Lasers and Semiconductors: Content

JJ 2015 J2 H2 Physics (9646) 19.
Lasers & Semiconductors
LASERS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
Content
 Basic principles of lasers

 Energy bands, conductors and insulators
 Semiconductors
 Depletion region of a p-n junction
Learning Outcomes:
(a) Recall and use the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and population
inversion in related situations.
(b) Explain the action of a laser in terms of population inversion and stimulated emission.
(Details of the structure and operation of a laser are not required.)
(c) Describe the formation of energy bands in a solid.
(d) Distinguish between conduction band and valence band.
(e) Use band theory to account for the electrical properties of metals, insulators and intrinsic
semiconductors, with reference to conduction electrons and holes.
(f) Analyse qualitatively how n- and p-type doping change the conduction properties of
semiconductors.
(g) Discuss qualitatively the origin of the depletion region at a p-n junction and use this to
explain how a p-n junction can act as a rectifier.
Physics Department Page 1 of 22

JJ 2015 J2 H2 Physics (9646) 19. Lasers & Semiconductors
LASERS
(a) Recall and use the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and population
inversion in related situations.
 Introduction
Lasers are solid, liquid or gas devices that produce intense monochromatic and
coherent light beam. Laser is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
 Absorption
An isolated atom has discrete energy levels. Normally, the atom is in the ground state.
However, if the right amount of energy is absorbed, the atom will “jump” to an excited
state.
The energy absorbed may be thermal, electrical or light (EM radiation).
As shown in Fig. 1, an atom at energy level E1 needs to absorb energy (E2 – E1) to
“jump” to level E2.
E2
energy E2  E1
E1
Fig. 1: Absorption
 If the energy absorbed is a photon of the right frequency, it is known as a stimulated

absorption.
 Spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission is a process where a photon is emitted randomly without any

external stimulation, due to a transition of an electron from a higher to a lower energy
level.
As shown in Fig. 2, an excited atom at excited state E2 randomly transits to a lower

energy state E1. A photon of energy hf (= E2 – E1) is emitted randomly in no specific
direction. This usually occurs within a timescale of 108 s.
E2
Photon energy,
hf = E2  E1
E1
Fig. 2: Spontaneous emission

 Stimulated emission
If the electron remains in the excited state much longer than 108 s (e.g. 103 s), it is
said to be in a metastable state. In this case, the excited atom can also be brought
back to the lower energy state via stimulated emission.
Stimulated emission is a process where a photon is emitted due to a transition of an

electron from a higher to a lower energy level when stimulated by an incoming photon
of the same frequency.
As shown in Fig. 3, when stimulated emission occurs, a photon (of appropriate energy)
interacts with the excited atom, causing the emission of a second photon of the same
frequency, same direction, and in phase with the incident photon when the excited
atom transits from the metastable state to the lower energy state.
(metastable state)
Fig. 3: Stimulated emission
 Population inversion
 A laser beam consists of a large number of photons. To produce this large number of
photons, a single atom is not enough. We need a system of many atoms.
 Normally, most atoms of such a system are in the ground state (Fig. 4(a)). (Even if
atoms are in their excited states, there would usually be more atoms in the lower
excited states than those in higher excited states. Fig. 4(b)).
 When photons of the right energy are incident on a system of atoms, both stimulated
absorption and stimulated emission are equally probable.
Generally, a net absorption occurs since more atoms are in the lower energy state.
 To produce a laser beam, the system has to be tweaked to favour stimulated emission
over absorption. This occurs when the system is in a state of population inversion (Fig.
4(c)).
 E3 E3
E2 E2 E2
E1 E1 E1
(a) most atoms are in the (b) more atoms are in the (c) more atoms are in the
ground state lower energy state E2 higher energy state E3
than in E3 than in E2
Fig. 4

