the span for which moment
is being calculated
Negative Moment – Near interior supports of The average length of the two adjacent
continuous spans from point of contraflexure spans
to point of contraflexure under a uniform load
on all spans
Negative Moment – Other than near interior The length of the span for which moment
supports of continuous spans is being calculated
Shear The length of the span for which shear is
being calculated
Exterior Reaction The length of the exterior span
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span The average length of the two adjacent
spans
4.4.2 Interior Beams with Concrete Decks

The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be determined
by applying the lane fraction specified in Table 4-3. Applicable cross-sections are depicted
in Figure 4-2.
3
For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L ts ) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
For concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
• Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution,
and
• If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a
refined analysis shall be used.
For multiple steel box girders with a concrete deck, the live load flexural moment shall be
determined using the distribution factor specified in Table 4-3.
When the spacing of the box girders varies along the length of the bridge, the value of NL

Chapter 4
shall be determined, as specified in Part 1,Chapter 3,using the width, W, taken at midspan.
The results of analytical and model studies of simple span multiple box section bridges
(Ref. 3) showed that folded plate theory could be used to analyze the behavior of bridges
of this type.

Chapter 4
Supporting Components Type of Deck Typical Cross-Section

Cast-in-place concrete
slab, precast concrete slab,
Steel Beam
steel grid, glued/spiked
panels, stressed wood
Closed Steel or Precast

Cast-in-place concrete slab
Concrete Boxes
Open Steel or Precast
slab, precast concrete deck
Concrete Boxes
slab
Cast-in-Place Concrete
Monolithic concrete
Multicell Box
Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee

Monolithic concrete
Beam
Precast solid, Voided or

Cellular Concrete Boxes with
overlay
Shear Keys
Precast Solid, Voided, or
Cellular Concrete Box with
Shear Keys and with or Integral concrete
without Transverse Post-
Tensioning
Precast Concrete Channel Cast-in-place concrete

Sections with Shear Keys overlay
Precast Concrete Double Tee

Section with Shear Keys and
Integral concrete
with or without Transverse
Post-Tensioning
Precast Concrete Tee Section
with Shear Keys and with or
Integral concrete
without Transverse Post-
Tensioning
Precast Concrete I or Bulb- Cast-in-place concrete,

Tee Sections precast concrete
Wood Beams or plank, glued/spiked
panels or stressed wood
Figure 4-2: Common Deck Superstructures

Chapter 4
Multiple presence factors, specified in Table 3.4.1-1 of Part 1, are not applied because the
multiple factors in past editions of the Standard Specifications were considered in the
development of the equation in Table 4-3 for multiple steel box girders.
The lateral load distribution obtained for simple spans is also considered applicable to
continuous structures.
Table 4-3: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
Applicable Cross-
Range of
Type of Beams section from Distribution Factors
Applicability
Figure 4-2
Concrete Deck on 1 One Design Lane Loaded: S/3700 S ≤ 1800

Wood Beams Two ore More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/300
Concrete Deck, a, e, k and also i, j if One Design Lane Loaded: 1100 ≤ S ≤ 4900
.
. .
Filled Grid, or sufficiently
110 ≤ ts ≤ 300
0.06 + o p o p
4300 D
Partially Filled Grid connected to act as
on Steel or Concrete a unit 6000 ≤ L ≤ 7300
Beams; Concrete T- Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
Nb ≥ 4
.
Beams, T- and . .
0.075 + o p o p
Double T-Sections 4300 D
Use lesser of the values obtained Nb = 3
from the equation above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule
Multicell Concrete d One Design Lane Loaded: 2100 ≤ S ≤ 4000

Box Beam 300 .F
1 .F
18000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
o1.75 + po p o p
1100 * Nc ≥ 3
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: If Nc> 8 use Nc = 8
13 . 1 .F
o p o po p
* 430
Steel Grids on Steel a One Design Lane Loaded: S ≤ 1800 mm
Beams S/2300 If tg< 100 mm
S/3050 If tg≥ 100 mm
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/2400 If tg< 100 mm S ≤ 3200 mm
S/3050 If tg≥ 100 mm
The bridges considered in the development of the equations had interior end diaphragms
only (i.e., no interior diaphragms within the spans) and no exterior diaphragms anywhere
between boxes. If interior or exterior diaphragms are provided within the span, the
transverse load distribution characteristics of the bridge will be improved to some degree.
This improvement can be evaluated, if desired, using any method of analysis that satisfies
the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and uses stress-strain relationships for
the proposed materials.
4.4.3 Exterior Beams

The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane
fraction, g, specified in Table 4-4.

Chapter 4
Table 4-4: Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal
Beams
Type of Applicable One Design Lane Two or More Design Range of

Superstructure Cross-Section Loaded Lanes Loaded Applicability
from Figure
4-2
Wood Deck on
Wood or Steel a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Beams
Concrete Deck on
l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck,
g = e ginterior
Filled Grid, 1
= 0.77 +
- 300 ≤ de ≤ 1700
2800
Partially Filled
Grid, or Unfilled
Grid Deck a, e, k and also
Composite with i, j if
Reinforced sufficiently Lever Rule Use lesser of the
Concrete Slab on connected to values obtained from
Steel or Concrete act as a unit the equation above Nb = 3
Beams; Concrete with Nb = 3 or the
T-Beams, T- and lever rule
Double T-
Sections
1 1
= =
4300 4300
Cast-in-Place
Concrete d We ≤ S
Multicell Box Or the provisions for a whole-width design
specified in Article 4.6.2.2.1
g = e ginterior
1
Concrete Deck on O ≤ de ≤ 1400
= 0.97 +
8700
Concrete Spread b, c Lever Rule 1800 < S ≤ 5500
Box Beams
Use Lever Rule S > 5500
Concrete Box
g = e ginterior g = e ginterior
1 1
Beams Used in
= 1.125 + ≥ 1.0 = 1.04 + ≥ 1.0
f, g de ≤ 600
Muiltibeam
Decks 9100 7600
h
i, j
Concrete Beams if connected
Other than Box only enough to
prevent Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Beams Used in
Multibeam Decks relative
vertical
displacement
at the interface
Open Steel Grid
Deck on Steel a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Beams
Concrete Deck on
As specified in Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Multiple Steel b, c
Design Specifications
Box Girders
The distance, de, shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the interior face
of the traffic railing and negative if it is outboard of the curb or traffic barrier.
In beam-slab bridge cross-sections with diaphragms or cross-frames, the distribution factor
for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less than that which would be obtained by

Chapter 4
assuming that the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid cross-section. The provisions
of Part 1, Chapter 3 shall apply.
This additional investigation is required because the distribution factor for girders in a
multi-girder cross-section, Types "a" and "e" in Figure 4-2, was determined without
consideration of diaphragm or cross-frames. The recommended procedure is an interim
provision until research provides a better solution.
The procedure outlined in this section is the same as the conventional approximation for
loads on piles.
£ ¤
¡ ~
= +
∑~
¤¢ (4.8)
¡¢
∑ ¥0
where: R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes

Nb = number of beams or girders
e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the centre of gravity
of the pattern of girders (mm)
x = horizontal distance from the centre of gravity of the pattern of girders to
each girder (mm)
Xext = horizontal distance from the centre of gravity of the pattern of girders to the
exterior girder (mm)
4.4.4 Skewed Bridges

When the line supports are skewed and the difference between skew angles of two adjacent
lines of supports does not exceed 10°, the bending moment in the beams shall be reduced
in accordance with Table 4-5.
Table 4-5: Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal
Beams on Skewed Supports
Applicable
Cross-section Any Number of Design Range of
Type of Superstructure
from Figure Lanes Loaded Applicability
4-2
Concrete Deck, Filled 1 − ¦ tan © %.F
Grid, or Partially Filled C .F .F 30º≤θ≤60º
¦ = 0.25 o p o p
D
Grid on Steel or 1100 ≤S ≤ 4900
a, e and k
ª«© < 30° ℎ¯ ¦ = 0.0
Concrete Beams, 6000 ≤ L ≤ 73000
ª«© > 60° ±² © = 60°

Concrete T-Beams, T or Nb ≥ 4
Double T Sections
Accepted reduction factors are not currently available for cases not covered in Table 4-5.
4.4.5 Flexural Moments and Shear in Transverse Floorbeams

If the deck is supported directly by transverse floorbeams, the floorbeams shall be designed
for loads determined in accordance with Table 4-6.
The fractions provided in Table 4-6 shall be used in conjunction with the 145 kN design
axle load alone. For spacings of floorbeams outside the given ranges of applicability, all of
the design live loads shall be considered, and the lever rule shall be used.

Chapter 4
Table 4-6: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for Moment and
Shear
Fraction of Wheel Load

Type of Deck Range of Applicability
to Each Floor-Beam
Plank S/1200 N/A
Concrete S/1800 S ≤1800
4.4.6 Interior Beams

The live load shear for interior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
specified in Table 4-7. For interior beam types not listed in Table 4-7, lateral distribution
of the wheel or axle adjacent to the end of span shall be that produced by use of the lever
rule. For preliminary design, the term I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
For concrete box beams used in multi-beam decks, if the values of I or J do not comply
with the limitations in Table 4-7, the distribution factor for shear shall be taken as that for
moment.
Table 4-7: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams
Applicable
Type of One Design Two or More Design Range of
Cross-section
Superstructure Lane Loaded Lanes Loaded Applicability
from Figure 4-2
Concrete Deck on
Wood Beams l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Concrete Deck, Filled
1100 ≤S ≤4900
.

Grid, or Partially a, e, k and also i, j 6000 ≤L ≤73000
Filled Grid on Steel or 0.36 + S/7600 0.2 + −o p
3600 10700
if sufficiently 110 ≤ts ≤300
Concrete Beams: connected to act Nb ≥ 4
Concrete T-Beams. T as a unit
and Double T Sections Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb =3
Multi-cell Concrete 1800 ≤S ≤4900
. . .P .
o p o p o p o p
Box Beams, Box 6000 ≤L ≤73000
d
Sections 2900 2200 890 ≤d ≤2800
Nc ≥ 3
4.4.7 Exterior Beams

The live load shear for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
specified in Table 4-8. For cases not addressed in Table 4-7 and Table 4-8, the live load
distribution to exterior beams shall be determined by using the lever rule.
The parameter de shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the curb or
traffic barrier and negative if it is outboard.
The additional provisions for exterior beams in beam-slab bridges with cross-frames or
diaphragms, specified in “Exterior Beams,” above, shall apply.

Chapter 4
Table 4-8: Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams
One
Applicable Two or More
Type of Design Range of
Cross-section Design Lanes
Superstructure Lane Applicability
from Figure 4-2 Loaded
Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood
a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or steel Beams
Grid, or Partially Filled a, e, k and also i, j g= e ginterior
-300 ≤de ≤ 1700
Grid on Steel or if sufficiently θ= 0.6 + de/3000
Lever Rule
Concrete Beams; connected to actas
Concrete T-Beams, T- a unit
and Double T-Beams Lever Rule Nb = 3
Multi-cell Concrete Box g = e ginterior

d Lever Rule -600 ≤de ≤ 1500
Beams, Box Sections θ= 0.64 + de/3800
Steel Grid Deck on

a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Steel Beams
4.4.8 Skewed Bridges

Shear in the exterior beam at the obtuse corner of the bridge shall be adjusted when the line
of support is skewed. The value of the correction factor shall be obtained from Table 4-9. It
is applied to the lane fraction specified in Table 4-7 for interior beams and in Table 4-8 for
exterior beams.
In determining the end shear in multi-beam bridges, the skew correction at the obtuse
corner shall be applied to all the beams.
Table 4-9: Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support Shear of the
Obtuse Corner
Applicable
Range of
Type of Superstructure Cross-section Correction Factor
Applicability
from Figure 4-2
Grid, or Partially Filled a, e, k and also i, j .
0º≤θ≤60º
D
1.0 + 0.20 tan ©
Grid on Steel or Concrete if sufficiently 1100 ≤S ≤4900
Beams; Concrete T- connected to act 6000 ≤L ≤ 73000
Beams, T-and Double T as unit Nb ≥4
Section
0º≤θ≤60º
1800 ≤S ≤4000
1.0 + o0.25 + p tan ©
Multi-cell Concrete Box
70
d 6000 ≤L ≤73000
Beams, Box sections
900 ≤d ≤2700
Nc ≥3
Verifiable correction factors are not available for cases not covered in Table 4-9.
The equal treatment of all beams in a multi-beam bridge is conservative regarding positive
reaction and shear. However, it is not necessarily conservative regarding uplift in the case

Chapter 4
of large skew and short exterior spans of continuous beams. A supplementary investigation
of uplift should be considered using the correction factor from Table 4-9 (i.e., the terms
other than 1.0, taken as negative for the exterior beam at the acute corner).
In Equation 4.8, the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple
presence effect.
4.5 Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges

