Radiographic film

- displays radiographic image, consists of silver halide crystals which when exposed to light
produces a silver ion and an electron
- photographic receptor which consist of photographically active radiation sensitive emulsion
coated on a thin sheet-like material, responsible in recording physical impression of an object
where we can get their details
 The process of photographic film and radiographic film are the same but the radiation is more
sensitive.

Direct exposure/non-screen film

- Does not use intensifying screen

- No cassette, special type of cardboard is used
- Used to image thin body parts
- Produce high subject contrast
- Interacts directly with x-rays; does not need light to produce latent image
- Single emulsion
- Advantages:
✓ Decrease parallax effect or crossover (parallax happen on double emulsion)
Parallax effect – apparent displacement of an image as seen in a radiograph

(x-ray divergence is not straight)

There is an overlapping on the same part (because of the second emulsion) = can cause
distortion

✓ Decrease quantum mottle (random nature by which x-rays interact with the IR);
Quantum mottle appears in the image as salt and pepper or rad noise; happens when the use of
technical factor is not sufficient on the part under examination
ex.
Low technical factors, when penetrating a thick part of the body = will not be sufficient = will
appear in the image as salt and pepper because the radiation cannot pass through some parts,
there are loose parts
High technical factors to penetrate a thick body part = can penetrate, all rad can pass through
the thickness = no artifacts will be seen
Direct exposure film requires high technical factors; technical factors are responsible for
contrast; it directly interacts with the film and with the production of x-rays
- Disadvantages:
x Will need high TF so the patient dose will increase
x Thicker emulsion = higher concentration of silver halide crystals = requires more development
time for the processing to interact with the silver halide crystals
- Applications:
• Used in intraoral dental radiography = film is placed directly inside the mouth of the patient
• Kidney surgery films
• Radiation monitoring films/TLD
Screen-film

- Double emulsion
- Uses intensifying screen
- Is the most commonly used
- Characteristics must be considered:
o Contrast – film should exhibit multiple contrast level; difference of the contrast depends on the
size and distribution of silver halide crystals; high contrast = smaller silver halide crystals with a
relatively uniform grains size; low contrast = large grains, wider range of sizes
o Speed – sensitivity of the film-screen combination to x-rays and light; for Direct exposure film, it
depends on the concentration and total number of silver halide crystals; for screen-film depends
on the size, shape, and concentration, size and shape is responsible for capturing the light from
the intensifying screen and for covering power of the silver halide crystals to capture all the light
emitted by the intensifying screen; to optimize the speed for screen-film, double emulsion –
used for films that are placed on cassette
o Crossover – exposure of an emulsion causing by light from the opposite radiation intensifying
screen; will cause blurring on the image due to the passing through of the light from the base
that could interact on the opposite emulsion; once radiation interacts with intensifying screen, it
will transform to light, light interacts with silver halide crystals; if size shape are not intact it
could pass through between the two silver halide crystals going to the base and reach the
second intensifying screen then light will bounce back that can interact with the silver halide
crystals of the second emulsion
- Tabular grain emulsion reduces crossover because of its covering power is increased which
relates not only to light absorption from the screen but also the light transmitted through
the emulsion to cause crossover;
- the spaces of not intact are the cause of crossover
- Remedy: add light absorbing dye in a crossover control layer to reduce crossover to near 0
- Crossover control layer has 3 critical characteristics: (1) absorbs most of crossover light, (2)
does not diffuse into the emulsion but remains as a separate layer (will not be mixed with
the emulsion), (3) is completely removed during processing
o Spectral matching – most important consideration in the selection of modern screen-film; is
where a green sensitive film should be matched with a green emitting intensifying screen; blue
sensitive films should be matched with blue emitting intensifying screen; screen is made up of
phosphors who produces light who transmits light can be made up of rare earth elements or
calcium tungstate
o Rare earth screens are made up of rare earth elements with atomic numbers 57-71;
emits UV, blue, green, and red is faster than calcium tungstate
o Calcium tungstate screen emits blue and blue violet lights only
- all intensifying screen films respond to violet and blue light but not to green yellow or red
unless they are spectrally sensitized with dyes; all films are sensitive to blue and violet lights;
green sensitive lights are spectrally sensitized; there are dyes that is placed on films to be
sensitized with the colors of the rare earth screen; green emitting screens should be
matched with the film sensitive not only to blue light but also to green light which is called
orthochromatic films; blue emitting screens should only be used with blue sensitive films;
 green sensitive films can be used to blue emitting screen; monochromatic films should only
be used to blue emitting