 Population inversion is a situation in a system when there are more atoms in the
higher energy state than in the lower energy state (Fig. 4(c)).
This can be achieved through “pumping” – excitation of the atoms by supply of

electromagnetic radiation (light energy), electrical energy or thermal energy.
Example 1
What is stimulated emission in LASER?
A An electron from a higher energy level falling to a lower level.
B A charged particle causing light to be emitted from an excited atom.
C A charged particle being emitted from an atom as a result of a high energy photon
hitting the atom.
D A photon causing another photon of the same frequency to be emitted from an

excited atom.
Ans: ( D )
Example 2
In the action of a laser, population inversion refers to
A the rate of stimulated emission being smaller than the rate of absorption
B more atoms in a high energy state than in a lower one
C photons causing other photons of the same frequency to be emitted from excited
atoms
D charged particles causing light to be emitted from excited atoms
Ans: ( B )
(b) Explain the action of a laser in terms of population inversion and stimulated emission.
(Details of the structure and operation of a laser are not required.)
 Conditions for a Laser Beam
To produce a laser beam, three conditions must be satisfied:
1 The system must be in a state of population inversion.
2 The higher excited state of the system must be a metastable state, which has a
longer lifetime ( 103 s), so that population inversion can occur.
3 The emitted photons must be confined within the system long enough to allow them
to stimulate further emissions from other excited atoms.

This is achieved by confining them between two parallel mirrors, where one is
partially reflecting (a fraction of light intensity passes through the partially reflecting
mirror to form a laser beam).
 Action of a Laser
(Partially reflecting)
( Light, electrical or thermal)
Fig. 5: Laser action in the cavity
 To produce a laser beam, a system of atoms in a laser cavity is first excited to the
metastable state through “pumping” (energy input), resulting in population inversion.
When there are many atoms at metastable state, spontaneous emission occurs with
high probability – excited atoms lose energy to transit to a lower excited state, and
many photons are emitted, in random directions, as shown in Fig. 5.
 Emitted photons that are not directed normal to the mirrors would leave the laser cavity
(seen as normal light emitting from the sides of the cavity - the efficiency of the laser is
always < 100%).
 Photons that are emitted normal to the mirrors are either reflected between the mirrors
or travel through the partially reflecting mirror. As the reflected photons travel to and fro
in the cavity, they may interact with other atoms in the system by exciting atoms in the
lower excited state through absorption, or cause stimulated emission of excited atoms.
In a situation of population inversion, since there are more atoms in the higher
metastable excited state, stimulated emission is much more probable than absorption.
 Stimulated emission caused by each photon will produce a second photon moving in
the same direction and in phase with each other.
As shown in Fig. 6, these two photons may interact with two other excited atoms,
stimulating the emission of two more photons. Hence, there will now be four photons,
all travelling in the same direction. As this process continues, the number of photons
produced by stimulated emission increases exponentially.

 Some of the photons generated by stimulated emission pass through the partially
reflecting mirror, resulting in a laser beam. Those photons reflected between the
mirrors continue to cause stimulated emission.
Fig. 6: generation of photons via stimulated emission
 Since the photons forming the laser beam are generated by stimulated emission, they
are in phase and highly directional (i.e. they all have the same specific direction). The
photons have the same frequency since they result from transitions between the same
energy levels.
Example 3
In the production of laser light, atoms are excited to energy level E4 using light of
wavelength 550 nm. After which it falls to its metastable state at energy level E3.
Population inversion is achieved between energy levels E2 and E3.
What is the wavelength,  of the laser light emitted?
E4
E3 = 0.18 eV
E2 = 1.79 eV
Ground state E1
A 550 nm B 598 nm C 694 nm D 772 nm
Solution: (Ans: D )
Energy of laser photon E = E3  E2 = (0.18)  (1.79) = 1.61 eV

= (1.61)(1.6 × 1019) = 2.58 × 1019 J
hc hc (6.63  1034 )(3.00  108 )
E=  = = = 7.72 × 107 m
 E 2.58  10 19