This chapter shall be applied to the types of cross-sections shown schematically in Figure
4-2 and culverts under less than 600 mm of fill. For the purpose of this chapter, cast-in-
place voided slab bridges shall be considered as slab bridges.
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one
lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
³ = 250 + 0.42 (4.9)
The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with
more than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
³ = 2100 + 0.12 ≤ /z (4.10)
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)

L1 = modified span length taken ≤ of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be ≤ of the actual width or
18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading
(mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in Part 1,Chapter 3.
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:
R =1.05 - 0.25 tan θ ≤ 1.00 (4.11)
where: θ = skew angle (DEG)
4.6 Effective Length Factor, K

Equations for the compressive resistance of columns and moment magnification factors for
beam-columns include a factor, K, which is used to modify the length according to the
restraint at the ends of the column against rotation and translation.
Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective length factor, K, representing
the ratio of the effective length of an idealized pin-end column to the actual length of a
column with various other end conditions. For the compression members in triangulated
trusses, trusses, and frames, K shall be taken as:
• For bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750
• For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875

Chapter 4
4.7 Shear – Sectional Design Model
4.7.1 General
The resistance of members in shear or in shear combined with torsion shall be determined
by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains and by using
experimentally verified stress-strain relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally
cracked concrete.
4.7.2 Determination of β and θ

Simplified Procedure for Non-Prestressed Sections
For non-prestressed concrete sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least
the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified or having an overall depth of
< 400 mm, the following values shall be used:
• β=2.0
o
• θ=45
dv = effective shear depth taken as the distance,measured perpendicular to the neutral
axis,between the resultants of the tensile andcompressive forces due to flexure; it
need notbe taken to be less than the greater of 0.9 de or0.72h (mm)
de = effective depth from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile force
in the tensilereinforcement (mm)
o
With β taken as 2.0 and θ as 45 , the expressions for shear strength become essentially
identical to those traditionally used for evaluating shear resistance. Recent large-scale
experiments (Ref. 4), however, have demonstrated that these traditional expressions can be
seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement.
4.7.3 General Procedure

For sections containing transverse reinforcement, the values of βand θ shall be as specified
in Figure 4-3 and Table 4-10, and for sections not containing transverse reinforcement
these values shall be as specified in Figure 4-4 and Table 4-11.
In using these tables or figures:
• The shear stress on the concrete shall be determined as:
´µ H¶´}
2= ¶·¸ ¹¸ (4.12)
• The strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall be
determined as:
¼µ /¹¸ .F¡µ .F´µ *½,¾H} |}
º» = ≤ 0.002 (4.13)
} }
If the value of εx, calculated from Equation 4.13, is negative, it shall be multiplied by the
factor, Fεtaken as:
} }
+¿ = (4.14)
} }
Where: ϕ= resistance factor for shear specified in Part 1 Chapter 7.

Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in
Figure 4-5 below (mm2)

Chapter 4
Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown
in Figure 4-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
2
investigation (mm )
Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N)
Vu = factored shear force (N)
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member,
as shown in Figure 4-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the
2
section under investigation (mm )
Mu = factored moment (Nmm)
fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0
(MPa)
The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-depth containing the
flexural tension zone, as illustrated in Figure 4-5.
The crack spacing parameter sx, used in Figure 4-4 and Table 4-11, shall be taken as the
lesser of either dv or the maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack control
reinforcement. The area of the reinforcement in each layer shall be ≥0.003 bv sx.
In the general procedure, βand θ are found from Figure 4-3 and Table 4-10 or Figure 4-4
and Table 4-11. In these figures and tables, β and θ are given as functions of the strain εx
the shear stress V and the crack spacing parameter sx.

Chapter 4
Figure 4-3: Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement

Chapter 4
Figure 4-4: Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement

Chapter 4
Table 4-10: Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
2 εx*1000
« d* -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=0.05 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 28.5 29.0 33.0 36.0 41.0 43.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.99 3.49 2.51 2.37 2.23 1.95 1.72
0.075 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.5 30.0 33.5 36.0 40.0 42.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.65 3.01 2.47 2.33 2.16 1.90 1.65
0.1 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 24.0 26.5 30.5 34.0 36.0 38.0 39.0
6.50 5.87 5.31 3.26 2.61 2.54 2.41 2.28 2.09 1.72 1.45
0.125 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.5 34.0 36.0 37.0 38.0
2.71 2.71 2.71 2.60 2.57 2.50 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.60 1.35
0.15 22.0 22.5 23.5 25.0 27.0 29.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 36.5 37.0
2.66 2.61 2.61 2.55 2.50 2.45 2.28 2.06 1.93 1.50 1.24
0.175 23.5 24.0 25.0 26.5 28.0 30.0 32.5 34.0 35.0 35.5 36.0
2.59 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.41 2.39 2.20 1.95 1.74 1.35 1.11
0.2 25.0 25.5 26.5 27.5 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 35.0 36.0
2.55 2.49 2.48 2.45 2.37 2.33 2.10 1.82 1.58 1.21 1.00
0.225 26.5 27.0 27.5 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 36.5 39.0
2.45 2.44 2.43 2.37 2.33 2.27 1.92 1.67 1.43 1.18 1.14
0.25 28.0 28.5 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.5 38.5 41.5
2.36 2.36 2.32 2.30 2.28 2.01 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.30 1.25
Table 4-11: Values of θ and β for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement
εx* 1000
sx
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=130 26.0 26.0 27.0 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 36.0 38.0
6.90 5.70 4.94 3.78 3.19 2.82 2.56 2.19 1.93
250 27.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 39.0 40.0 43.0 45.0
6.77 5.53 4.65 3.45 2.83 2.46 2.19 1.87 1.65
380 27.0 30.0 32.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 50.0
6.57 5.42 4.47 3.21 2.59 2.23 1.98 1.65 1.45
630 28.0 31.0 35.0 41.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 54.0 57.0
6.24 5.36 4.19 2.85 2.26 1.92 1.69 1.40 1.18
1270 31.0 33.0 38.0 48.0 53.0 57.0 59.0 63.0 66.0
5.62 5.24 3.83 2.39 1.82 1.50 1.27 1.00 0.83
2500 35.0 35.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 66.0 69.0 72.0 75.0
4.78 4.78 3.47 1.88 1.35 1.06 0.87 0.65 0.52
5000 42.0 42.0 47.0 64.0 71.0 74.0 77.0 80.0 82.0
3.83 3.83 3.11 1.39 0.90 0.66 0.53 0.37 0.28

Chapter 4
Figure 4-5: Illustration of Ac
The strain, εx, is used as an indicator of the longitudinal stiffness of the section and of the
magnitude of the moment, axial force, and prestressing force. Sections that contain large
percentages of longitudinal reinforcement, are prestressed, or are subjected to small
moments, will have low values of εx. For many prestressed sections, it will be found that εx
is close to 0.0. Such sections will have small web deformations, and hence, high values of
Vc.
In determining εx at a particular section, it is conservative to take Mu as the highest factored
moment that will occur at that section, rather than a moment coincident with Vu. In
calculating εx, the stress fpocan be conservatively taken as the effective stress after losses,
fpe. Alternatively, fpocan be taken as:
|} }
«À½ = «À1 +
(4.15)
It could be argued that the term Vu in Equation 4.13 should be more accurately written as
Vu- 0.5 Vs- Vp. However, the concept of using εx as a parameter is innately imprecise
enough to allow the simplification of using only Vu.
Note that in calculating εx it is necessary to make an estimate for cotθ. As it is conservative
to overestimate εx, it is best to use a low value of θin determining εx.
Because εx is a function of θin Equation 4-13, and θis related to εx in Tables 4-10 and 4-11
or Figures 4-3 and 4-4, an iterative solution is required. A flow chart for shear design is
shown in Figure 4-6, which indicates the iterative solution for β using θ and εx.
The values of β and θ are based on calculating the stresses that can be transmitted across
diagonally cracked concrete. As the cracks become wider, the stress that can be transmitted
decreases. For members containing transverse reinforcement, it is assumed that the
diagonal cracks will be spaced about 300 mm apart. For members without transverse
reinforcement, the spacing of diagonal cracks inclined at θ° to the longitudinal
reinforcement is assumed to be sx/sinθ. Hence, deeper members having larger values of sx
are assumed to have more widely spaced cracks and, hence, cannot transmit such high
shear stresses as shown in Figure 4-7, which provides some guidance in the determination
of the parameter sx.

Chapter 4
Figure 4-6: Flow Chart for Shear Design
4.7.4 Longitudinal Reinforcement

For sections not subjected to torsion, longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so
that at each section Equation 4.16 is satisfied:
¼µ .F¡µ ´µ
ÁD «Â + ÁÀD «ÀD ≥ Ã + + − 0.52D − 2À ¦Ä©Å (4.16)
¹¸ ¶ ¶ ¶
where: Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown
in Figure 4-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under
2
investigation (mm )
ϕ = resistance factors as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance

Chapter 4
Figure 4-7: Guide to the Selection of Sx
Shear causes tension in the longitudinal reinforcement. For a given shear, this tension
becomes larger as θ becomes smaller and as Vc becomes larger. The tension in the
longitudinal reinforcement caused by the shear force can be, visualized from a free body
diagram such as that shown in Figure 4-8.
Taking moments about Point 0 in Figure 4-8, assuming that the aggregate interlock force
on the crack, which contributes to Vc, has a negligible moment about Point 0, and
neglecting the small difference in location of Vu and Vp leads to the requirement for the
tension force in the longitudinal reinforcement caused by shear.
If the reaction force or the load at the maximum moment location introduces direct
compression into the flexural compression face of the member, the area of longitudinal
reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member need not exceed the area required

Chapter 4
to resist the maximum moment acting alone.

At maximum moment locations, the shear force changes sign, and hence the inclination of
the diagonal compressive stresses changes.
Figure 4-8: Forces Assumed in Resistance Model by Moment and Shear
REFERENCES
1 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 3rd Edition, 2010.
2 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998.
3 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 5th Edition, 2010.
4 Eby, C. C., J. M. Kulicki, C. N. Kostem, and M. A. Zellin. The Evaluation of St.
Venant Torsional Constants for Prestressed Concrete I-Beams. Fritz Laboratory
Report No. 400.12. Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1973.
5 Johnston, S. B., and A. H. Mattock. Lateral Distribution of Load in Composite Box
Girder Bridges. Highway Research Record No. 167, 1967.
6 Shioya, T., M. Iguro, Y. Nojiri, H. Akiyama, and T. Okada. “Shear Strength of
Large Reinforced Concrete Beams.” In Fracture Mechanics: Applications to
Concrete. SP 118. ACI, Detroit, Michigan, 1989.
7 United States Steel. 1984. “V-Load Analysis.” Available from the National Steel
Bridge Alliance, Chicago, IL,pp. 1–56.

Chapter 5
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Strength of Steel, Concrete & Masonry Arch Bridges
5 STRENGTH EVALUATION OF EXISTING STEEL, CONCRETE AND

MASONRY ARCH BRIDGES
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Purpose
These proposed guidelines establish a methodology for rating existing bridges. They are
mainly based on AASHTO (Ref. 1). The guidelines address several shortcomings of existing
evaluation procedures. The methodology is developed within a framework that provides for
a systematic rating improvement in the evaluation process. Moreover, the methodology can
be used in conjunction with a wide range of engineering practices.
The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive yet flexible methodology for
evaluating existing bridges, which is consistent with today’s high standards of safety.
Regarding the strength of existing masonry and concrete arch bridges, refer to section 5.5.
5.1.2 Scope
The methodology presented utilizes Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). This
procedure allows for combining probability theory, statistical data and engineering judgment
into a rational decision making tool. In particular, the procedure allows the engineer to use
site specific information in a consistent manner to improve, if necessary, his judgment on the
safe rating level for a particular bridge. In addition, the format incorporates existing
methodology for considering local laws and regulations and methods of calculation.
A load and resistance factor approach was also chosen as the basis for strength evaluation of
existing bridges as it conforms to the design methods for new bridges specified earlier in this
manual, while still allowing for a systematic consideration of the differences involved in
bridge evaluation. This approach allows each variable to be addressed separately, analyzed
in depth (if needed), and proportionally weighed in the overall rating process.
Conservative assumptions are made in each step of a strength design or checking procedure
to safeguard against the worst possible conditions expected to occur during the lifetime of a
structure. In other words, the probability of failure is made exceedingly small by providing
large safety margins to cover the uncertainties in predicting load effects and resistance of a
bridge. Reliability principle utilizing site data have been used to evaluate the uncertainties
and the safety levels or indices implicit in current designs.
The rating methodology and load and resistance factors have been developed to maintain
consistent safety levels for the above-mentioned uncertainties. Options for incorporating site
specific traffic and loading data and higher levels of effort by the engineer are introduced
since these lead to a reduction in the overall uncertainty. The lower safety margin required
maintaining the same safety level means ratings that are more beneficial. At no stage is it
necessary for the evaluation engineer to use probabilistic methods. The necessary reliability-
based load and resistance factors have been tabulated for the evaluation.
Load and resistance factors were calculated from the coefficient of variation of actual load
effects and resistances, the ratio of the mean value to nominally determined values (i.e., the
bias) and the desired safety level. Therefore, as the evaluator obtains more data on the
distribution of actual load effects and resistances, more realistic load and resistance factors
can be utilized.

