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Measurement and Instrument

Lecture on
Measurement of Resistances

Prepared By
Mehedi Azad Shawon
Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE
American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB)

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 Lecture Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, the students should be able to:

1) Explain the difficulties for the measurement of resistance of

different ranges.

2) Determine unknown resistance of different ranges applying

methods of Wheatstone bridges.

3) Illustrate various measurement methods for high resistance

(i.e. insulation resistance)

4) Identify the fault location in a cable using appropriate

method

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 Resistance Measurement
 What are the major significance of resistance?
Since resistance are used in electrical circuits for variety of useful tasks, the
property of resistances play a significant role for determining the
performance parameter of various circuit elements. Thus it is highly
important to have a reasonable accurate information about the magnitude
of resistance in any electrical circuit.

Moreover, resistances are used as standard parameter for the measurement

of other electrical parameters like inductance, capacitances etc.

 How did you need to measure resistance with high level of accuracy?

Multi-meter works quite well if we need a rough value of resistance.

But for accurate values specially for resistances with very low and very high
values, we need specific methods. In this lecture we will discuss various
methods of resistance measurement.

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Classification of Resistances

Figure 1: Classification of resistances

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 Choice of Methods
The choice of a suitable method of measuring resistance depends on several different
factors.
 The range of resistance to be measured is the most important factor.
 In any particular case the choice of method will be limited to one or two,
depending on the equipment available.

The different methods of resistance measurement can be divided into two classes,
1. laboratory methods &
2. workshop methods

This division again depends on the accuracy to which the measurement is to be made.

Laboratory Methods Workshop Methods

More accurate Simple but Less accurate

(with a particular method) (using device with direct reading)

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Classification of Resistance Measurement Methods

Figure 2: Methods for measurement of different value resistances 6

 Measurement of Low Resistance (< 1 Ω)
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method
Ammeter Voltmeter method is used to measure resistance of medium range. This
is very simple technique. There are two types of connections for Ammeter
voltmeter method of measuring resistance.
Figure 3(a) is suitable for measuring comparatively high resistances.

Where as figure 3(b) is suitable for measuring resistance of low values within the
ranges of medium value resistance. Both techniques require one voltmeter and
ammeter each. The readings from these are used to calculate the unknown
resistance using Ohm`s law R=V/I.

Figure 3: Ammeter-voltmeter method: (a) AV-1, (b) AV-2

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method-1
Now in figure 1(a), the voltmeter measures voltage drop across ammeter and the
unknown resistance, hence the measured resistance will be

Where,
Rm = measured value,
Ra = ammeter internal resistance and,
R = true value of the resistance

Hence, the relative error will be,

The error in this method will become smaller if R >> Ra

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Ammeter-Voltmeter (AV) Method-2
Now in figure 3, the ammeter measures the sum of current through voltmeter and
resistance, hence the measured resistances will be

Where,
Rm = measured value,
Rv = Voltmeter internal resistance and,
R = true value of the resistance

Hence, the relative error will be,

The error in this method will become smaller if R << Rv

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 Example 1: Measurement of low resistance: AV method
A voltmeter of 600 Ω resistance and ammeter of 0.8 Ω resistance are used to measure two
unknown resistances by AV method. If the voltmeter reads 40 V and ammeter reads 120 mA
in both the cases, calculate the percentage error in the
values of measured resistances if
(a) The voltmeter is put across the resistance and the ammeter connected in series with
the supply
(b) The voltmeter is connected in the supply side and ammeter connected directly in
series with the resistance.

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Example 1: Measurement of low resistance: AV method

(Answered)

(Answered)
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Measurement of Medium Resistance (1Ω < R < 100kΩ)
Wheatstone Bridge Method
The Wheatstone bridge is the most commonly used circuit for measurement of
medium range resistances. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance arms,
together with a battery (voltage source) and a galvanometer (null detector)

Where,
P & Q is called ratio arm,
S = Standard resistance (can be variable type),
R = Unknown resistance

At null point (current through galvanometer becomes

zero), hence at balanced condition

Substituting the value of I1 & I2

in first equation ,

Figure 4: Wheatstone Bridge

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 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Error in Wheatstone Bridge Method

A Wheatstone bridge is a fairly convenient and accurate method for measuring

resistance. However, it is not free from errors as listed below:

1. Inaccuracy of the balance point due to insufficient sensitivity of the

galvanometer may result in false null points.