Safelights

• Monochromatic (blue sensitive film) – Wratten 6B filter

• Orthochromatic film – GBX2
 Filter of safelight depends on the sensitivity of the film

Classification of film according to its use

• Mammographic film – used for breast examination; mammography; use single emulsion film to have
greater detail
• Therapy localization film – guideline; have wide range of exposure; uses direct exposure film
• Dental x-ray film – 2 procedures; intraoral and extraoral
• Intraoral – film is placed inside the mouth of the patient; x-ray films are peripheral, occlusal,
bitewing or interproximal; uses direct exposure type of film
• Extraoral – panoramic x-ray uses screen film
• video film – uses single emulsion; seen in a multi format camera or laser camera
• Photofluorographic – also called as Abeugraphy; discovered by Manuel Diaz Abeu; uses single
emulsion type of film; also called minifluorography for chest x-ray examination to determine the
mass on a chest x-ray, aptb or the tuberculosis pulmonary tuberculosis and lung cancer
• Cine/roll film – single emulsion film; have sprocket holes; used for cardiac catheterization; usually
are the angiographic film
• Spot film – used for special procedures; used to determine an exact location of a mass on a certain
part of the body; screen-film emulsion
• Copy/duplicating film – also called reversal film; uses single emulsion type of film; uses UV lamp and
light; use black light bulb; copies radiograph from other film; has 2 sides the other side is lighter
compared to the opposite and the lighter side is placed directly on light source; the more the film is
exposed to light the lesser density it will have; the duplicated image will be seen in negative color
(different from the usual processing of a radiograph)
• Dosimeter/personnel monitoring film – measure radiation absorbed dose to the radiographer;
thermoluminescence device (TLD) – film badge; single emulsion
• Laser film – can be seen in a facility that has CR system and DR system because they use a laser
printer; film can be printed out on the laser printer without the use of processing chemicals; no
darkroom, no fixer and developer solution; uses infrared light
Film construction

Radiographic film has 2 parts: BASE, EMULSION

• BASE
- have a thickness of 150-300 μm
- foundation of the radiographic film
- primary purpose is to provide a rigid structure onto which the emulsion can be coated
- flexible and fracture resistant
- semirigid, lucent, made of polyester
- dimensional stability – maintain its size and shape during the use and processing so it does not
contribute to image distortion
- uniform lucency and is nearly transparent to light
 (negatoscope is used to view radiographs)
 A radiograph or a film is tinted/dyed with blue tint; reduces eye strain and fatigue; enhances the
radiology’s diagnostic efficiency and accuracy
o Other materials used as base for rad film
- History of film base
➢ Glass plate – original radiographic film; x-ray plate; first rad film that was used during World War
I; the number of plates cannot accommodate all patients; largely unavailable
➢ Cellulose nitrate – flammable; 1920s up to early 1930s
➢ Cellulose triacetate – mid 1920s; safety base; not flammable, but properties are almost the
same with cellulose nitrate
➢ Polyester – early 1960s; more resistant to warping from age and is stronger than cellulose
triacetate; dimensional stability is superior; thinner compare to triacetate; base of modern film
• EMULSION
- Heart of the radiographic film
- Where the x-rays or light photons from intensifying screen interact
- Consist of homogenous gelatin and silver halide crystals – active layer/ingredient of film
especially in emulsion; gelatin will provide the mechanical support for the silver halide crystals,
combines shc
- 3-5 μm

Shapes of silver halide crystals:

- tabular, cubic, octahedral, polyhedral, irregular – can cause crossover effect

 Tabular grain – lesser chance of crossover effect

Silver halide crystals is composed of silver bromide (AgBr – 98%) and silver iodide (AgI – 2%) = have high
atomic numbers Ag 47, Br 35, I 53, gelatin and base 7 – high atomic numbers can absorb the radiation