 Helium-neon (He-Ne) Laser
Fig. 7 shows the cavity of a helium-neon laser (emitting visible red light).
It consists of a gas tube containing 15% helium gas and 85% neon gas. A totally
reflecting flat mirror is mounted at one end of the gas tube and a partially reflecting
concave mirror is placed at the other end. The concave mirror focuses parallel light at
the flat mirror and also acts as a lens that transmits part of the light so that it emerges
as a parallel beam.
Fig. 7: Cavity of He-Ne Laser
Fig. 8 shows the energy levels of helium and neon required for the production of the
laser beam. An applied high voltage causes electrons to sweep through the tube,
causing the He atoms to be excited from E1,He to E2,He level.
These excited He atoms then pass their energy to the Ne atoms, causing them to be
excited to the metastable E3,Ne level.
When the excited Ne atoms “fall” to the E2,Ne level, photons of wavelength 632.8 nm are
emitted.
(You are not required to know the detailed structure of the He-Ne laser.)
Metastable state
Fig. 8: Energy level transitions for He & Ne atoms

Example 4
In a helium-neon laser, helium atoms collide with neon atoms and excite them. This
produces a population inversion which allows stimulated emission.
Which neon energy level diagram correctly shows the excitation of the neon atoms by
the helium atoms, the spontaneous infra-red emission from the neon, and the
stimulated emission of red light?
A B
C D
Solution: (Ans: D )
 Applications of lasers
 Supermarket barcode scanners:

Lasers are commonly used as the
illumination source in barcode scanners.
By using a detector to detect the laser
light reflected from the barcode, these
devices are able to receive and decode
the information stored within the barcode.
 LASIK:
LASIK stands for Laser-Assisted In Situ
Keratomileusis, and is a popular surgical
procedure to treat short-sightedness,
long-sightedness and astigmatism.
Basically, a hinged flap of tissue is cut off
the surface of the cornea with a knife.
Next, the flap is folded back to reveal the
stroma and an Excimer laser is used to
vapourise the tissues - there is no actual
cutting or burning with heat. The flap of
tissue is then replaced.
 Laser in communications:
Fibre optic cables are a major mode of communication partly because multiple signals
can be sent with high quality and low loss by light propagating along the fibres. The
light signals can be modulated with the information to be sent by either light emitting
diodes or lasers. The lasers have significant advantages because they are more

nearly monochromatic and this allows the pulse shape to be maintained better over
long distances. If a better pulse shape can be maintained, then the communication can
be sent at higher rates without overlap of the pulses.
 CD and DVD players:

The data on a CD or DVD is stored in
‘pits’ and ‘lands’ on the disc media. A
laser beam in the player shines light
from the underside of the disc through
the transparent plastic coating to the
reflective aluminium coating within. A
detector then receives and decodes
the reflected light and outputs it as
sound/images.
 Cutting and welding:

The highly focused beam of a laser
can be further focused to a
microscopic dot of extremely high
energy density for welding and cutting.
The automobile industry makes
extensive use of carbon dioxide lasers
with powers up to several kilowatts for
computer controlled welding on auto
assembly lines.
SEMICONDUCTORS
(c) Describe the formation of energy bands in a solid.
Formation of energy bands in a solid
 Isolated atoms (e.g. in a gas) of the same element have the same set of allowed energy
levels. However, when the atoms are brought close together (e.g. in a solid), the set of
allowed energy levels of the system of the atoms is no longer identical to that of an
isolated atom.
Equilibrium
Separation
(a) Splitting of 2 allowed (b) Splitting of 2 allowed (c) Formation of 2 allowed

energy levels when two energy levels when five energy bands when a large
atoms are close to one atoms are close to each other number of atoms are
another closely packed in a solid
r = interatomic separation, ro = interatomic separation at equilibrium

Fig. 9: Energy levels of the system for various number of atoms

 Fig. 9 shows the energy-separation graphs of the allowed energy levels of the system of
atoms at various interatomic separations. For the two-atom system (Fig 9(a)), at large
separations, the two allowed energy levels of the system are similar to that of an isolated
atom. However, as the two atoms are brought close to one another, the allowed energy
levels each splits into two levels. This is because the two electrons (one from each
atom) cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state in the same system. (Two
isolated atoms at large separation are effectively two non-interacting systems; however,
when they are close together, interaction becomes significant and they effectively
become one system.) This is known as Pauli Exclusion principle (more details in
under-graduate Quantum Mechanics).
 Similarly, the two allowed energy levels of the five-atom system each splits into five
levels at close separations. (Fig 9(b))
 A solid contains a very large number of atoms closely packed together. Hence, the two
allowed energy levels each splits into a very large number of levels that are very close to
each other (Fig. 9(c)). This is how an allowed energy band is formed in a solid. Since
each allowed energy level of the isolated atom splits into an allowed energy band in the
solid, we have a set of allowed energy bands in a solid. This is also known as the band
structure of the solid. Fig. 10 below shows the energy levels of the system for various
numbers of atoms.
energy levels in an energy levels in a energy levels in a energy bands in a