Chapter 5
Strength of Steel, Concrete & Masonry Arch Bridges Drainage Design Manual – 2014
5.1.3 Applicability
This methodology is intended for evaluating almost all existing bridges. Steel spans include
simple and continuous girder bridges and trusses and floor systems. Concrete spans
recognized include slab, girder, T-beam and box beam bridges with short to medium span
length. Prestressed beams although of recent vintage are also included herein.
5.2 Notations
Af = Axle factor
Ap = Centrifugal distribution factor
ADT = Average daily traffic
ADTT = Average daily truck traffic
d = Arch barrel thickness
D = Nominal dead load effect
Di = Nominal dead load effect of element “i”
FA = Centrifugal effect factor
Fb = Barrel factor
Fc = Condition factor
Fd = Depth factor
Ff = Fill factor
Fj = Joint factor
Fm = Material factor
Fmo = Mortar factor
Fp = Profile factor
Fsr = Span/rise factor
Fw = Width factor
Fy = Nominal or specified yield stress
h = Depth of fill
I = Live load impact factor
I = “Impact Factor” used to approximate the dynamic effects of moving Legal
Trucks.
l = Nominal traffic live load effects
KL = Proportion factor for longitudinal girders
L = Span of arch
L = Nominal live load effect
Lj = Nominal traffic live load effects for load “j” other than the rating Legal Truck.
LR = Nominal live load effects for the rating Legal Truck.
m = Total number of elements contributing to dead load to the structure.
ME = Equivalent axle load for bending moment effect
n = Total number of live loadings contributing to the live load effects other than
the rating legal truck(s).
PAL = Provisional axle loading
Qk = Effect of load k R = resistance
R = Bending moment or shear without centrifugal effects
Rc = Enhanced bending moment or shear
Rn = Nominal strength or resistance
RF = Rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
rc = Rise ofarchbarrelatcrown
rq = Rise of arch barrel at quarter points
SE = Equivalent ax le load for shear force effect

Chapter 5
SL = Shear on longitudinal member

SU = Gross shear due to one lane of UDL (Uniform Distributed Load)
γD = Dead load factor
D
γi = Dead load factor for element “i”.
γL = Live load factor
L
γj = Live load factor for load “i” other than the rating Legal Truck.
LR
γ = Live load factor for the rating Legal Truck.
ϕ = Resistance factor (Capacity reduction) to account for uncertainties in
resistance due to variations in dimensions, material properties, and theory.
5.3 Strength Evaluation of Bridges
5.3.1 General
The procedure for rating existing bridges requires knowledge of the physical conditions of
the bridge and the applied loadings. A safe level of rating presupposes that nominal strengths
should be estimated from a detailed investigation of the structure’s physical condition and
any continuing attempts to alleviate any signs of deterioration. Further knowledge of traffic
conditions including signs of overweight vehicle combinations combined with accurate
methods of structural analysis should be used when necessary to estimate load effects.
The LRFD that must be applied should rationally recognize the corresponding uncertainties
in making these judgments on strength, analysis and loading. The concepts of structural
reliability are a means for consistently representing these uncertainties and allowing bridge
engineers to select proper load and resistance factors for rating specific bridges.
The evaluation of a structure is based on the simple principle that the available capacity of a
structure to carry loads must exceed the required capacity to support the applied loadings. To
perform an evaluation, therefore, it is necessary to know something about the available
capacity, the applied loading and the response of the structure to that loading. Knowledge
and information with respect to each of these items is never complete; and therefore,
evaluation can never be done precisely.
To compensate for this lack of knowledge and information, engineers have used safety
factors to insure that failure does not occur. The LRFD has been introduced in design and
rating to provide more uniform safety. The method implicitly recognizes that dead load
effects may require lower safety margins than comparable live (truck) load effects due to
their relative uncertainty. This probabilistic approach to safety is logically extended in the
load and resistance factor methods used herein.
The rating check is done by comparing the factored load effects (both dead and live) with the
factored resistance at all critical sections. The output is a rating factor, which determines the
suitability of the given bridge for the loads under consideration. If the bridge rating is not
acceptable, several options for a more detailed analysis are given. Each of these options are
associated with an increasing level of effort and shall be done if the rating engineer warrants
their use. An initial screening level, however, is provided for routine investigations.
Advantages of this method are:
1 It provides uniformly consistent procedures for evaluating existing bridges.
2 It permits suitable flexibility in making evaluations.
3 It provides uniform levels of reliability developed from performance histories.
4 It is based on extensive truck traffic and bridge response data.
5 It permits introduction of site specific data into the evaluation in a rational and

Chapter 5
consistent format.
6 It permits different levels of effort that involve progressively more work; with
correspondingly greater rewards in terms of more beneficial ratings.
7 It includes the same nominal dead and live load calculations and resistances as in the
design of new bridges.
8 It allows distinction between evaluation of redundant and nonredundant components.
5.3.2 Safe Evaluation

The strength evaluation procedures presented herein are intended to recognize a balance
between safety and economics. Detailed presentations of the theory and the calibration of the
load and resistance factors contained herein are given in Part 1,Chapter 3and Part 2,Chapter
3. A single load rating will be produced by these guidelines.
Evaluators will find options in these guidelines by which ratings can be improved by
recommendations for more frequent and detailed inspection and maintenance, improved
structural analysis and especially control of heavy overweight vehicles.
These guidelines are intended to produce rating factors for routine evaluation and posting
considerations. Evaluation of live load for issuance of permits may require load factors
different from rating and shall also utilize the actual vehicle size, weight and configuration.
Each of the steps in the evaluation process shall be performed in any one of several ways.
Therefore, the proposed guidelines are general enough to accommodate the practices of
different engineers and/or agencies. The load and resistance factors presented in the
guidelines were developed on the principle that the accuracy of an evaluation was
dependent, in part, on the methods used to perform the evaluation.
For economic reasons, it is desirable to keep the evaluation effort to a minimum.If the
capacity of a bridge can be shown to be sufficient by making some approximations, there is
no need to resort to an expensive evaluation procedure. On the other hand, if the sufficiency
of a bridge cannot be reliably established using a more approximate method, an engineer
may wish to resort to a more sophisticated approach in order to demonstrate the sufficiency
of the bridge. Therefore, the evaluation process outlined in the guidelines is a cyclic process
in which one or several of the steps shall be repeated.
The various options provided in the guidelines along with corresponding land/resistance
factors have been developed so as to maintain an adequate level of safety based on
calibration with existing performance experiences. The evaluation procedures presented
herein therefore provide a balance between safety and economics.
The single load rating value produced by these guidelines shall be greater than current
operating ratings for well-maintained, non-deteriorated and redundant load path bridges
having reasonably well enforced traffic. It may fall, however, even below existing inventory
levels for heavily deteriorated bridges or those having non-redundant components and
subjected to heavy truck traffic. A gradation of ratings between these two extremes will be
obtained depending on the condition of the bridge, type and volume of traffic, the quality of
inspection and the regularity of maintenance. Thus, a deficient bridge shall be made to rate
sufficiently if certain preventive measures such as load control restriction, inspection, etc.
are undertaken. A variety of options may exist and the engineer could choose one of them
depending on the economics of the situation and the amount of effort the engineer is willing
to expend.

Chapter 5
5.3.3 The Rating Equation

The evaluation is carried out with a comparison of the factored live load effects and the
factored strength or resistance. The load factors are used to account for uncertainties in load
effects due to uncertainties in analysis as well as load magnitudes. The dead load factor
includes normal variations in material dimensions and densities.
The live load factor accounts for uncertainties in expected maximum vehicle loading effect,
impact and distribution of loads during a time period between inspections. The resistance
factor accounts for uncertainties in strength prediction theories, material properties and
deterioration influences over time periods between inspections. Furthermore, the load and
resistance factors are adjusted to produce an overall safety margin which leads to an
adequate level of safety considering all uncertainties described above.
The rating procedure is carried out for all strength checks (moment, shear, etc.) at all
potentially critical sections with the lowest value determining the rating factor for the entire
span. The rating equation to be used throughout the application of these guidelines is:
φRn = γDD+ γL (RF) L (1 + I) (5.1)
¶ÆÇ HÈÉ Ê
+ = È (5.2)
Ë ∗z %
or:
Where: RF = rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
ϕ = resistance factor
Rn = nominal resistance
γD = dead load factor
D = nominal dead load effect
γL = live load factor
l = nominal traffic live load effects
L = nominal live load effect
I = live load impact factor
The rating factor is the ratio of the safe level of loading to the load produced by the nominal
or standard vehicle. It shall be used in the consideration of posting levels and/or the
consideration and justifications for future repairs or replacement. In determining load and
resistance factors for the rating equation, the following steps shall be carried out in
evaluating a bridge span:
1) Collection of information
2) Selection of nominal loadings and resistances
3) Distribution of loads
4) Selection of load and resistance factors
5) Calculation of rating factors
A flowchart for the rating procedure is also provided in Figure 5-1. The evaluator/designer
should note that potential improvement in the rating factor may came from selecting options
in each step. These generally provide a less conservative factor provided additional
evaluation effort is performed and no unsatisfactory information is uncovered.

Chapter 5
The basic structural engineering equation states that the resistance of a structure must equal
or exceed the demand placed on it by loads. Stated mathematically:
R ≥ ΣQk (5.3)
Where: R = resistance
Qk = effect of load k
The solution of this simple equation encompasses the whole art and science of structural
engineering including the disciplines of strength of materials, structural analysis and load
determination. This equation applies to design as well as evaluation. In structural evaluation,
the objective is to determine the maximum allowable live load. In the case of bridge
evaluation, this usually means the maximum vehicle weight.
Any rational and tractable approach to the analytical solution of the basic structural
engineering equation requires that the modes of failure be identified to establish the
resistance. The location, types and extent of the critical failure modes must be determined.
The checking equation must be solved for each of these potential failure checking modes.
Since neither resistance nor the load effect can be established with certainty, safety factors
must be introduced that give adequate assurance that the limit states are not exceeded. This
shall be done by stating the equation in a LRFD format.
The basic rating equation used in the guidelines is simply a special form of the basic
structural engineering equation with load and resistance factors introduced to account for
uncertainties that apply to the bridge evaluation problem. It is written as follows:
¶ÆÌH∑Ñ É Ç Ë
ÍÐx ÈÍ ∗ÊÍÎ ∑ÍÐx ÈÏ zÏ %
+ = È ËÒ zÒ %
(5.4)
Where: RF = rating factor (the portion of the rating Legal Truck allowed on the bridge)
ϕ = resistance factor
m = number of elements included in the dead load
Rn = nominal resistance
n = number of live loads other than the rating vehicle
D
γi = dead load factor for element “i”
Di = nominal dead load effect of element “i”
L
γj = live load factor for live load “j” other than the rating vehicle(s)
Lj = nominal traffic live load effects for load “j” other than the rating vehicle(s)
LR
γ = live load factor for rating Legal Truck
LR = nominal live load effect for the rating Legal Truck
I = live load impact factor
The maximum permitted traffic live load effect will be the total resistance minus the effect
of loadings other than the rating Legal Truck. This will include dead loads, non-vehicular
live loads, and, in the case of unsupervised permit loading, the vehicular live load and the
impact of normal traffic that could mix with the rating Legal Truck.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-1: Flow Chart for Rating Procedure
Collection of Information
Before the load rating of a specific bridge can be conducted, a certain amount of information
has to be gathered. The extent to which the engineer is required to collect information will
have a direct influence on the load rating of the bridge due to the selection of the proper
category for the load and resistance factors.