Silver halide crystals – responsible for absorbing the radiation that will pass through the patient;
radiation that can pass through the thickness will form the latent image

Tabular grains are used in most rad films; flat and typically 0.1 μm thick with triangular hexagonal or
higher order polygonal cross section; have 1 μm in diameter = mas malawak ang covering power to
absorb light
Arrangement of crystals are cubic =

Silver halide crystals or silver bromide formation

Silver is dissolved in nitric acid to form a silver nitrate

Ag – HNO3 = AgNO3

AgNO3

Light sensitive silver bromide crystals are formed by mixing silver nitrate with potassium bromide and
silver iodide (light sensitive because we use intensifying screen that form light)

Ag NO3 + KBr = AgBr, AgI

Silver nitrate combined with potassium bromide = light sensitive silver bromide plus potassium nitrate

AgNO3 + KBr = AgBr + KNO3

Potassium nitrate will be washed away after getting light sensitive silver bromide

These are formed with the correct measure, temperature of the chemicals that should be combined in
the presence of gelatin

➢ The number of sensitivity centers per crystal, the concentration of crystals in the emulsion, and the
size and distribution of crystals affect the performance characteristics of radiographic film.
➢ Silver halide crystals are not perfect.
➢ Imperfections are called the sensitivity center or the latent image center – latent image formation –
caused by chemical contaminant SILVER SULFITE
➢ Silver sulfite is from the combinations of silver metallic and bromine and iodine
➢ There is a release of an electron – positive and negative electron can have halide crystals – sulfites

Characteristics of Screen Film

• Contrast – depends on the size and distribution of silver halide crystals; high contrast contains
smaller silver halide grains with a relatively uniform grain size; low contrast contains larger grains
that have a wider range of sizes
• Speed – sensitivity of screen-film combination to x-rays and light; DE speed is principally a function
of the concentration and the total number of silver halide crystals; screen-film silver halide grain
size, shape, concentration are the principal determinants of the film speed, to optimize the speed
screen-films are usually double emulsion = can double its speed
• Recorder detail/spatial resolution – how small an object can be imaged; high speed screens have
low spatial resolution; fine detail screens have high spatial resolution; large crystal size can produce
a high speed; high speed can have a low spatial resolution; low spatial resolution gives us low
contrast; high contrast can be obtained using a film that contains smaller silver halide crystals with a
relatively uniform grain size
Characteristic Curve

- 2 principal measurements involved in sensitometry are the exposure to the film and the percentage
of light transmitted through the processed film; sensitometry is the study of relationship between
the intensity of exposure of the film and the blackness after processing
- Was first used as a tool for measurement by 2 British photographers in 1980 – Ferdinand Hurter and
Vero Charles Driffield
- Also called H&D curve/DlogE/Response Curve/Sensitometric curve

Sensitometry

The basis is the density. Has log value of 0-4

Light transmission – an increased in density will have a lower light transmitted

D = log10 Io/It (Initial intensity/Initial time)

X-ray film has an inherent base plus fog density level of 0.2 (B + F = 0.2 -> is inherent on the film)

plotting of a characteristic curve, there should be a 0.2 automatic level on the density

Characteristic Curve Materials

➢ Aluminum step-wedge – also called the penetrometer; a device made up of aluminum with copper
base that is shaped like a step-wedge precisely calibrated to produce an exact and regular increase
or decrease in exposure; looks like small stairs and according to different steps it has different
density that requires a different technical factor for exposing on the different steps
➢ Should expose an aluminum steppage as the first step
➢ After exposing this, if no aluminum steppage a sensitometer can be used -> sensitometer which is an
exposure device which prints a pre-exposed negative directly onto the film
➢ densitometer is a device that measures the OD of a portion of an image using a 0-4 scale
➢ Both end products (aluminum steppage and sensitometer) should be measured using the
densitometer
➢ After measuring, you can plot the characteristic curve
➢ Log relative exposure in the plot (horizontal) – will represent the amt of exposure the film received
to produce a density
➢ Optical density in the plot (vertical) – will represent the density reading obtained by the use of a
densitometer
➢ Exposure is expressed as a logarithm of relative exposure