isolated atom two-atom system six-atom system solid (a very large
number of atoms)
Fig. 10: Energy levels of a system
Summary:
1. Unlike the case of an isolated atom, in a solid, the atoms are very much closer to each other.
This allows the electrons from neighbouring atoms to interact with each other.
2. As a result of this interaction, each discrete energy level that is associated with an isolated
atom is split into many sub-levels.{This is in accordance to Pauli Exclusion Principle which
states that: no 2 electrons can be in the same energy state}
3. These sub-levels are extremely close to one another such that they form an energy band. {In
other words, an energy band consists of a very large number of energy levels which are very
close together.}
In the following discussion, we will see how the band structure leads to the different
electrical properties of insulators, semiconductors and metals.

(d) Distinguish between conduction band and valence band.
Valence band (VB) and Conduction band (CB)
 The allowed energy levels of the system tell us the states that can be occupied by the
electrons. Although the number of allowed energy levels is infinite, most of these
allowed energy levels are actually unoccupied.
 At absolute zero, the electrons have minimal energies. They cannot all occupy the
lowest energy state due to Pauli exclusion principle, but they can still occupy the lowest
energy states so long as no two electrons occupy the same state.
 As a result, some of the lower energy bands will be fully occupied by electrons, while
most of the higher energy bands will remain empty or partially occupied.
E allowed
conduction band
band gap
valence band
forbidden
- occupied
- unoccupied
Fig. 11: Valence band, Conduction band and Band gap
As shown in Fig. 11, the highest occupied energy band is called the valence band.
The lowest unoccupied energy band is called the conduction band.
The band gap/ energy gap refers to the energy difference between the two energy
bands, i.e. the minimum energy needed for an electron to “jump” from the valence band
into the conduction band.
 The band gap between the valence and conduction bands determines the electrical
properties of a solid. Fig. 12 below shows the valence and conduction bands of
insulators, intrinsic semiconductors (without impurities) and metals. Note the difference
in band gaps between the different materials.
valence
band is only
partially
large band gap (in small band gap (in filled
the order of a few the order of about
eV) between 1 eV) between or
conduction band conduction band
and valence band and valence band valence
band and
conduction
band
overlap
(a) Insulators (b) Intrinsic semiconductors (c) Metals
Fig. 12: Band gap of various materials

Example 5
(I) (II) (III)
The diagram above shows the two highest energy bands of 3 matters.
Which of the following is a possible matter for each set of energy bands shown?
I II III
A Germanium Plastic Silver
B Tungsten Gold Silicon
C Wood Silicon Copper
D Nickel Germanium Water
Solution: (Ans: C )
(I): wide band gap – insulator

(II): narrow band gap – intrinsic semiconductor
(III): partially-filled conduction band – conductor
(e) Use band theory to account for the electrical properties of metals, insulators and intrinsic
semiconductors, with reference to conduction electrons and holes.
 Insulators
As shown in Fig. 12(a), the valence band is fully occupied (by electrons) while the
conduction band is empty.
An electron in a fully occupied valence band cannot move readily as there are no
available states for it to “jump” into – it is bounded to the atom.
Also, due to the large band gap between the valence and conduction bands, only an
insignificant number of electrons can be thermally excited into the conduction band
where they can move readily. Hence, insulators are poor electrical conductors.
 Metals
As shown in Fig. 12(c), the valence band is only partially occupied or overlaps with the
conduction band.
Electrons (especially those near the top) can easily “jump” into the unoccupied states
above, through thermal excitations.
A significant number of electrons are mobile. Hence, metals are good electrical
conductors.