Chapter 5
This task shall be the same as the provisions in the existing Part 2Chapter 1 for the
Checklist of Site Investigation except that the following items should be noted since they can
have an influence on the selection of load and resistance factors.
1 Deck condition – The impact factors in Part 1 Chapter 3are deliberately selected to be
conservative with respect to most conditions. Field tests have shown that the single
most important factor affecting impact is roadway roughness and any bumps, sags, or
other discontinuities which may initiate or amplify dynamic response to truck
passages. Any of these surface factors should be noted during a bridge inspection.
2 Structural Condition -Signs of recent deterioration in structural members, which may
go unchecked and increase the likelihood of further section capacity loss before the
next cycle of inspection and rating should be noted. Conversely, maintenance efforts
to mitigate such deterioration should also be noted. An allowance for structural
deterioration should note whether this is either an expected or conservative estimation
since further deterioration may increase the uncertainty regarding reliable section
properties and strength during the next inspection interval.
3 Traffic Condition -The expected loading during the inspection internal is affected by
the truck traffic at the site. In the best instance, data will be available from traffic
surveys including objective truck weight operations. Alternatively, advice should be
sought from the traffic division regarding truck traffic volume, composition, permit
activities, overload sources, and degree of enforcement.
Selection of Nominal Loading and Resistances
Loads consist of concentrated or distributed forces that are applied directly to the bridge or
result from deformations or the constraint of deformations. For bridge evaluations, the most
important loads are dead load and vehicular live load plus its accompanying dynamic effects,
since each of these loadings induce high superstructure stresses. Loadings other than dead
load and traffic live load usually do not result in significant bending or shear in the
superstructure. Since the critical mode of failure for traffic live load almost always occurs in
the superstructure, other types of loads will seldom affect the live load capacity of the
bridge. When other combinations of loads can affect the capacity of the bridge such as when
substructure components can fail due to traffic live loading, Part 1, Chapter 3 load factors
for design shall be used.
Dead Loads
The dead load shall be estimated from data available from the inspection at the time of
analysis. The dead load factor accounts for normal variations of material densities and
dimensions. Nominal dimensions and densities shall be used for calculating dead load
effects. For overlays, either cores shall be used to establish the true thickness or an additional
allowance of 20% should be placed on the nominal overlay thickness indicated at the time of
analysis. The recommended unit weights of materials to be used in computing the dead load
should be as in Table 5-1:
Table 5-1: Unit Weights of Materials
Material Force Effect[kN/m3]

Asphalt surfacing 22.5
Concrete, plain or reinforced (normal weight) 24.0
Steel 79.0
Cast iron 72.0
Timber (treated or untreated) 8.0
Earth (compacted), sand gravel or ballast 18.0

Chapter 5
The dead load of the structure is computed in accordance with the conditions existing at the
time of the analysis.
Dead load can usually be determined more accurately than any other type of loading. One
major source of error is failure to consider some of the elements that will contribute to dead
load. Some items that are often overlooked are:
Wearing surfaces
Railings and Utilities
Structure modifications not shown on plans
Other items that can affect the calculation of dead load are dimensional variations in the
concrete section and variations in the unit weight of material.
The prescribed dead load factor recognizes the uncertainties in the nominal dimensions and
analysis of dead load effects. Overlay thicknesses are a source of greater uncertainty in the
dead load so they are assigned a 20% higher load factor unless cores or more detailed
measurements are made.
Live Loads
The guidelines specify the number of vehicles to be considered on the bridge at any one time.
These numbers are based on an estimate of the maximum likely number of vehicles under
typical traffic situations. When unusual conditions exist, adjustments to the specified number
of vehicles should be made.
Highway vehicles come in a wide variety of sizes and configurations. No single vehicle or
load model can accurately reflect the effects of all of these vehicles. The variation will
usually be greater than the variation in dead load effect. To minimize this difference, it is
necessary to select a rating Legal Truck with axle spacing and relative axle weights similar
to actual vehicles. Three Legal Trucks shown in Figure 5-2 to 5-4 are recommended as
evaluation vehicles. These vehicles, together with the prescribed live load factors, give a
realistic estimate of the maximum live load effects of a variety of heavy trucks in actual
traffic.
The moving loads to be applied on the deck for calculating maximum nominal live loading
effects shall be the three Legal Trucks. The spacing and axle weights chosen for these
vehicle types were selected from actual trucks. It is believed that these typical vehicles
correspond better to existing traffic and will provide more uniform reliability than the old
standard AASHTO H or HS design trucks. Hence, the latter are not recommended for bridge
posting purposes.
In computing load effects, one Legal Truck shall be considered present in each lane. The
positioning of the vehicle in each lane shall be according to Part 1,Chapter 3. It is
unnecessary to place more than one vehicle in a lane since the load factors shown below
have been modeled for this possibility. These load factors shall be considered applicable for
spans up to 60m.
For longer spans, a lane loading is specified in the evaluation. Reduction factors for live
loading of more than two traffic lanes are provided. These rationally account for the lower
possibility of such occurrences.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-2: Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN
Figure 5-3: Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN
Figure 5-4: Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN

Chapter 5
Figure 5-5: The Legal Lane Loading (mainly for large spans)
For longer spans, the Legal Lane Loading given in Figure 5-5 will govern the evaluation
(upto90m). This is a combination of a vehicle load and a uniformly distributed load. For all
span lengths where the rating factor is less than one, it shall be necessary to place more than
one vehicle in each lane. In lieu of this, the evaluator should check the lane loading for all
span lengths together with the rating Legal Truck as shown in Figure 5-5. Where maximum
load effects in any member are produced by loading a number of traffic lanes simultaneously,
reduction factors as given in Table 5-8 should be applied.
In checking special permits, the actual vehicle weights and dimensions shall be used. If the
number of such permits in one year isfrequent, then it shall be assumed that two lanes are
occupied by such a vehicle. Otherwise, standard vehicles shall be placed in the other lanes.
When the engineer determines that conditions of traffic movement, and the volume warrants
it, the standard vehicles shall be eliminated. Upon special investigation, the load factor for a
controlled permit use is reduced below the value taken for ordinary traffic conditions.
Since overloaded permissible vehicles typically have very different axle configurations, it is
very important that this be considered when issuing permits.
Judgment must also be exercised concerning sidewalk loadings. The likelihood of the
maximum sidewalk loading is small. A unit loading for the sidewalk for the purposes of load
limit evaluation will generally be less than the design unit loading.
The probable maximum sidewalk loadings should be used in calculations for safe load
capacity ratings. This loading will vary from bridge to bridge, depending generally upon its
location. Because of this variation, the Engineer must use his judgment to make the final
determination of the unit loadings to be used. This loading will not exceed the design
sidewalk loading given in Part 1Chapter 3.
Impact
An impact allowance shall be added to the static loads used for rating as shown in
Equation 5.1. Impact values in Part 1Chapter 3 reflect conservative conditions that may
possibly prevail under certain circumstances. Under an enforced speed restriction, impacts
shall be reduced.
Impact loads are taken to be primarily due to the roughness or unevenness of the road
surface, especially the approach spans. Three values of impact factors are provided by
correlating the roughness of the surface to the deck conditions survey values. This
information is more likely known during evaluation than in the original design.
For smooth approach and deck conditions, the impact shall be taken as 0.10. For a rough
surface with bumps, a value of 0.20 should be used. Under extreme adverse conditions of
high speed, spans less than 12m. and highly distressed pavement and approach conditions, a
value of 0.30 should be taken. For span ≤12.0 m, where the measured deflection exceeds
1/90 of the span, 0.10 should be added to these values. See Table 5-2.

Chapter 5
If such a judgment cannot be made, refer to the bridge inspection report and relate the impact
to the condition of the wearing surface.
Table 5-2: Condition of Wearing Surface and Impact Value
WEARING SURFACE IMPACT

1 -Good condition No repair required 0.1
2 -Fair condition Minor deficiency, item still functioning as 0.1
designed
3 -Poor condition Major deficiency, item in need of repair to 0.2
continue
4 -Critical condition Item no longer functioning as designed 0.3
Resistances
Nominal component strengths shall be the same values contained in the load factor sections
of Part 1Chapter 3. Nominal strength calculations shall take into consideration the
observable effects of deterioration, such as loss of concrete or steel cross-sectional area, loss
of composite action or corrosion.
Concrete: The strength of sound concrete shall be assumed to be equal to either the values
taken from the plans and specifications or the average of construction test values. When these
values are not available, the ultimate stress of sound concrete shall be assumed to be 25 MPa.
A reduced ultimate strength shall be assumed (no less than 15 MPa, however) for unsound or
deteriorated concrete unless evidence to the contrary is gained by field-testing.
Reinforcing Steel: The area of tension steel to be used in computing the ultimate flexural
strength of reinforced concrete members shall not exceed that available in the section; or 75
percent of the steel reinforcement required for a balanced condition. The steel yield stresses
to be used for various types of reinforcing steel are given in Table 5-3.
Table 5-3: Reinforcing Steel Yield Stresses
Reinforcing Steel Yield Stress Fy (MPa)

Unknown steel (prior to 1954) 228
Structural Grade 248
Intermediate Grade 300 and unknown after 1954 (former Grade 40) 276
Hard Grade (former Grade 50) 314
Grade 420 (former Grade 60) 614
Grade 520 (former Grade 75) 517
The determination of structural resistance is one of the primary tasks in the evaluation
process. In a load and resistance design (LRFD -also known as limit state) approach it is
necessary to define the condition at which resistance will be determined. These should
provide for similar structural performance regardless of the material or structure type.
These limit states should have a very low probability of occurrence because they can lead to
loss of life as well as to major financial losses. They include:
• Loss of equilibrium of all -or part of -the structure considered as a rigid body (e.g.,
overturning, sliding, uplift, etc.);
• Loss of load-bearing capacity of members due to insufficient material strength,
buckling, fatigue, fire, corrosion, or deterioration;
• Overall instability of the structure (e.g., P-delta effect, wind flutter, seismic motions,
etc.);

Chapter 5
• Very large deformation (e.g. transformation into a mechanism).

Determination of the true safety limit state involves very complicated and difficult analytical
procedures. In most cases, the use of these procedures for routine evaluation of bridges is not
economically feasible. The ultimate member capacity shall be a lower bound of the ultimate
capacity in shear or in flexure. Different methods for considering the observable effects of
deterioration were studied in developing the guidelines. The most reliable method available
still appears to be a reduction in the nominal resistance based on measured or estimated
losses in cross-sectional area and/or material strengths. An alternate approach is to calculate
resistance based on plan dimensions and use a smaller capacity reduction factor.
Nominal resistances for members in the proposed guidelines are based on the load factor
section, Part 1Chapter 3. This resistance depends on both the current dimensions of the
section and the nominal material strength. Specifications for both these factors have been
provided. Options exist for incorporating data on structural conditions obtained from the site.
Careful estimation of losses and deterioration are awarded a higher resistance factor. Similar
gains are also given for vigorous maintenance and inspection schedules, which may prevent
further deterioration during a normal inspection interval. Options also exist for obtaining
more precise material strength through tests.
Structural Steel
Nominal unit stresses must depend on the type of steel used in the structural member. When
tests are performed to assess yield stress, the mean values shall be reduced by 10% to
produce nominal values for strength calculations. Nominal values shall be nominal strength
computed without any resistance factor applied.
Distribution of Loads
The fraction of vehicle load effect transferred to a single member shall be selected in
accordance with Part 1,Chapter 3. These values represent a possible combination of adverse
circumstances. The option exists to substitute field measured values, analytically calculated
values or those determined from advanced structural analysis methods utilizing the
properties of the existing span(s). Loadings shall be placed in positions causing the
maximum response. Further, if such a measurement or analysis is made and the expected
distribution value is obtained, then this shall be adjusted by the factors shown in Table 5-4.
The latter are needed to adjust for the expected bias in distribution factors for different
material types.

Chapter 5
Table 5-4: Correction Factor for Analysis
Correction Factor
Distribution of Loads
Steel Prestressed Concrete
1 AASHTO Distribution, Part 2 Chapter 4 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 Tabulated analysis with simplified
1.10 1.05 0.95
assumptions**
3 Refined analysis: finite elements, orthotropic
1.07 1.03 0.90
plate, grillage analogy
4 Field measurements 1.03 1.01 0.90
Actual girder distribution shall be multiplied by the appropriate correction factors to obtain
the girder distribution for rating.
* Correction factors are applied if average or expected values are used for R.F. from analysis or measurements.
The correction factor shall be used to increase the load factor taken from Table 5-5.
** These correction factors reflect the bias in present Vol. Idistribution factors for each material type.
Lateral distribution refers to the fraction of the live load carried by the member under
consideration. Methods in Part 1Chapter 3 shall be followed. Options exist for using
tabulated values, more refined analysis (e.g. finite elements) and field measurements. Each of
these options involves a greater level of effort and more accuracy, so adjustments to the basic
live load factors are provided. These adjustments implicitly recognize that more refined
analysis may in some instances remove the implicit conservativeness present in some
simplified distribution formulas and are therefore treated accordingly.
Selection of Load and Resistance Factors
The statistics of the dead load, live load and resistances have been determined from existing
data. Based on this data, the safety implicit in current designs has been determined. The load
and resistance factors provided ensure that this acceptable level of safety is achieved or
exceeded.
Load Factors
The load factors shall be taken from Table 5-5. These are intended to represent conditions
existing at the time this specification is written based on field data obtained from a variety of
locations using weight-in-motion and other data gathering methods. The live load factor
accounts for the likelihood of extreme loads side-by-side and following in the same lane and
the possibility of overloaded vehicles. Since one aim of this chapter is to protect the
investment in the bridge structure, the live load factors do recognize the presence of
overweight trucks on many highways. An option to reflect effective overload enforcement is
contained herein with a reduced live load factor. The presence of illegal loads has also been
noted, and if such vehicles are present in large numbers at the site, the higher load factors
may lead to unacceptable ratings and enforcement efforts should be instituted.

