JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Gravitational Field
 Gravitational field
 Force between point masses
 Field of a point mass
 Field near the surface of the Earth
 Gravitation potential

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) Show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of field

of force and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass.

Gm1m2
(b) Recall and use Newton's law of gravitation in the form F = .
r2

(c) Derive, from Newton's law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
GM
strength, the equation g = for the gravitational field strength of a point mass.
r2

GM
(d) Recall and apply the equation g = for the gravitational field strength of a point
r2
mass to new situations or to solve related problems.

(e) Show an appreciation that on the surface of the Earth g is approximately constant
and equal to the acceleration of free fall.

(f) Define potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the
point.

GM
(g) Solve problems using the equation  =  for the potential in the field of a point
r
mass.

*(h) Recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of
gravitational and electric fields. (To be taught in Electric Fields)

(i) Analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational force
to the centripetal acceleration it causes.

(j) Show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.

© Physics Dept Page 1 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

(a) Show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of

field of force and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass.

A field of force is a region of space where a force will act on an object (with a specific
characteristic) placed in that field. An object placed in an ordinary space (i.e. space
without a field) would not have any force acting on it.

A gravitational field is a region of space where a mass will experience a

gravitational force when placed in that field.

The gravitational field can be represented by a diagram of field lines as shown below.

Radially inwards
gravitational field

Uniform gravitational
field

surface of the Earth

A uniform field, within which the field strength is constant at all points, could be
represented as parallel lines that are equally spaced. The uniform field is stronger if
the lines are closer to each other as shown below.

Stronger field

Weaker field

The direction of a field at a point in space is along a tangent to the field line at that
point.

Point A

© Physics Dept Page 2 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit mass acting
on a small mass placed at that point.

To summarise, the gravitational field strength, g, can be expressed as

F
g
m

where F is the force acting on the object and m is the mass of the object.

It is a vector quantity.

Consequently, when an object of mass m is placed at a point with gravitational field

strength g (created by another object), the object will experience a force F expressed
as

F = mg

Example 1:
What is the SI unit for gravitational field strength?

Solution:
F
g= implies that the unit of g is N kg-1.
m
Since 1 N = 1 kg m s-2, N kg-1 can also be written as m s-2.

The equation F = mg can also be compared with F = ma, where a is acceleration. Hence the
gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is also known as acceleration of free
fall, with the value 9.81 m s-2.

Example 2:
Gravitational field strength is defined as force per unit mass on a small test mass.
Why is it necessary for the test mass to be small?

A so that the test mass does not distort the gravitational field
B so that the force on the test mass is small
C so that the test mass does not create any forces on nearby masses
D so that Newton's law for point masses is obeyed

Solution:
The presence of any test mass which will have its own gravitational field will disturb the
gravitational field (being defined).
The test mass has to be small so that the disturbance is small and the defined gravitational
field remains the same as before the test mass is introduced. (Ans: A)

© Physics Dept Page 3 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Gm1m2
(b) Recall and use Newton's law of gravitation in the form F = .
r2

m1 F m2
-F

Newton's law of gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between two
point masses is proportional to the product of the point masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation.

Gravitational force acting between two point masses m1 and m2 with separation r
m1m2
may be expressed as F 
r2

Gm1m2
F
r2

where G is the constant of proportionality known as the gravitational constant

G = 6.6710-11 N m2 kg-2.

Note:
1) This relation applies to point masses which have no volume, no size, just a point.
For instance, we can treat objects with uniform mass distribution as point masses.
The Earth is usually assumed to be a point mass with all its mass concentrated at
its centre.
2) The gravitational forces between two masses are equal and opposite and
constitute an action and reaction pair of forces. They are always attractive in
nature and the forces always act along the line joining the two point masses.
(Refer to additional notes in “Additional Reading Materials”)
3) Since G is very small, gravitational forces become significant only when we are
dealing with massive objects. Gravitational forces between atoms and molecules
are insignificant compared to the electrical forces between them.

Example 3
There exist two masses, A and B, which are 6.0 x 106 kg and 3.2 x 105 kg respectively.
Given that the distance between them is 2.0 x 103 m, determine the gravitational force
between these two masses.

Solution:
Gm1m2 (6.67 x1011 )(6.0 x106 )(3.2x105 )
F 2
 3 2
 3.2x105 N
r (2.0 x10 )

© Physics Dept Page 4 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 4
On the ground the gravitational force on a satellite is W.

What is the gravitational force on the satellite when at a height of R/50, where R is the radius
of the Earth?

