Sampling techniques –

Habitat biodiversity using an index of diversity (D)

This technique is used to help assess the diversity of a habitat by taking into account both
species richness (number of different species) and the abundance of each of these species.

low numbers = low biodiversity to high numbers = high biodiversity)

Worked example
The table shows the numbers of different animals found in a quadrat on a rocky shore.
Practice question
Consider two habitats each with species in them called A, B and C. Calculating the index of
diversity for each habitat and work out which habitat is more diverse.
 Heterozygosity index
It is a measure of genetic diversity within a population

• This is done by analyzing DNA and comparing particular regions for similarities and differences.
• comparing number, size and position bands between the individuals
• comparing matching samples
• each species would have unique profiles

Figure below represents the DNA fingerprint of a DNA microsatellite sequence for one individual.
Note that sequences 2, 7, 15 and 18 give two bands, indicating that the individual is heterozygous for these
sequences. The other seven sequences each have two bands showing that the individual is homozygous for each of
these sequences.

Heterozygosity index
 The Hardy–Weinberg principle

The Hardy–Weinberg principle is used in population genetics to calculate the frequency of alleles and genotypes. It
can be used to see whether a change in allele frequency is occurring in a population over time.

For a population to be in equilibrium the following conditions must be satisfied:

● the population is large, with a minimum of several thousand individuals.
● random breeding - all alleles must have the same level of reproductive advantage or disadvantage.
● no mutations ● no selection ● no migration into or out of the population - The population must exist in
isolation
These conditions are rarely if ever met in a natural environment.
 The Hardy–Weinberg principle applies to monohybrid inheritance, where a character is controlled by a single gene
(e.g. A). The genotypes in this population would, therefore, be AA, Aa and aa.
We use the following two equations to calculate the allele and genotype frequencies:
p + q = 1 (or 100% of the population) [equation 1]
where p represents the frequency of the allele A and q represents the frequency of the allele a
and
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (or 100% of the population) [equation 2]
where p2 represents the frequency of the genotype AA, 2pq represents the frequency of the genotype Aa and q 2
represents the frequency of the genotype aa.

Worked example
In tobacco plants, the production of chlorophyll is controlled by a single allele, A. Seedlings with the genotype aa
lack chlorophyll and die soon after germination. In a sample of 600 seedlings, 132 lacked chlorophyll. Calculate the
expected number of heterozygous seedlings in this sample.
Practice question
In fruit flies, wing length is controlled by a single gene. Fruit flies with the homozygous recessive genotype have
short wings. In a sample of 350 fruit flies, 73 were found to have short wings. Use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to
calculate the expected number of fruit flies in this sample with the homozygous dominant genotype.
Extinction: This means the permanent loss of all members of a species. Eg: Dinosaurs,
Dodo, Wooly mammoth
Before species become extinct, both population sizes and genetic diversity fall.

Species are classified as follows according to IUCN red data book:

1. Critically endangered: Facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
2. Endangered: Facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
3. Vulnerable: Facing a risk of extinction in the wild.

Human causes of extinction or decrease in biodiversity

Habitat destruction - there is no food and there Pollution Poaching Introduction of alien Global
is no shelter species warming
Sustainable resource – it is one which is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the
environment so that it does not run out.

Sustainable development – it is the development providing for the needs of an increasing

human population without harming the environment. It is the utilization of natural
resources in such a way that it will not be depleted, so that we can benefit and also the
future generation. This also concerns minimum damage to the environment.

Explain what is meant by Sustainable management of forests

Using forest in such a way as not to destroy and to ensure supply over a relatively long
period of time. Cutting timber at the same rate as it can be grown, e.g. coppicing,
selective felling, pollarding, replanting