Chapter 5
Table 5-5: Load Factors
Loading Load Factor
Dead Load γD = 1.2

Allow an additional allowance of 20% on overlay thickness if nominal thicknesses are used. No
allowance is needed when measurements are made for thickness.
Live Load Category

1 Low volume roadways (ADTT less than 1000), reasonable γD = 1.30
enforcement and apparent control of overloads
2 Heavy volume roadways (ADTT greater than 1000), reasonable γL = 1.45
enforcement and apparent control of overloads (not common in
Ethiopia)
3 Low volume roadways (ADTT less than 1000), significant sources of γL = 1.65
overloads without effective enforcement (common in Ethiopia)
4 Heavy volume roadways (ADTT greater than 1000), significant γL = 1.80
sources of overloads without effective enforcement
If unavailable from traffic data, estimates for ADTT shall be made from ADT as follows: urban areas, ADTT =
25% of ADT; rural areas, ADTT -50% of ADT. In the absence of accurate data on overloads, it shall be
assumed that 30% of the trucks in Ethiopia exceed the local legal gross weigh limits.
When the Rating Factor (RF) is less than 1.0, the loads are to be restricted. In such instances,
consideration should be given to truck weight surveys and vigorous enforcement programs. If
there is a reason to believe that truck posting signs are being ignored then consideration
should be given to further raising the live load factor.
Dead load factors are used to account for variations in dimensions, unit weights and methods
of calculating dead load effect. The variation in the dead load of different components will
depend on the accuracy with which the components can be manufactured and/or measured.
Factory produced girders cast in steel forms obviously have less variation than an asphalt
overlay placed on the bridge deck. The higher dead load factor for asphalt recognizes the
greater uncertainty in overlay thickness.
Live load factors have been provided to account for the large uncertainty of the maximum
live load effects on a structure over a period of time. A large amount of filed data has been
modeled to estimate the maximum live load effect together with its uncertainty. Based on this
data, degree of enforcement, volume and type of traffic are isolated as the major factors
influencing the live load effect. The live load factors have been derived from this data for
bridges with a single lane, two lanes and three and four lanes. Instead of providing different
sets of load factors for different numbers of lanes, only one set of load factors are provided
with corresponding reduction factors for other cases.
Three categories of live load are provided in Table 5-5 with varying volumes and degrees of
enforcement, each with its corresponding live load factor. Site truck traffic data recorded by
the engineer may also be included.
Resistance Factors
A capacity reduction factor (ϕ) is included in the basic rating equation to account for
variation in the calculated resistance. It takes into consideration the dimensional variations of
the structure, differences in material properties, current condition and future deterioration,
and the inaccuracies in the theory for calculating resistance.

Chapter 5
The resistance factors or capacity reduction factors in Part 1Chapter 3 are intended for new
components with current methods of high quality control. The nominal (unfactored)
strengths to be used for evaluation represent an estimate of strength using data pertaining to
member properties and conditions at the time of inspection. The resistance factor shall
consider both the uncertainties in estimating these member properties and also any bias or
conservativeness deliberately introduced into these estimates. Because further changes may
occur to the section during the inspection interval, there is some dependence of these
properties on the quality of maintenance. Also, the level and detail of inspection is important
since it may reveal actual properties to be used in section calculations.
The resistance factors for members in good condition are shown in Table 5-6, section I. The
influence of deterioration, inspection and maintenance are given in section II, III and IV of
this table. A table of resistance factors for all combinations of conditions encountered is
given in Table 5-7. A flow chart for obtaining the resistance factors is also presented in
Figure 5-6.
A basic set of resistance factors is provided. The reliability levels are calibrated to produce
different resistance factors for redundant and non-redundant spans with the latter having
lower (more conservative) factors. The resistance factors can be further modified depending
on the amount of deterioration and type of inspection and maintenance. Options exist for
conducting detailed measurements of strength losses. Also included are benefits for vigorous
maintenance schedules. This allows the evaluation to be flexible enough and also covers a
large range of types and conditions of members that shall be encountered.
Calculation of Rating Factors (RF)
The rating factor is to be calculated from Equation 5.1. If it exceeds 1.0, the span is
satisfactory for the legal loads in Ethiopia. In the present Bridge Design Specifications, there
is only one single rating value (eliminating the operating and inventory levels) which
determines the allowable loads.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-6: Flowchart for Selecting Resistance Factors ϕ

Chapter 5
Table 5-6: Resistance Factors vs Condition
Section Item Commentary

Nominal resistance equations are to be those indicated in Part 1Chapter 3.
Resistance (capacity reduction) factors are to be applied to the following for
Resistance Factors –
I the case where members are in good condition. Redundant * Steel Members:
Good Condition
φ= 0.95; Nonredundant Steel Members: ϕ = 0.80; Prestressed concrete
beams: φ= 0.95; Reinforced concrete beams: ϕ = 0.90.
1 Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate no
deterioration,the provisions of this section should not be used.
2 Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate slight
deterioration with some possible loss of section, the resistance factor
values above shall be decreased by 0.1.
3 Where field inspection and condition surveys report significant
Influence of
II deterioration and heavy section loss, the resistance factor values shall be
Deterioration
reduced by 0.2.
4 If such information is not available then bridge records shall be used.
Reduce the resistance factor values by 0.1 for superstructure condition of
5 or 6. Reduce the resistance factor values by 0.2 for a superstructure
condition of 4 or less. If these reductions are made then the next two
sections should be omitted.
1 Where field inspection and condition survey reports indicate no
deterioration, the provisions of this section should not be used.
2 Where section losses have been carefully estimated in the calculation of
III Inspection* remaining section areas the resistance factors shall be increased by 0.05.
3 Where material yield stress has been estimated by physical testing, a
mean value of 0.90 shall be used for calculating strength together with
the resistance factor contained in the design rules.
1 Where maintenance activity is vigorous and likely to correct deficiencies
which maylead to further section loss, increase ϕ by 0.05.
IV Maintenance**
2 Where maintenance activity is intermittent and may not correct defects
that have leadto section loss, decrease ϕ by 0.05.
Note: *Examples of redundant members include parallel stringers (three or more), parallel eye bars(four or
more). Example of nonredundant component includes two-girder system(s) and trusseswith single
members.
** In no instance shall φ be taken to exceed 0.95.

Chapter 5
Table 5-7: Resistance Factors ϕ for all Conditions
Super- Redundancy Inspection Maintenance Steel,

Reinforced
structureCon P/S
Concrete
dition Yes No Careful Estimated Vigorous Intermittent Concrete
x x x 0.95 0.95
x x x 0.90 0.85
x x x 0.95 0.95
x x x 0.90 0.85
Good or Fair
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.95 0.90
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.90 0.85
x x x 0.80 0.75
Deteriorated
x x x 0.80 0.80
x x x 0.70 0.70
x x x 0.75 0.75
x x x 0.65 0.65
x x x 0.85 0.80
x x x 0.75 0.70
x x x 0.80 0.75
Heavily x x x 0.70 0.65

Deteriorated x x x 0.70 0.70
x x x 0.60 0.60
x x x 0.65 0.65
x x x 0.55 0.55
Note: For ratings using data obtained from plans only, the capacity reduction factor should be calculated based
on judgment of the engineer supplemented by any additional information obtained.
The load and resistance factors have been calibrated to provide adequate safety under the
inspection, maintenance, analysis, redundancy, and loading conditions cited. These
provisions have the capability for evaluations to be improved by utilizing options related to
more intensive inspection and maintenance or control of heavy overloads.
The rating factors obtained herein may also safely be applied to permit loadings. In some
instances where a permit might otherwise be rejected, the live load factors contained herein
shall be reduced to reflect known weight conditions associated with the permit vehicle. This
reduction in load factor may depend on the degree of control of the permit and the number of
permits that shall be issued. Fatigue life should be a consideration in the issuance of overload
permits (Ref. 2).

Chapter 5
Table 5-8: Reduction Factors for Live Load
Number of Lanes Reduction Factor

One or two lanes 1.0
Three lanes 0.8
Four lanes 0.7
5.4 Numerical Examples

As an example, an existing reinforced concrete bridge and a steel bridge are rated by the
proposed procedures.
Example 1 – Reinforced Concrete
Resistance: Mu =Asfy (d – a/2)
2
fy = 225 Mpa Table 14-3 fc =21 MPa d = 670mm a = 29mm As = 4440mm Mu= 670kNm
Dead load effect: Span = 7,930 mm
Asphalt = 45 kNm Other = 124 kNm
Live load effect: I = 1.1 (assuming smooth deck surface)

S = 2000 mm = c = 1.09
254
Ózz = o p 1.09% 1.1% = 152CÔ ÕÖ ×Ø±¦C Ä ′3′%
2
Proposed procedure: ϕ= 0.95 (good condition, vigorous maintenance)
0.95% 670% − 1.2% 124% − 1.44% 45% 2.79
+ = =
Ùz F% Ùz
Assuming enforced, heavy volume traffic: γL = 1.45 and R.F. = 1.92
50
³ÚÛ²Û¯ ØÕÛ¯²: ª = 1 + ≤ 1.3 = 1.3
26 + 125
254
Ózz = o p 1.09% 1.3% = 180CÔ
2
0.9% 670% − 1.3% 124 + 45%
ÝÞØÕÛ¯ ØÕÛ¯ = = 1.64
1.3% 180%
Inventory rating 0.6 x 1.64 = 0.99 Proposed rating = 1.92 (Legal Truck No.‘3’)
Remarks: the proposed rating is higher than existing rating for traffic category 2
(thecalibration category) but will be lower than existing operating ratings for heavier
trafficcategories. For a deteriorated section (say 10% loss in strength) and heavy traffic,
theproposed rating can fall to existing inventory levels. See below:
φ = 0.80 (for deteriorated section)
Mu = 670kNm
γL = 1.80 (unreinforced, heavy volume traffic)

Chapter 5
0.80% 670% − 1.2% 124% − 1.44% 45%

+ = = 0.99
1.80% 180%
Example 2 Steel Floor beam of a thru truss
Resistance: Rn = 363 kNm
ϕ= 0.85 (non-redundant; vigorous maintenance)
Dead load effect: Asphalt = 56 kNm, Remaining = 35 kNm
Live load effect: Impact = 1.1 (smooth surface and approaches)
Live load effect = 161 kNm (Legal Truck No ‘3’)
Proposed procedure: Assuming enforced, light volume traffic, γL = 1.3

0.85% 363% − 1.2% 56% − 1.44% 35%
+ = = 0.91
1.30% 161%
Existing ratings: Impact = 1.3
363 − 1.3 56 + 35%
ÝÞØÕÛ¯ + = = 0.99
1.3% 1.3% 146%
Inventory RF = 0.60
Remarks: The proposed procedure gives lower rating factors than existing operating ratings
because of the non-redundancy. However, this rating factor is higher than current inventory
ratings.
5.5 Masonry Arch Bridge Rating
5.5.1 General
This subchapter is to be used in the assessment of highway arch bridges. It covers certain
types of structures or structural components where firm criteria cannot be given but where
the assessment of structural adequacy involves the exercise of engineering judgment. It also
contains details of alternative simple methods of load distribution and arch assessment that,
while being conservative, are nevertheless adequate for assessment purposes. Finally it gives
advice on ways of remedying the various defects that are found in different types of
structure. Although this subchapter is advisory in nature, the principles and methods given
shall be deemed to satisfy relevant criteria.
5.5.2 Scope
This subchapter provides a simple method of load distribution and an empirical method and
a simple computerized method of arch assessment. It covers the assessment of structures
which cannot be treated by normal calculation methods, and the maintenance of the various
different types of structure. Each of these items is discussed more fully in the following
paragraphs.
This subchapter should be used forthwith for assessments of load carrying capacity of all
road bridges and other arch structures in Ethiopia.
Load Distribution
Graphs of load distribution factors are given for estimating the loads carried by internal and