A 1.04W B 1.02W C 1.00W D 0.98W E 0.96W

Solution:
Gm1m2 GME ms
F 2
W  (1)
r R2
GME ms GME ms
At height of R/50, W '   (2)
(R  R / 50)2
(51R / 50)2
(2) W ' R2 502
:  
(1) W (51R / 50)2 512
W '  0.96W
(Ans: E)

(c) Derive, from Newton's law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
GM
strength, the equation g  for the gravitational field strength of a point
r2
mass.

Gravitational field strength of a point mass

Consider two masses M and m separated at a distance r from each other. From
Newton's law of gravitation, the attractive gravitational force acting on the mass m
due to the gravitational field of M can also be expressed as

GMm
F - - - - - (1)
r2

Based on definition of gravitational field strength, g is the gravitational force per unit
mass acting at that point,

F
g - - - - - (2)
m

From (1) and (2),

GM
g=
r2

which is an expression for the gravitational field strength g at a point at a distance r

from a point mass M. (This point mass M is the one which creates the
gravitational field in its surrounding region of space.)

© Physics Dept Page 5 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 5
Two point masses m1 and m2 are a distance r apart.
What is the magnitude of the gravitational field strength caused by m1 at m2?

A Gm1m2 B Gm1m2 C Gm1 D Gm2

r r2 r2 r2

Solution:
Since the gravitational field strength is caused by point mass m1
Gm1
g (Ans: C)
r2

GM
(d) Recall and apply the equation g = for the gravitational field strength of a
r2
point mass to new situations or to solve related problems.

Example 6
At a point outside the Earth and a distance x from its centre, the Earth’s gravitational field is
about 5 N kg-1 at the Earth’s surface, the field is about 10 N kg-1.
Which one of the following gives an approximate value for the radius of the Earth in terms of
x?

A x B x C x D x E x 2
5 2 2 2 2

Solution:
The Earth is taken to be a point mass with all its mass, M, situated at its centre.
GM
Using g= ,
r2
GM
5 N kg-1 = - - - - - (1)
x2
GM
10 N kg-1 = 2 - - - - - (2)
R
where R is the radius of the Earth.
(2) x2
, we have 2=
(1) R2
x
or R= (Ans: D)
2

© Physics Dept Page 6 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 7:
Given that the Earth is a point mass of 6.0 x 1024 kg and the Moon is a point mass of 7.4 x
1022 kg and the distance between their point masses is 3.8 x 105 km.
Find the position of a point from Earth where the gravitational field strength due to Earth and
Moon is zero.

3.8 x 105 km

Solution:
Let x = distance from Earth to the point with zero gravitational field strength

At the point with zero gravitational field strength,

gE  gM
GME GMM

x 2
(3.8  108  x )2
6.0  1024 7.4  1022

x2 (3.8  108  x )2
x  3.4  108 m

(e) Show an appreciation that on the surface of the Earth g is approximately

constant and equal to the acceleration of free fall.

The gravitational field strength g near the surface of the Earth is approximately
constant at 9.81 N kg-1, also known as acceleration of free fall, with the value of
9.81 m s-2. (Refer to Example 1)

The approximate constancy should be appreciated by considering the value of g at

height h above the surface, where h is small compared to the radius R of the Earth of
mass M.
GM GM
g  2 since h  R
(h  R )2
R

© Physics Dept Page 7 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 8
Calculate the gravitational field strength at a height of 1 km above the Earth’s surface. The
Earth has a mass of ME and its radius is 6400 km.

Solution:
GM
The radius of the Earth, RE = 6400 km. At the surface of the Earth, using g =
r2
GME GME
9.81 = 2
= - - - - - (1)
RE (6400000 m)2

At a height of 1 km, r = 6401 km = 6401000 m,

GME
g= - - - - - (2)
(6401000 m)2
(2) g (6400000)2

(1) 9.81 (6401000)2

 g = 9.807 N kg-1 = 9.81 N kg-1 (3 s.f.)

Note: The results above show that for up to a height of 1000 m above the surface of the
Earth, g is approximately constant (= 9.81 N kg-1, up to 3 s.f., which is accurate
enough for all practical purposes).

Example 9
A 20 kg mass is situated 4 m above the Earth’s surface. Taking g as 10 m s-2, what are the
gravitational field strength and gravitational force acting on the mass?

gravitational field strength / N kg-1 gravitational force / N

A 0.5 10
B 10 10
C 10 200
D 40 200
E 200 10

Solution:
g = 10 m s-2 is the same as the gravitational field strength of 10 N kg-1.
Using F = mg, the gravitational force acting on the 20 kg mass, F = (20)(10) = 200 N.
(Ans: C)

© Physics Dept Page 8 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

(f) Define potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity
to the point.

Gravitional potential, , and potential energy, U

The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit mass
(by an external agent) in bringing a small mass from infinity to that point

The unit for gravitational potential is J kg-1

It is a scalar quantity.