 Intrinsic semiconductors
To illustrate the solid state structure of an intrinsic semiconductor, we will consider

silicon (Si), which is a semiconductor of valency four. As shown in Fig. 13 below, the
outermost shell is only full when there are eight electrons occupying it, but each silicon
atom only has four outermost electrons. Hence, in the solid state structure, adjacent
atoms share their valence electrons such that each of the outermost shells is fully
occupied. This is known as covalent bonding.
E
conduction band
electron
Si atom
valence band
Fig. 13: Intrinsic semiconductor formed with Si atoms at absolute zero
As shown in Fig. 12(b), the only difference between the band structures of an insulator
and an intrinsic semiconductor (without impurity atoms) is that the band gap between the
conduction and valence bands is smaller for the semiconductor.
A significant number of electrons can be thermally excited into the conduction band at a
sufficiently high temperature. The electron-hole pairs created help to conduct
electricity, as discussed in details next:
Conduction
band + –
+ electrons –
+ holes –
Valence
band
+ –
(a) At absolute zero, the (b) At finite temperatures, (c) If an electric field is
valence band is fully occupied thermal excitations cause applied, both the
by electrons while the some electrons to “jump” electrons in the
conduction band is empty. into the conduction band, conduction band and the
leaving behind holes in the holes in the valence band
valence band. can move readily, thus
conducting the current.
Fig. 14: Formation of electron-hole pairs at finite temperature to conduct

electricity
 In a semiconductor, due to the smaller band gap, thermal excitations are sufficient to
bring a valence electron into the conduction band.
When an electron “jumps” into the conduction band as shown in Fig. 14(b), it leaves
behind an unoccupied state in the valence band. This unoccupied state in the valence
band is called a hole.

 In the conduction band, electricity is conducted by the electrons.
As shown in Fig. 14(c), these electrons can move readily in an externally applied electric
field because there are many unoccupied states in the conduction band.
 In the valence band, the holes created allow nearby valence electrons to move into
them, thus allowing electron movement in an externally applied electric field and hence
electrical conduction.
Note: An electron has charge e and mass me. A hole in the valence band behaves as if
it is a particle of charge +e and mass me. Thermal excitations create equal numbers of
electrons (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band) in an intrinsic semiconductor,
forming electron-hole pairs.
 The band structure explains why the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor increases
as temperature rises:
At lower temperatures, thermal excitations are weaker (smaller amounts of energy can
be transferred to the valence electrons) and hence less electron-hole pairs are created.
This means there are less mobile charge carriers (holes and electrons), hence the
electrical conductivity is lower.
At higher temperatures, thermal excitations are stronger (greater amounts of energy can
be transferred to the valence electrons) and hence more electron-hole pairs are created.
This means that there are more mobile charge carriers, hence the electrical conductivity
is higher.
Example 6
Which of the following statements below on intrinsic semiconductors is true?
A The total current flow is the sum of both ‘hole’ and ‘electron’ currents.
B The valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially filled.
C There are more electrons in the conduction band than there are holes in the
valence band.
D The valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty at room
temperature.
Solution: (Ans: A )
B: When valence band is completely filled, conduction band should be empty.

C: There should be equal number (electron-hole pair).
D: At room temperature, some electrons may be thermally excited from the valence
band into the conduction band.

Example 7
The diagram illustrates the upper energy bands in two different classes of solid at
absolute zero. The shaded areas represent occupied electron energy levels.
What are bands P and Q, and what are the classes X and Y of the solids?
Band P Band Q Solid X Solid Y

A Conduction Valence intrinsic semiconductor metal
B Conduction Valence metal intrinsic semiconductor
C Valence Conduction intrinsic semiconductor metal
D Valence Conduction metal intrinsic semiconductor
Ans: ( A )
(f) Analyse qualitatively how n- and p-type doping change the conduction properties of
semiconductors.
 Extrinsic semiconductors
At room temperatures, thermal excitations can only generate a small number of

electron-hole pairs in an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, it remains a relatively poor
electrical conductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, all the valence electrons are used in the bonding between
the atoms. However, if we replace one of these atoms with an impurity, which means an
atom with a different valency, the result is that a loosely bound electron or hole will be
created. This process of fabricating impurities onto the existing intrinsic semiconductor
is known as doping, and it increases greatly the conductivity by creating a significant
number of mobile charge carriers. Semiconductors that have undergone such treatment
are called extrinsic semiconductors.