2. Bridge resistances may change due to self-heating (I2R) resulting in error in

measurement calculations.

3. Thermal emf generated in the bridge circuit or in the galvanometer in the

connection points may lead. This can be eliminated by reversing the battery
terminals.

4. Errors may creep into measurement due to resistances of leads and contacts.
This effect is however, negligible unless the unknown resistance is of very low
value.

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 Measurement of Medium Resistance

Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge

 The use of Wheatstone bridge is limited to the measurements of resistances

ranging from a few ohm to several mega-ohms.

 The upper limit is set by the reduction in sensitivity to unbalance caused by high
resistance values.

 The lower limit for measurement is set by the resistance of the connecting leads
and by contact resistance at the binding posts

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Bridge Method
The Kelvin bridge or Thompson bridge is used for measuring the unknown resistances
having a value less than 1Ω. It is the modified form of the Wheatstone Bridge.

In Wheatstone Bridge, while measuring the low-value

resistance, the resistance of their lead and contacts increases
the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily
be understood with the help of the circuit diagram.

The r is the resistance of the contacts

that connect the unknown resistance
R to the standard resistance S.
The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range
between which the galvanometer is
connected for obtaining a null point.
Figure 5: Kelvin Bridge

When the galvanometer is connected to point ‘m’, the lead resistance r is added to the standard
resistance S. Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the
galvanometer is connected to point n then the r adds to the R, and hence the high value of unknown
resistance is obtained. Thus, at point n and m either very high or very low value of unknown resistance
is obtained. 15
 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Bridge Method (cont…)
So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any
intermediate point say d where the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts,
i.e., r1 and r2

The presence of r1 causes no error in the measurement of

unknown resistance

From equation (1), we get

As
The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at
point d then the resistance of lead will not affect their results.
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 Measurement of Medium Resistance

Limitations of Kelvin Bridge

 The above mention process is practically not possible to implement.

For obtaining the desired result, the actual resistance of exact ratio
connects between the point m and n and the galvanometer connects
at the junction of the resistor.

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Double Bridge Method
The ratio of the arms p and q are used to connect the galvanometer at the right place
between the point j and k. The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The P and
Q is the first ratio of the arm and p and q is the second arm ratio.

The galvanometer is connected

between the arms p and q at a point d.

The point d places at the centre of the

resistance r between the point m and n
for removing the effect of the
connecting lead resistance which is
placed between the unknown
resistance R and standard resistance S.

Figure 6: Kelvin Double Bridge

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Double Bridge Method
The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q.
Under balance condition zero current
flows through the galvanometer. The
potential difference between the point a
and b is equivalent to the voltage drop
between the points Eamd.

As we known, P/Q = p/q then above equation

becomes
For zero galvanometer deflection,

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 Measurement of Low Resistance

Important Notes about Kelvin Double Bridge Method

The above equation is the working equations of the Kelvins bridge. The equation
shows that the result obtains from the Kelvin double bridge is free from the impact
of the connecting lead resistance.

For obtaining the appropriate result, it is very essentials that the ratio of their arms
is equal. The unequal arm ratio causes the error in the result. Also, the value of
resistance r should be kept minimum for obtaining the exact result.

The thermo-electric EMF induces in the bridge during the reading. This effect can be
reduced by measuring the resistance with the reverse battery connection. The real
value of the resistance obtains by takings the means of the two.

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 Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)

Problem in measurement of High/Insulation Resistance

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 Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)

Guard Circuit for eliminating leakage current

leakage currents or capacitive currents we use a guard circuit. The concept of guard
circuit is to bypass the leakage current from the ammeter so as to measure the true
resistive current. Figure below shows two connections on voltmeter and micro ammeter
to measure R, one without guard circuit and one with guard circuit.