Expressed mathematically,
W
=
m

where W is the work done in bringing the mass m from infinity to that point.

infinity
P
M m
r
Mass m moved to point P from Infinity ()
by an external force at constant speed.

This proof is not required in the syllabus

Only for conceptual understanding
 GMm 
r r r
Work done (by the external force), W = F

ext dr =  FG dr =     2  dr
  
r 
r
 GMm 
r
GMm
=  dr =  

r 2
 r  
 GMm  GMm  
=  
 r    
GMm
= 
r
GMm
W 
r GM
Hence, gravitational potential at point P =  = = = 
m m r

The gravitational potential at a point P at a distance r from M is expressed as

GM
=
r

© Physics Dept Page 9 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

The work done W = Change in Gravitational Potential Energy (i.e. no change in K.E)
= Final GPE  Initial GPE
= Uf  Ui

By convention, we assign the value of the gravitational potential energy of the

mass at infinity as zero (i.e. Ui = 0)

W = Uf = Final GPE

GMm
Hence the potential energy of a mass m placed at point P = U = W = 
r
For a point mass, the gravitational potential energy of mass m at point P at a
distance r away from mass M is

GMm
U=
r

Relationship between U and  :

U = m

Note: As the gravitational field strength, g due to a mass is no longer constant over
long distances away from the mass, the change in gravitational potential energy or
work done in bringing another mass from infinity to a point cannot be (mgh – 0).

Why is gravitational potential energy negative in value?

Direction the mass is moved

A m m
M • • •
Fg Fext Infinity (Φ = 0)
r

Potential at infinity is taken to be zero i.e. Φ = 0.

Due to the attractive nature of the gravitational force, work done by an external agent
to bring any mass from infinity to that point is always negative.

(Fext is in the opposite direction to the direction of motion) Hence the potential at any
point must always be negative.

Note:
 since there is no change in kinetic energy (the object has to be moved in at
constant speed), the resultant force acting on the mass is zero. i.e. Fext = Fg .
 Work done by the gravitational force Fg to bring any mass from infinity to that
point is always positive.

© Physics Dept Page 10 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Gravitational potential lines in a gravitation field

Gravitational potential in a gravitational field may be represented by lines of equal

potential indicated by (also know as equi-potential lines).

At any point in a gravitational field, the lines of equal potential are perpendicular to
the field lines.

No work is done by an external agent when a mass is moved between points which
are lying on the same line of equal potential.

Uniform gravitational
field

surface of the Earth

Relationship between F and U

In any field of force, when an object in that field is moved through a small distance dr,
its potential energy would be changed by dU. The force acting on the object placed
at that region, F, would be expressed as

dU
F 
dr

Note that both sides of the equation are vectors, and the negative sign indicates that
they are in opposite directions.

Relationship between g and Φ

When the equation above is divided by m, it becomes

dU d (m )
F   mg  
dr dr
d
g
dr

relating the gravitational field strength to the gravitational potential at that region.

© Physics Dept Page 11 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 10
Which of the following is a property of a uniform gravitational field?

A Its magnitude is the same in all directions

B The gravitational potential has the same value at all points within it.
C Its direction is opposite to the direction of motion of a test mass released in it.
D Its field strength is the same at all points within it.

Solution:
(Ans: D)

GM
(g) Solve problems using the equation  =  for the potential in the field of a
r
point mass.

Example 11
Values for the gravitational potential due to the Earth are given in the table below:

Distance from Earth’s Gravitational potential

surface / m / MJ kg-1
0 62.72
390 000 59.12
400 000 59.03
410 000 58.94
Infinity 0

If the satellite of mass 700 kg falls from a height of 400 000 m to the Earth’s surface, how
much potential energy does it lose?

Solution:
Change in potential energy of the satellite
= (mass of satellite)(change in potential)
= (700) [(62.72)  (59.03)]
= (700) (3.69 )
= 2580 MJ. (the negative sign indicates a loss).

© Physics Dept Page 12 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 12:
Earth has a point mass of 6.0 x 1024 kg and Moon has a point mass of 7.4 x 1022 kg. The
distance between their point masses is 3.8 x 105 km. Find the gravitational potential of a
point 3.43 x 105 km from the Earth due to both Earth and Moon.

3.8 x 105 km

Solution
The distance of the point from Moon = 3.8 x 105 – 3.43 x 105 = 0.37 x 105 km

Since gravitational potential is a scalar, potential at the point due to Earth and Moon is just
the addition of the potential at the point due to Earth and the potential at the point due to
Moon.

Potential at the point = ΦE + ΦM

GME  GMM 
  
3.43  10  0.37  108 
8

11  6.0  1024 7.4  10 22 


  6.67  10    
 3.43  10 0.37  108 
8

 1.03  106 J kg-1

Example 13:
Which diagram shows the variation of gravitational force F on a point mass, and of
gravitational potential energy U of the mass, with its distance r from another point mass?