Chapter 5
external girders of decks composed of longitudinal beams with certain specified forms of
deck construction between them. The factors are only intended for use with the type of
loading specified Part 1,Chapter 3, but can be used for determining both bending moments
and shearing forces.
Equivalent axle loads are given to enable the direct determination of bending moments and
shearing forces in internal and external girders of decks composed of transverse beams with
certain specified forms of deck construction between them. The use of these simple methods
is both quick and simple and while they are believed to give conservative results their use is
recommended where applicable before more sophisticated and accurate methods are tried.
Modified MEXE Method of Arch Assessment
The modified MEXE method for arch assessment given in this subchapter is a
comprehensive method for determining the carrying capacity of single span stone and
masonry arches in terms of allowable axle weights. The method as such is concerned solely
with the strength of the arch barrel and takes account of the materials, various defects and
geometric proportions which affect the strength of the arch. Factors are also given to take
account of the effects of multiple axles.
Substructures, Foundations and Retaining Walls
Advice is given for qualitative assessment of dry-stone walls, retaining walls, spandrel walls
of arches, sub-structures and foundations which cannot be assessed by mathematical means
because of the number of unknown parameters involved and their complex behaviour. The
advice draws the attention of the engineer to the various defects likely to be found in them
and comments on their structural significance. However, ultimately a satisfactory assessment
of such structures depends upon the correct interpretations of the physical observations and
the exercise of engineering judgement supported by local knowledge.
Maintenance
Many structures that have been damaged or have deteriorated in various ways can be
restored to their original load carrying capacity by carrying out fairly straightforward
maintenance. Advice is given on the importance of the various defects and the remedial
measures that can be taken to alleviate them. All types of structure within the scope of this
subchapter are considered for this purpose.
5.5.3 Rating of Masonry Arch Bridges by the Modified Mexe Method

Scope
This section deals with the assessment of the strength of the ARCH BARREL ONLY. The
strength of the bridge shall be affected by the strength of the spandrel walls, wingwalls,
foundations etc. These items are dealt with in later sections of this subchapter. The modified
MEXE shall be used to estimate the carrying capacity of arches spanning up to 18m, but for
spans over 12m it becomes increasingly conservative compared to other methods. The
method should not be used where the arch is flat or appreciably deformed.

Chapter 5
Table 5-9: Centrifugal Distribution Factor Ap
Ap
Span Transverse Member
Longitudinal Member
Supported by Parapet
Edge Girders Only
Girders
Up to and including 6m 1.0 0.9
Over 6m anduptoand
0.9
including 9m
Over 9m and up to and Centrifugal effect shall
0.8
including 12 m be neglected
Over 12m and up to and
0.7
including 15m
Method of Assessment
The assessment of the arch barrel (adapted from Ref. 4), is based on the results of past
experience. It has been found to give satisfactory results for the range of vehicles present;
but its extrapolated use for heavier vehicles, or for spans greater than 18m should be treated
with caution. It is to be applied primarily to single span arches.
The initial assessment is in terms of a maximum allowable axle load on an axle forming part
of a double axle truck. Factors are given in later section Application for converting this result
to other axle configurations and for situations where axle 'lift-off' may occur on the axle of a
multiple axle truck.
Theory
The long-term strength of a stone or masonry arch is almost impossible to calculate
accurately and recourse has, therefore, been made to an empirical formula based on the arch
dimensions. The arch is first assumed parabolic in shape with span/rise ratio of 4, soundly
built in good quality stonework, with well pointed joints, to be free from cracks, and to have
adequate abutments.
For such an idealized arch, a provisional assessment is obtained from a nomogram (Figure 5-
7) or from the formula given in 5.7. This provisional assessment is then modified by factors
which allow for the way in which the actual arch differs from the ideal.
Survey of Arch
The arch should be inspected in accordance with provisions mentioned earlier in this
chapter, and the following dimensions measured as shown in Figure 5-8:
i. The span ..........................................................................................................L (m)
(in the case of skew spans, measure L parallel to the principal axis of the arch)
ii. The rise of the arch barrel at the crown ...........................................................rc (m)
iii. The rise of the arch barrel at the quarter points ...............................................rq (m)
iv. The thickness of the arch barrel adjacent to the keystone (see following text) d (m)
v. The average depth of fill, at the quarter points of the transverse road profile, between
the road surface and the arch barrel at the crown, including road surfacing... h (m)
The following information will also be required to derive the various modifying factors:
• Type of material used for the arch barrel.
• Types of construction of the barrel i.e. are the stones laid in courses or laid at random?
• Condition of materials in the barrel, i.e. is there a lot of spalling and are the stones

Chapter 5
sound or are they deteriorating due to weathering'?

• Deformation of the arch barrel from its original shape.
• Positions of dropped stones and the amount of drop.
• Width, length, number and positions of cracks.
• Type of filling above the arch and its condition.
• Position and size of services.
• Width of mortar joints.
• Depth of mortar missing from joints.
• Condition of joint mortar.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-7: Nomogram for Determining the Provisional Axle Loading of Masonry Arch
Bridges before Factoring

Chapter 5
The appropriate measurements should be taken so that the arch barrel thickness shall be
adjusted to allow for missing mortar (see Table 5-14) and to allow or any services laid
through the arch barrel.
Figure 5-8: Arch Dimensions
Radial displacement of individual stones, especially near the crown when there is little cover,
should be particularly noted. Displacement shall be due to uneven masonry projecting above
the barrel and being subjected to concentrated loads or a hard spot such as a pipe flange
bearing directly on the arch. The damage is usually localized and not serious if dealt with
before it has progressed too far. If, however, there are a number of stones displaced, then this
should be taken into account, and the thickness of the arch barrel adjusted accordingly.
Note should be taken of any evidence of separation of the arch rings, particularly with regard
to any additional rings which have been constructed in later years, and due account should be
taken in the value assumed for the arch barrel thickness.
Provisional Assessment
The provisional axle loading PAL is obtained by reference to the nomogram in Figure 5-7.
Mark the arch span L on Column A and the total crown thickness (d + h) (barrel and fill) on
Column B. Line through these points to Column C, and read off the provisional axle loading
assessment in tonnes. Alternatively, the provisional axle loading shall be obtained by
substituting the values of (d + h) and L in the following expression:
ßÁ = 740 + ℎ%/ . ÄØ 70 àℎÛ¦ℎáØ Û² Ö²² (5.7)
This expression has been derived from the nomogram and is and should only be used within
the limits given in Figure 5-7.

Chapter 5
The provisional axle load obtained is then modified by the modifying factors and the
condition factor in the following text.
Modifying Factors
Span/Rise Factor (Fsr). Flat arches are not as strong under a given loading as those of steeper
profile, and the provisional assessment must, therefore, be adjusted. A span/rise ratio of 4
and less is assumed to give optimum strength and has a factor of 1. When the span/rise ratio
is greater than 4, reference should be made to the graph in Figure 5-9 which gives the
appropriate span/rise factor Fsr for the different ratios.
Profile Factor (Fp). There is evidence that elliptical arches are not as strong as segmental and
parabolic arches of similar span/rise ratio and barrel thickness. The ideal profile has been
taken to be parabolic and for this shape the rise at the quarter points, rq = 0.75rc, where rc is
the rise at the crown.
Figure 5-9: Span/Rise Factor
The profile factor Fp for ratios of rq/rc less than or equal to 0.75 should be taken to be unity,
and for ratios greater than 0.75 should be calculated from the expression:
â Hâã .
+À = 2.3 Ã â
Å (5.8)
For convenience this has been plotted in Figure 5-10.

Material Factor (Fm). The material factor is obtained from the following formula:
å¢ ∗¹% åÏ ∗E%
+ä = (5.9)
¹E
Appropriate values of the barrel factor Fb and the fill factor Ff can be obtained from Tables 5-
10 and 5-11 respectively.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-10: Profile Factor
Table 5-10: Barrel Factor
Arch Barrel Barrel Factor (Fb)

Granite whether random or coursed and all built-in-course masonry
1.5
except limestone, all with large shaped stones
Concrete or engineering bricks and similar sized masonry (not
1.2
limestone)*
Limestone, whether random or coursed, good random masonry and
1.0
building bricks, all in good condition.
Masonry of any kind in poor condition (many stones flaking or badly
spalling, shearing etc). Some discretion is permitted if the dilapidation is 0.7
only moderate.
*Concrete arches will normally be of relatively recent construction and their assessment should be based on the
design calculations if these are available.

Chapter 5
Table 5-11: Fill Factor
Filling Fill Factor (Fr)

Concrete* 1.0
Grouted materials (other than those with a clay content) 0.9
Well compacted materials 0.7
Weak materials evidenced by tracking of the carriageway surface 0.5
*The fill factor for concrete is less than the barrel factor to allow for possible lack of bond to the arch.When
assessing an arch, unless details of the fill are known or there is evidence of weakness from the conditionof the
road surface, it is recommended that this factor be adopted. If the arch then requires a restriction,
furtherinvestigation should be made to see if the strength shall be increased.
An arch which is constantly wet, or shows signs that damp often penetrates, is unlikely to
have suffered deterioration from this cause alone unless the seepage contains reactive
chemicals which may have affected the materials of construction; in this case allowance
should be made in the value taken for the barrel factor. Some local damage shall be offset by
evidence that the structure was built with good materials and workmanship. Such evidence
would be:
i. Durable masonry set in its correct bed;
ii. Well-shaped durable stone;
iii. Correct bonding of stonework or masonry with regular and narrow joints;
iv. Original documents showing liberal hunching at the abutments and a good
specification.
Note should be taken of any leaching of the fill material over the arch due to the presence of
water and this should be allowed for in the fill factor.
Joint Factor (Fj). The strength and stability of the arch barrel depend, to a large extent, on the
size and condition of the joints. Lime mortar is commonly used in bridge construction,
particularly on old bridges, and, although it is softer than cement mortar, and has a lower
strength, this is compensated for by better joint-filling properties and good distributing power
under load. The joint factor Fj is obtained from the following formula:
Fj =Fw*Fd*Fmo (5.10)
Appropriate values for Fw and Fmo can be obtained from Tables 5-12 and 5-13 respectively.
The depth Factor Fd shall be taken as 1.0 for pointed joints in good condition. In the case of
insufficiently filled joints, it is recommended that if the depth of missing mortar can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy, the thickness of the arch barrel should be reduced by
this amount. When this is not appropriate, the depth factor Fd shall be taken from Table 5-14.
Table 5-12: Width Factor
Width of Joint Width Factor (Fw)

Joints with widths up to 6mm 1.0
Joints with widths between 6mm and 12.5mm 0.9
Joints with widths over 12.5mm 0.8

Chapter 5
Table 5-13: Mortar Factor
Condition of Joint Mortar Factor (Fmo)

Mortar in good condition 1.0
Loose or friable mortar 0.9
Table 5-14: Depth Factor
Construction of Joint Depth Factor (Fd)

Unpointed joints, pointing in poor condition and joints with up
0.9*
to12.5mm from the edge insufficiently filled
Joints with from 12.5mm to one tenth of the thickness of the barrel
0.8*
insufficiently filled
Joints insufficiently filled for more than one tenth the thickness of At the engineer’s
the barrel discretion
* Interpolation between these values is permitted, depending upon the extent and position of the joint
deficiency. Instead of using this depth factor, it is preferable to reduce the barrel thickness by the amount of
missing mortar (see Joint Factor text above).
Condition Factor
General
The estimation of the preceding factors is based on quantitative information obtainable from
a close inspection of the structure, but the factor for the condition of the bridge depends much
more on an objective assessment of the importance of the various cracks and deformations
which shall be present and how far they shall be counter-balanced by indications of good
material and workmanship. A quantitative estimate of the arch barrel condition factor Fc
should be made by the engineer, the value selected being between 0 and 1.0. A low factor
should be taken for a bridge in poor condition while 1.0 shall be taken for an arch barrel in
good condition with no defects. It is important that the engineer dissociates the "condition
factor" from the "material factor" and the "joint factor" as these are dealt with separately, as
indicated in the previous text. Guidance on the choice of condition factor is given in the
following text. Lower values than those in the suggested changes shall be taken for an arch in
a particularly poor state. When an unsound arch barrel supports a large depth of fill, a lower
value of the condition factor should be taken than that based solely on the other arch
deficiencies.
The condition factor of the arch, and hence its carrying capacity, can often be improved by
carrying out fairly minor repairs. These repairs are distinct from more elaborate
strengthening methods.
Cracks or Deformations
Cracks or deformations which may have occurred soon after the bridge was built are not
usually as serious as those which are recent, and show clean faces, possibly with loose
fragments of masonry. A further important point is whether the deterioration is progressive;
where this is suspected, frequent careful observations shall be necessary before arriving at a
final assessment. Cracks may on occasion be formed in the mortar only and it is important
that cracking and joint deficiencies should not be confused with each other.
Defects
It is also important to differentiate between those defects which affect the load carrying
capacity of the arch barrel and other defects which do not affect the load carrying capacity of