Figure 7: Guard circuit in high resistance measurement

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 Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)

Direct Deflection Method

The cable is immersed in slightly saline water for about 24 hours and the temperature is
kept constant and then the measurement is taken.
The insulation resistance of the cable 𝑅 = 𝑉/Ir

Figure 8: Direct deflection method

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 Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)

Loss of Charge Method

In this method, the insulation resistance R to be measured is connected in parallel with
a capacitor C and an electrostatic voltmeter.
The capacitor is charged to some suitable voltage by means of a battery having voltage
V and is then allowed to discharge through the resistance. The terminal voltage is
observed over a considerable period of time during discharge.

Figure 9: Loss of charge method

The voltage across the capacitor at any

instant t after the application of voltage is

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 Measurement of High Resistance (>100 kΩ)

Loss of Charge Method

Insulation resistance

The variation of voltage v with time is shown in

figure 10
From equation (1), if V, v, C and t are known the
value of R can be computed.

If the resistance R is very large than the time for

an appreciable fall in voltage is very large and
thus process may become time-consuming
Figure 10: Discharge of
capacitor across a resistance
a serious error may be made in the ratio V/v
causing a considerable corresponding error in the
measured value of R.
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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables

Loop Test:
There are several methods for locating the faults in underground cables. However, two
popular methods known as loop tests are :
(i) Murray loop test
(ii) Varley loop test
These simple tests can be used to locate the earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables provided that a sound cable runs along the faulty cable. Both these
tests employ the principle of Wheatstone bridge for fault location.

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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Murray Loop Test:
Figure sss shows the circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by Murray loop test.
Here AB is the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable; the earth fault occurs at point F.
The far end D of the faulty cable is joined to the far end B of the sound cable through
a low resistance link.
Two variable resistances P and Q
are joined to ends A and C
respectively and serve as the
ratio arms of the Wheatstone
bridge.
Let

R = resistance of the conductor

loop up to the fault from the
test end
X = resistance of the other
length of the loop

Figure 10: Murray Loop Test

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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Murray Loop Test:
Note that P, Q, R and X are the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge. The resistances P
and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
In the balanced position of the bridge, we have,

If r is the resistance of each cable then R+X = 2r

Distance of fault point from test end is Figure 10: Equivalent circuit of
Murray Loop Test

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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Varley Loop Test:
The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth fault or short-circuit fault in U/G cables.
This test also employs Wheatstone bridge principle. It differs from Murray loop test in that
here the ratio arms P and Q are fixed resistances. Balance is obtained by adjusting the
variable resistance S

For earth fault or short-circuit

fault, the key K2 is first thrown
to position 1. The variable
resistance S is varied till the
bridge is balanced for
resistance value of S1. Then,

Figure 10: Varley Loop Test 29

 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Varley Loop Test:
Now key K2 is thrown to position 2 (for earth fault or short-circuit fault) and bridge is
balanced with new value of resistance S2. Then,

By putting this value in

previous equation we get

Figure 10: Varley Loop Test 30

 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Tutorial on Loop Test:
Problem 1: Murray loop test is performed on a faulty cable 300 m long. At balance, the
resistance connected to the faulty core was set at 15 Ω and the resistance of the resistor
connected to the sound core was 45 Ω. Calculate the distance of the fault point from the
test end.

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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Tutorial on Loop Test:
Problem 2: In a test for a fault to earth on a 500 m length of cable having a resistance of
1 Ω per 1000 m, the faulty cable is looped with a sound cable of the same length but
having a resistance of 2·25 Ω per 1000 m. The resistance of the other two arms of the
testing network at balance are in the ratio 2·75 : 1. Calculate the distance of the fault from
the testing end of the cable.

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 Detection of Fault Location in U/G cables
Tutorial on Loop Test:
Problem 3: Varley loop test is performed to locate an earth fault on a 20 km long cable.
The resistance per km of the single conductor is 20 Ω. The loop is completed with a similar
healthy conductor. At balance, the variable resistance connected to the faulty conductor is
200 Ω. The fixed resistors have equal values. Calculate the distance of the fault from the
test end

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References:
[1] Measurement & Instrumentation Principle by Alan S. Morris

[2] Electrical and Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation by P. Purkait

[2] Principle of Power System, V. K. Mehta

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