A F,U F,U

F
U
r r

U
F

© Physics Dept Page 13 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

C F,U F,U

U
r r

F
U

Solution:
1 1
Since F   , U   (Ans: C)
r2 r

(i) Analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational
force to the centripetal acceleration it causes.

Centripetal Force in a Gravitational Field

Gravitational field is an example of an inverse square law field because its field
strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, as can be seen
GM 1
from the expression: g 2
 g  2
r r

An example of a circular motion is the motion of our Moon (of mass m), assumed to
be circulating about our Earth (of mass M) in a circular orbit of radius r. The
necessary centripetal force for such a motion is the gravitational force acting on the
Moon by the Earth.

Mathematically,
GMm mv 2
(Gravitational force)  mr  
2
(Centripetal force)
r2 r
GM
 2 
r3
2
 2  GM 2
Or  T   r3 since   (from Circular Motion)
  T
GM
This leads to r3 = 2 T 2 ,
4
GM
i.e. r3  T2 since is constant.
4 2

This is also known as Kepler's 3rd law.

© Physics Dept Page 14 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Example 16:
A communications satellite which takes 24 hours to orbit the Earth is replaced by a new
satellite which has twice the mass of the old one. The new satellite also has an orbit time of
24 hours. What is the ratio of
radius of orbit of new satellite
?
radius of orbit of old satellite

1 1 2 2
A B C D
2 1 1 1

Solution:
Since T 2  r3, all orbits with the same period must have the same radius.
(Ans: B)

(j) Show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.

Geostationary orbits

Geostationary orbits are orbits of satellites orbiting around the Earth such that
these satellites would appear stationary when observed from the Earth. For this,
the period of the satellites' orbits must be the same as that of the Earth, i.e. 24 hours.
These satellites would also have to orbit about the Earth's axis of rotation and must
rotate from west to east (as the Earth rotates from west to east)

The centripetal force for such a circular orbit has to be the gravitational force
acting on such a satellite by the Earth. Since the gravitational force (hence the
centripetal force) acts towards the centre of the Earth, it implies that the centre of
the circular orbit must be the centre of the Earth and the axis of rotation of the
satellite is the same as the Earth.

This means that all geostationary orbits must be vertically above the Earth's equator.
(The satellite must be placed vertically above the equator. If not, it will orbit above the
northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere which then cannot be
geostationary.)

Communications satellites in geostationary orbits allow dish antenna on Earth’s

surface to be easily directed (fixed) to communicate with them.

Energies of a satellite
Consider a satellite of mass m in orbit around the Earth of mass M at distance r from
its centre.
 Gravitational potential energy, U of the satellite
GMm
U
r
 Kinetic energy, KE of the satellite
1 GMm  GMm mv 2 
KE  mv  2
 From  
2 2r  r2 r 
GMm GMm GMm
 Total energy of the satellite  U  KE    
r 2r 2r

© Physics Dept Page 15 of 16

 JJ 2014 H2 Physics (9646) Gravitational Field

Escape velocity

Escape velocity (vmin) from a point on the surface of a planet is the minimum velocity
required to project a mass m to infinity.

By conservation of energy
GPE & KE on Earth’s surface = GPE & KE at infinity
GMm 1
  mv min
2
0 where r = radius of Earth
r 2
2GM
v min   2gr
r
where g = gravitational field strength on Earth’s surface

Relationship summary

At a point due to
On object (m)
mass M
Gravitational Field
Gravitational Force
1 Strength
Vectors
 2 F   GMm F  mg
r g GM
r2
r2

Gravitational
Gravitational Potential
Scalars

1
   GM
Potential Energy U  m
r r U GMm
r

g   ddr F   dU
dr

Further Notes on SIGNS:

GMm
1 F = :
r2
A point mass M generates a gravitational field in its surrounding space. The
displacement r of another point mass m is measured away from M. The force F
acting on m is towards M (since gravitational force is attractive in nature), hence it
is expressed (as a vector) with a negative sign.

2 To move the mass m further from M against this attractive gravitational force, work
has to be done, which would result in an increase in the potential energy U of mass
m, (ie. higher P.E. when further from M).

(a) When U = 0 at ground level, for a mass m at a height h above (near) the
surface of the Earth, its P.E., U = mgh.
[ Higher U with higher h ]

(b) When U = 0 at infinity, for a mass m at a distance r from M, its P.E.,

GMm
U = . [ Higher U with further r. At infinity (furthest), U = 0. Anywhere
r
nearer, m would have less P.E., hence negative sign.

© Physics Dept Page 16 of 16