Chapter 5
the barrel but can affect the stability of the road surface. These are elaborated in the
following text.
Defects Affecting the Stability and Load Carrying Capacity of the Arch Barrel
Ranges of condition factors are given below for crack patterns resulting from specific
causes. The choice of factor is made from a critical determination of the size, shape and
importance of the various defects. The overall figure representing several defects should be
based on the relative importance of the worst type of defect present. It will not necessarily be
derived by multiplying the factors for several separate defects together:
i. Longitudinal cracks due to differential settlement in the abutments. These are
dangerous if large, i.e. > 3mm, because they indicate that the barrel has broken up
into independent sections. If the indications are that the barrel is breaking up into
1.0m sections or less, then a factor of 0.4 or below should be used. A higher factor
should be used for crack spacings greater than 1.0m. .................................................
............................................................................. Range of condition factors, 0.4-0.6
ii. Lateral cracks or permanent deformation of the arch which shall be caused by partial
failure of the arch or movement at the abutments. These faults can be accompanied
by a dip in the parapet which shall be more easily observed. ......................................
............................................................................. Range of condition factors, 0.6-0.8
iii. Diagonal cracks. These normally start near the sides of the arch at the springings and
spread up towards the center of the barrel at the crown. They are probably due to
subsidence at the sides of the abutment. Extensive diagonal cracks indicate that the
barrel is in a dangerous state. ................................ Range of condition factors, 0.3-0.7
iv Cracks in the spandrel walls near the quarter points. These frequently indicate
flexibility of the arch barrel over the center half of the span. ....... Condition factor 0.8
Unfavorable Defects Not Affecting the Stability of the Arch Barrel

The unfavorable defects which do not affect the stability of the arch barrel but may affect the
stability of the road surface are indicated below, with a description of their significance:
i. Longitudinal cracks near the edge of the arch barrel are signs of movement between
the arch and spandrel or bulging of the spandrel, caused by the lateral spread of the
fill exerting an outward force on the spandrels. This is a frequent source of weakness
in old arch bridges and the proximity of the carriageway to the parapet should be
taken into account when assessing its importance.
ii. Movement or cracking of the wingwalls is another common source of weakness in old
bridges and occurs for similar reasons to i. above.
iii. Where the bridge consists of multi-span arches and the strength of intermediate piers
is in doubt the structure should be examined for cracks and deformation arising from
any weakness in the piers.
Condition Factor Less Than 0.4
Where the condition factor is less than 0.4, immediate consideration should be given to the
repair or reconstruction of the bridge.
Application
The span/rise profile, material, joint and condition factors should be applied together with the
provisional axle loading obtained as in Provisional Assessment above in order to determine
the modified axle load which represents the allowable loading on the arch from a double axle
truck configuration with no “lift-off” from any axle.

Chapter 5
MODIFIED AXLE LOAD = Fsr*Fp*Fm*Fj*Fc*PAL (5.11)

The unrounded value of this modified axle load should be multiplied by the appropriate axle
factors from Figure 5-11 to give the allowable axle loads for single and multiple axles.
The capacity of arches should be determined in terms of gross vehicle weights from Table 5-
15 in accordance with following subsection Load Capacity and Weight Restriction.
It should be noted that these allowable axle loads may not represent the strength of the bridge
as a whole. This shall be affected by the strength of the spandrel walls, wingwalls,
foundations, etc, as mentioned previously. Should the strength of any of these items be
assessed as being lower than the barrel strength, then the lowest value should be taken as the
strength of the bridge as a whole.
Axle Lift-off
The axle factors given in Figure 5-11 cover two situations. The first, the 'no lift-off' case, is
the more usual when all the wheels of the vehicle are assumed to be in contact with the road
surface at all times.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-11: Conversion of Modified Axle Loads to Single Double and Triple Axles

Chapter 5
The 'lift-off' case relates to circumstances when an axle of a double or triple axle truck lose
contact, either partially or completely, with the road surface and transfers some of its load to
the other axles in the truck. Examples of the circumstances which may bring about this
phenomenon are given below and the road condition should be inspected to determine
whether or not 'lift-off' should be taken into account. The presence of any of the following
conditions could lead to the adoption of a 'lift-off' case:
i. Vertical road alignment with a small radius of curvature, e.g., a humped back bridge.
ii. Arch located at the bottom of a hill or on a straight length of road where
approachspeeds are likely to be high.
iii. Irregularities in road surface on the arch.
Table 5-15: Load Capacity and Gross Vehicle Weight Restrictions for Masonry Arches
Allowable Axle Load

Max Gross Weight
(tonnes
Vehicle Weight Restriction Type of Vehicle
(gvw) (tonnes) (tonnes)
Single |Double Triple
11.5 10 8* 40 N/A 5 axles
10.5 9.5 - 32.5 33 4 axles
10.5 9 - 24.5 25 3 axles
10.5 - - 17 17 2 axles
5.5 - - 7.5 7.5 4WD
Effects of Multiple Axles and Derivation of Axle Factors

Introduction
The modified MEXE method for arch assessment makes use of a nomogram from which it is
possible to derive, for a particular arch, a provisional allowable axle load of an axle forming
part of a double axle truck. This load is then modified by various factors to allow for the
shape of the arch, construction materials, dimensions of the arch barrel and any defects.
However because a proportion of heavy vehicles now have triple axles, a simple method of
relating the effect of different axle configurations to double axles is needed so that the
carrying capacity of the arch can be derived for all types of vehicle.
Theory
Examination of the stress influence lines for typical arches reveals the following:
i. At positions away from the crown there is little difference in the influence line
shapesbetween a 2 pinned and a 3 pinned arch.
ii. For a 2 pinned arch the dead load bending moment increases the live load moment
atthe 1/3 point but relieves the moment at the crown.
iii. Peak values for stress in the arch ring for both 2 and 3 pinned arches occur under a
concentrated load placed between about 0.1 and 0.35 of the span away from a
springing point.

Chapter 5
These observations led to the conclusion that the critical position for comparing the effects
of different axle configurations could be taken as the 1/3 point. Examination of the influence
lines also shows that the influence line for maximum stress at the 1/3 point is very similar in
shape to that for the mid-point bending moment of a simply supported beam of span equal to
half the arch span. Thus there is a simple method of comparing the effects of different axle
configurations by comparing the bending moments due to the different loading
configurations on a simply supported beam whose length is equal to half the arch span.
Axle Factors
The comparisons between single and multiple axles have been done as outlined above for
single axle and 2 and 3 axle trucks whose weights and spacing represent the extremes of
those allowable. The basis of the method has been a comparison of the existing
configurations with the double axle truck that was used in the derivation of the MEXE
nomogram. Two sets of comparisons have been undertaken, which consider the “no lift-off”
and “lift-off” cases. The “no lift-off” case assumes equal distribution of loading between the
axles of the truck. The “lift-off” case was considered because, although trucks are fitted with
compensating mechanisms to share the load between all the axles, it was felt that some
allowance should be made for possible axle “lift-off” which could occur for example at the
crown of a sharply humped bridge. Recent research has indicated that for three axle trucks
the load transfer takes place between the two outer axles, the center axle weight remaining
constant. Accordingly for the three axle “lift-off” case half the weight of one of the axles has
been transferred to the other outer axle. For two axle trucks it has been assumed that half the
weight of one axle is transferred to the other axle.
It was found that the extreme effects of the 2 axle configurations also covered the 3 axle
trucks up to 22.5 tonnes. The worst case results for single axles and two axle configurations
are therefore shown in Figure 5-11 where the axle factors are plotted against the arch span.
However, the vehicle fleet can include heavier 3 axle configurations of 24 tonnes with air or
fluid suspension. Additional factors have therefore been included in Figure 5-11 “no lift-off”
case to enable assessments for the heavier 3 axle trucks to be carried out. These may prove
to be the more onerous configuration. These factors are not given in Figure 5-11 “lift-off”
case because the improved compensatory performance of the air or fluid suspension ensures
that the effects of the heavier 3 axle trucks are no worse than the 22.5 tonne configuration.
Curved Carriageways
Where the carriageway on an arch is horizontally curved, an allowance for the effects of any
increase vertical loading caused by centrifugal effects should be made by dividing the
allowable axle weight by the factor FA. Centrifugal effects shall be ignored when the radius
of curvature of the carriageway exceeds 600m.
Load Capacity and Weight Restrictions
To find the load capacity of an arch, the allowable axle loads determined in accordance with
the above methods should first be rounded off to the nearest 0.5 tonnes. The maximum gross
weight of the vehicles which the arch can carry is then found from Table 5-15; it is the
maximum weight for which both the single and, where applicable, the double axle load
calculated for the arch are satisfied. It should be noted that when an arch has allowable axle
loads which are equal to or greater than 10.5 tonnes for a single axle and 10 tonnes for a
double axle (i.e., 20 tonne truck) no weight restrictions are necessary. It should also be noted
that in the case of 5 axle vehicles with gross weights between 32.5 and 38 tonnes it is only
necessary to consider the double axle truck configuration, since if this is satisfied any triple
axle truck configurations up to 22.5 tonnes are also automatically satisfied.
However, heavier triaxles of up 24 tonnes with air or fluid suspensions may also be present.

Chapter 5
A check should be made to determine whether weight restrictions are needed for these
heavier triaxles. Requirements are also given in Table 5-15 to enable arches to be checked
for 40 tonne vehicles. When weight restrictions are found necessary the restriction signs will
apply to gross weights of vehicles and should be signed for one of the weight restrictions
given in Table 5-15.

Chapter 5
5.5.4 Spandrel Walls

The adequacy of spandrel walls and dry stone walls will generally be assessed qualitatively
and be based on the results of visual inspection of the structures, including the significance
of any defects. The particular details of the two types of wall and the seriousness of the
various defects which can occur are described in the following text.
Spandrel walls are normally formed from dressed material and suffer the normal problems
associated with exposed masonry: weather, loss of pointing, in the joints, etc. In addition
deterioration of bridge spandrels is frequently a function of dead and live load lateral forces
generated through the bridge infilling or as a result of direct vehicular impact. In both cases
some outward movement is caused. Lateral forces may cause the wall to rotate outward from
the arch barrel, to slide on the arch barrel, to be displaced bodily outwards whilst taking part
of the arch ring with it, or to bulge (see Figure 5-12).
Dry-stone spandrel walls are not common. Where they occur there are difficulties which are
similar to those of retaining walls, but the effects of live loading are more significant.
Spandrel walls are more vulnerable to damage or displacement if no footway exists to
restrain vehicles passing close to the side of the bridge. Without footpaths vehicular impact
is more likely and the effects of the lateral loading generated by the vehicle through the
bridge fill shall be more acute.
Poor bridge drainage may also be a feature leading to deterioration of the spandrel,
particularly if saturation of the bridge fill occurs. It has been shown that if the fill consists of
chiseled, flat stones, the bridge may carry a larger load than if the fill is made from gravel.
5.5.5 Dry-Stone Walls

Inspection of dry-stone walls reveals that they are normally constructed without recognizable
foundations and out of marginal quality material. Only the front face contains dressed
masonry, the remainder usually being rubble. Dry-stone walls were constructed as facing
walls to vertical or near vertical cuts in unstable or friable material or as free-standing
retaining walls. In the latter cases construction and backfilling proceeded together.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-12: Spandrel Wall Failures

Chapter 5
The behavior of dry-stone walls is a function of their method of construction. The absence of
mortar results in stone to stone contact and since the stones used in the walls are usually
irregular or roughly squared, point contact between stones is common. Contact pressure shall
be high especially at the base of tall stones and crushing is often evident. The open nature of
a dry-stone wall permits weathering of the face and in the open joints, reducing the area of
contact and encouraging further crushing. In addition, percolation of ground water and water-
borne salts through the wall results in weathering and the leaching of fines from within the
structure.
Weathering occurs more in some areas of wall than in others, due to the very variable quality
of the masonry used. Random weathering and unsatisfactory foundations results in
differential settlements, movements and bulging, which induces acute stresses in some
elements of the structure, causing cracking, whilst elsewhere stones become loose and shall
be dislodged.
5.5.6 Assessment of Dry-Stone Walls

Assessment of dry-stone walls consists of regular visual inspection and a comparison with
adjacent structures. Qualitative judgments are difficult since conditions will vary greatly
with the quality of stone used, age, subsoil conditions, geometry, weathering factors and
local expectations. Due attention should be given to local engineering experience.
Where past movement or the condition of the structure raises doubts concerning stability,
regular monitoring should be introduced. Decisions relating to structural safety and
conditions often depend upon engineering instinct, although simple visual aids such as tell-
tales can be useful to determine if the structure is moving or in a temporary equilibrium.
5.5.7 Substructures, Foundations and Retaining Walls

The adequacy of a sub-structure, foundation or a retaining wall is usually determined from a
qualitative assessment of the general condition of the structure, including the significance of
any defects. In carrying out such an assessment, particular attention should be paid to the
items described below.
Before assessment can proceed, dimensional checks are required on the sub-structure,
foundations or retaining wall for preparing sketches for analysis or for confirmation of the
'as-built' drawings. These dimensional checks may require excavation or probing to
determine depth and the extent of the sub-structure and foundations. Care must be exercised
to ensure that no exploratory work impairs stability or damages underground services.
In some instances exploratory excavations, probing or boring may not be practicable prior to
assessment. In these cases if an assessment is required conservative estimates may have to be
made regarding the probable dimensions of the sub-structure, foundations or retaining wall
only upon visual evidence.
In many early bridges bearings were omitted, in others only rudimentary forms of bearing
were provided. As part of the assessment the existence and efficiency of the bearings should
be established. Where no bearings exist or their efficiency is impaired, the ability of a bridge
to cater for thermal movements and forces should be considered.
Tilting or rotation in any direction of retaining walls and abutments shall be determined
using normal survey techniques; if there are any indications of damage due to possible
thermal movement this shall be confirmed by using laser techniques.