D = log10 Io/It

base plus fog – start at 0.2 OD before plotting the curve

should not exceed 0.25; ranges approx. 0.18-0.23

dmax – maximum density; highest point on the curve; overexposure

dmin – first measurement above the base plus fog; underexposure

the toe portion of the curve (lower portion in the dmin) represents an area of underexposure on the
film; it provides little information because the amt of density is too small for an information to be
evaluated by the human eye

the shoulder portion identifies the maximum density levels on the film and represents an area of
overexposure

the contrast is minimum in the shoulder and toe region, therefore making almost no detail visible

straight line portion represents increase in density as the relative exposure increases;

higher straight line – there is a higher linear response; it begins at the level of approx. 0.4 density to
about 2.5 above base fog

region of solarization – density on the film that begins to decrease with increases in exposure; at the
top; once it reaches its maximum density, it will go lower even if the maximum log relative exposure
is reached, even if there is an increase in exposure; caused by the silver halide grain not being able
to absorb any more energy and the grain beginning to reassociate into the silver bromide = density
will decrease

Straight line portion parts:

- film gamma – maximum slope of the curve; measured at the steepest point on the straight line
portion; used to measure the gradient; an average film gamma is exposed x-ray film from 2.0 to
3.5
- (gradient – slope at any point on the curve and will represent the contrast of the film at a
specific density level)
- (Average gradient – measure of the contrast; can be seen at slope of the straight line portion
between 0.25 to 2.0)

Evaluate contrast

- Sensitometrically it is described by the average gradient or slope of the straight line portion of
the curve
- Measurements used to describe contrast are: film gamma, gradient, and average gradient which
can be seen in the straight line portion

Evaluation of latitude

- Range of exposure that will produce densities between 0.25 and 2.0 above the base plus fog
density
- Determined by the range of exposure given
- Wider latitude = long scale of contrast = low contrast
- Short scale = high contrast

Evaluation of film speed

- Describes the sensitivity of the film emulsion to exposure

- Defined as…
 Characteristic curve measures the density level given by the amount of energy, intensity of the x-ray
beam

Film handling and storage consideration

- Radiographic film is a sensitive rad detector must be handled accordingly.

- Clean hands are a must and hand lotions should be avoided (handling artifact).

Heat and humidity

- Radiographic film should be stored at temps lower than approximately 20 degrees Celsius (68
degrees in Fahrenheit)
- Humidity level should be 40-60%
- Heat increases fog on a radiograph therefore reduce contrast
- Ventilation helps in the proper circulation of air level inside, reduce heat; processing chemicals
produce heat which can lead to heat fog
- Storage under conditions of elevated humidity (greater than 60%) = reduces contrast because of
increased fog; static fogs are possible when the relative humidity dips to below 40%
- Static artifacts have 3 patterns: crown, tree, and smudge artifact; from humidity is crown or tree;
static artifacts are from handling, humidity, placing the box of the film horizontally; the film will have
pressure if place horizontally instead of vertical; rough handling (smudge)

Light

- Radiographic film must be stored and handled in the dark

- To control light, there should be a well-sealed darkroom
- Low level diffused light exposes the film = film fog is increased
- Bright light exposes or partially exposes the film = a gross obvious artifact is produced (added
density is noticeable)

Radiation

- Darkrooms are usually located next to radiographic imaging rooms, lined with lead
- Fog level of unprocessed film is approx. 2µGya (0.2mR)

Pressure

- Static artifacts from storage of the film

- Film should be stored vertically to prevent pressure artifacts
- Storage room temp 20 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit) = films can be stored from 30 to 45
days
- 10 degrees Celsius (50 ? degrees Fahrenheit) = greater than 1yr
- The aging of the film can be stopped by storing it in 0 degree celsius = freeze – will exceed the
expiration date – can be used when the film has been warmed up at a temp of 35 degrees Celsius
(85 degrees Fahrenheit)
- Ventilaton process – to avoid higher temp in the darkroom (can speed up the aging process of the
films)
- Packaging of the film is called the photo-inert photoethylene bag or which is also called metal foil –
protect the film from exposure