Chapter 5
Flow of water can cause leaching and scour from foundations and sub-structures; any sight
of unexpected or unintended water flows should be investigated, the cause established and
any resultant deterioration determined.
Underwater inspection in slow moving water shall be undertaken by divers, or using flexible
dams or cofferdams. The latter may have the advantage of providing dry conditions for
repairs should they be required. In fast flowing water or in the rainy season, damming shall
be impracticable.
REFERENCES
1 AASHTO “Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and
Concrete Bridges,” 1989.
2 NCHRP 12-28(3), NCHRP Report 299, USA.
3 Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 3: Highway Structures: Inspection
and Maintenance, Section 4: Assessment, London, January 1993.
4 Military Engineering Experimental Establishment. "Classification (of Civil Bridges)
by the Reconnaissance and Correlation Methods." Christchurch (MEXE), May 1963.
5 Hendry, A. W., and Jaeger, L.G. "The Analysis of Grid Frameworks and Related
Structures." Chatto and Windus, 1958 (rept 1969).
6 Thomas F.G., and Short, A. "A Laboratory Investigation of Some Bridge-Deck
Systems." I.C.E., March 1952.
7 Pippard A. J. S. "The approximate estimation of safe loads on masonry bridges." Civil
Engineer in War, Vol 1, 365. Inst. Civ. Engrs, London, 1948.
8 Bridle, R.J.and Hughes, T.G. “An energy method forarchbridgeanalysis." Proc. Inst.
Civ. Engrs, London, Part 2, 1990.
9 Heyman J. "The estimation of the strength of masonry arches." -Proc Inst Civ. Engrs,
London, Part 2, Dec 1980.
10 MINIPONT User Manual, Highway Engineering Computer Branch, Department of
Transport, London, 1975.
11 Page, J. "Assessment of masonry arch bridges." Proceedings of the Institution of
Highways and Transportation National Workshop, Leamington Spa, March 1990.
12 Harvey, W. J. “Application of the mechanism analysis to masonry arches." The
Structural Engineer, Vol 66, No.5, March 1988.
13 Chou, B. S. et al. "Finite-Element analysis of masonry arch bridges using tapered
elements." Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs, London, Part 2, Dec 1991.

Chapter 6
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Calculations, Drawings and Specifications
6 CALCULATIONS, DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS
6.1 Format of Calculations, Drawings and Specifications
6.1.1 General Requirements

All the design, drawings, specifications and calculations shall be in the English language.
All characters and numbers in drawings shall not be less than 3.5 mm high, and any line
thickness shall not be less than 0.18 mm, to be easily readable when in half size. All
characters shall be drawn with CAPITAL letters.
Reinforcement bars shall be shown in the following format: “67 ∅12 s 200 – B2,”
meaning: number of bars, diameter 12 mm, spaced at 200 mm, bar no B2.
The standardized scales used for structures should be: 1:500, 1:250, 1:100, 1:50, 1:25,
1:10, 1:5 or 1:2.5. When in half size the actual scale will be: 1:1000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:100,
1:50, 1:20, 1:10 and 1:5.
All drawings of bridges and structures shall as a first choice be made either as digital files
in “.dwg-format” or other by ERA approved format, and/or on size A1, alternatively at half
size A3 on paper. Originals of drawings shall be submitted to ERA, of an approved quality
(laminated paper), in order to last in the ERA archives for at least 50 years.
The final design calculation sheets that contain all the detailed calculations shall be on A4-
size, although folded A3 size also shall be allowed. A minimum of two copies each shall
be submitted to ERA.
Specifications of reinforcement or steel shall be submitted to ERA in a minimum of two
copies, either on the actual detail drawing or on separate sheets on size A4 as stated above.
Lists and Tables of post stressed reinforcement cables, lists of piles and other similar lists
shall be made on size A4, although folded A3 size also shall be allowed.
6.1.2 Preliminary Design Drawing/Preliminary Plan(s)

The preliminary design drawing(s) shall contain a plan, a section and an elevation with the
following information essential for the detail design stage:
• The horizontal alignment of the road approaches and the bridge;
• Direction of flow and name of the waterway;
• North point, overall length of bridge, span lengths, clearance heights;
• Type of bearings (fixed/expansion);
• Width of road, width of bridge;
• Inclination of embankment slopes;
• The direction of the nearest town and/or the project start and end;
• Which traffic load and special loads shall be used for the detail design;
• Quantities of flow, design water speed, design water level, normal and lowest water
level;
• Cross sections of the waterway in the alignment and 5 m up-and downstream at
elevation;
• Contours or spot levels of the river bed and the surrounding ground in the area;
• Reference to the soil investigation used, the levels of hard soil layers and bedrock -
if any -from the soil investigation;

Chapter 6
Calculations, Drawings and Specifications Drainage Design Manual – 2013
• Scour protection type and thickness;

• Crossfall of bridgedeck, grade of bridge, angle of skew, angle of abutments and
piers;
• Type of railing, type of joints in railing;
• Coordinate system used, bench mark used and its elevation (if a local level is used
it shall be described in detail and give its connection with the national level
benchmark network;
• Elevation of footings, type of soils at every support, length of piles if any;
• Type of drainage outlets of bridgedeck if any, type of expansion joints if any, type
of hinge;
• Type of fill behind the abutments, at frame structures the filling should be made at
the same time at the same level behind both abutments, at abutments not founded
on rock the backfill shall be made before the measure between the superstructure
and the abutment is decided upon;
• Which specifications shall be used for the detail design.
6.1.3 Detail Design Drawings

When the designs of foundations, substructures and superstructure on the basis of the
preliminary design drawing have been selected, and all the necessary modifications to suit
local requirements and conditions made, the detail designerof ERA or the contractor must
prepare drawings in sufficient detail and with all necessary dimensions to enable the
structure to be built by ERA employees or an outside contractor.
Since the drawings contain all the information required to build the structure, there should
be no need for the builder to consult the designer. In practice, however, liaison between
design office and construction site usually benefits both parties and is particularly helpful
when unforeseen conditions are met. It is common for the Engineer, in consultation with
the designer, to agree to modifications with the contractor, with the aim of saving
unnecessary costs, compensating for poor soils or using different materials to those
specified.
A complete set of “as-built” drawings and calculations is also required for the bridge
inventory. This set should include any modifications that might have been introduced
during construction and is to be updated whenever repairs or strengthening, etc take place
on the structure or the river works.
The main drawing contains a plan, longitudinal section and one or more cross sections of
the structure. It is usually drawn to a scale of 1:100 or 1:250 and specifies the following
major dimensions: Abutment and pier width, height, bearing shelf levels and foundation
levels, superstructure span, width and height to the underside, wing wall lengths, heights
and foundation levels, and finished road surface levels over the bridge. Design flood level,
the high flood level and the low water level help to determine the vertical alignment of the
road approaches and the bridge.
The detail substructure drawing should show the elevations, plans and sections selected,
and all the dimensions and levels required for setting out and construction of the
abutments, piers and wing walls. Common scales are 1:50 or 1:25 for reinforcement details
and 1:10 or 1:5 for smaller details. Concrete and reinforcement properties and
specifications such as material class and cover thickness should also be included.

Chapter 6
Bridge Design Manual – 2014 Calculations, Drawings and Specifications
The superstructure main detail drawing should contain plan and sections detailing the
bridge deck girders, etc. It includes material properties and specifications as well as bar
bending schedules for reinforcement. The most common scales are 1:50 or 1:25 and even
1:10 or 1:5 for smaller details.
Further detail drawings for bearings, expansion joints etc, at scale 1:25, 1:10 or sometimes
1:5 are prepared as required.
If some of the above drawings are not in the Road and Bridge Standard Specifications or in
the Bidding documents, the designer must prepare drawings in sufficient detail and with all
necessary dimensions to enable the structure to be built.
Detail design drawings shall contain the following information, if appropriate to the
drawing:
• All necessary technical information on concrete or steel according to the Ethiopian
Building Code Standards, EBCS-2 (concrete) and -3 (steel) 1995 or these
Specifications.
• If piling, actual maximum and minimum pile loads, type of piles, notations on
method of piling, each pile should also be given a unique number.
• Length, height and levels of expansion joints as well as diagram of movements.
• Specification of steel details and painting program to be used.
• The method of manufacturing and construction, camber, etc if it will affect the
rigidity, lifetime or appearance.
• Reinforcement bar length, dimension and their unique number shown both as
elevation and section. All reinforcement in a section shall be shown in the same
figure.
• Position and details of construction joints and order of concreting stages.
• Maximum aggregate size in concrete (unless normal size is used).
• If voids (holes) are used in slab the necessary anchoring of it shall be shown.
• Borehole plan including sections and substrata information.
Revisions of detail design drawings during or before construction time shall always be
approved by the Engineer before the work is performed. If nothing else is stated the
drawing shall be sent to the Engineer to be checked and signed. If the revision requires
calculations, these shall be submitted with the drawing, together with information on which
part of the earlier approved calculations is affected.
6.1.4 Final Revision/As-Built Drawings

Before the Final Acceptance of the entire construction work the Contractor shall submit to
the Engineer duly revised originals or digital files of detail design/construction drawings,
structural calculations and specifications.
6.2 Quality Control of Calculations and Drawings

The Contractor and/or the Designer shall be certified by an independent Quality Institution,
which has been approved by ERA. Otherwise he must prove his ability to check his design
calculations and drawings before approval by the Engineer, by submitting an Object
Specific Quality Plan in accordance with the requirements in ISO 9001 or equal.
The use of checklists, signed by the Responsible Designer, shall be the common way of
obtaining a high quality.

Bridge Design Manual Part 2 - July14Final MASTER

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Bridge Design Manual Part 2 - July14Final MASTER

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bridge Design Manual Part 2 - July14Final MASTER

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

3.7 Substructures for RC Bridges .................................................................... 3-17

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

4.4.1 Application.................................................................................................. 4-7

Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

Figure 4-7: Guide to the Selection of Sx .................................................................... 4-26

Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

Table 5-14: Depth Factor ........................................................................................... 5-30

Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

1 PLANNING STAGE/FEASIBILITY STUDY/SITE INVESTIGATION

1.2 Site Selection

1.2.1 River Type

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

1.2.2 Bridge Sites

1.3 Site Conditions

1.3.1 Catchment Area

Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

1.3.2 Water Levels

1.4 Cross-Section of River (See alsothe prevailing version of the ERA

1.5 Proposed Typical Section of Road

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-3

1.6 Sketch of Proposed Bridge and Brief Technical Descriptions of Bridges

1.7 Existing Bridges

1.8 Cost/Benefit Analysis and Evaluation

Page 1-4 Ethiopian Roads Authority

1.9 Site Investigation

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-5

1.9.3 Land Use

Page 1-6 Ethiopian Roads Authority

1.9.4 Other Structures

1.9.5 Sampling and Soil Investigation

1.9.6 Field Sketching and Photos

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-7

1.9.7 Check List of Site Investigation

Figure 1-1: Sketch of Bridge Site

Page 1-8 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Form 1-1 FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM

• PROJECT:…………..................................................………………......……………… Date: …................……….

• WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow:

STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.................

Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................Clear

(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) .............................................................................................................................................

MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream:

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-9

Form 1-2 BRIDGE INSPECTION FORM Page 1(3)

Name ……………………………………. Crossing……………………

Notes from the Inspector to the Engineer:

Inspected by ……………………………...……………Date…………… No of pages in report………..

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS (from the Inventory)

Problem How Bad? How Much?

Page 1-10 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Notes: Page 2(3) Page 3(3)

TIMBER BEAMS AND

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-11