 n-type extrinsic semiconductor
If we add an impurity of a higher valency, say phosphorus (P), which has valency five,
into the silicon structure, only four valence electrons will participate in the bonding. The
“extra” electron is only loosely bound to the phosphorus atom as shown in Fig. 15(a).
E
conduction band
“extra”
electron
energy level of “extra” electron (donor level)
(dono
P atom
valence band
Si atom
(a) (b)
Fig. 15: n-type extrinsic semiconductor doped with phosphorus atoms
 As shown in Fig. 15(b), the energy level of these “extra” electrons is usually very close to
the base of the conduction band. Hence, they need only a very small amount of energy,
which is usually sufficiently provided by thermal excitations at room temperatures, to
“jump” into the conduction band. Consequently the conductivity increases greatly.
 An n-type extrinsic semiconductor can conduct electricity through two mechanisms:

(1) the “extra” electrons in the conduction band,
(2) the electron-hole pairs thermally generated at sufficiently high temperatures.
At room temperatures, there are very few holes in the valence band compared to the
number of electrons in the conduction band. Thus, the electricity is mainly conducted by
the electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the electrons are called the majority
charge carriers, while the holes are called the minority charge carriers.
 An n-type semiconductor is one in which the majority charge carriers are electrons.
The impurity atoms (i.e. phosphorus atoms) donate an electron each, hence they are
called donors.
The resulting positively charged phosphorus ions (P+) are fixed in their positions,
therefore they are immobile and do not contribute to electrical conduction.

 p-type extrinsic semiconductor
If we add an impurity of a lower valency, say boron (B), which has valency three, into the
silicon structure, only three valence electrons will participate in the covalent bonding with
neighbouring silicon atoms, leaving an electron deficiency - a hole - where the fourth
bond would be. Thus, this “extra” hole allows a nearby electron to “jump” into it, if the
nearby electron is given a small amount of energy through thermal excitation as shown
in Fig. 16(a).
E
conduction band
“extra”
hole
energy level of “extra” hole (acceptor level)
B atom
valence band
Si atom
(a) (b)
Fig. 16: p-type extrinsic semiconductor doped with boron atoms
 As shown in Fig. 16(b), the presence of these “extra” holes creates an energy level that
is usually very close to the top of the valence band. Hence, the valence electrons need
only a very small amount of energy (which is usually sufficiently provided by thermal
excitations at room temperatures) to “jump” into this energy level. This creates mobile
charge carriers in the form of “extra” holes in the valence band. Consequently the
conductivity increases greatly.
 A p-type extrinsic semiconductor can conduct electricity through two mechanisms:

(1) the “extra” holes in the valence band,
(2) the electron-hole pairs thermally generated at sufficiently high temperatures.
However, at room temperatures, the extra holes are the dominant mechanism, since
there are very few electron-hole pairs and the electricity is mainly conducted by the
“extra” holes. Hence, in a p-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are the
holes, while the minority charge carriers are the electrons.
 A p-type semiconductor is one in which the majority charge carriers are holes. The
impurity atoms (boron, in the example above) accept an electron each, hence they are
called acceptors.
The resulting negatively charged boron ions (B) after the acceptance of the electrons
are fixed in their positions, therefore they are immobile and do not contribute to electrical
conduction.
Example 8
Which of the statements is correct for an n-type semiconductor?
A There are excess holes in the valence band.

B There are excess holes in the conduction band.
C There are excess electrons in the valence band.
D There are excess electrons in the conduction band.
Ans: ( D )

(g) Discuss qualitatively the origin of the depletion region at a p-n junction and use this to
explain how a p-n junction can act as a rectifier.
 p-n junction
A p-n junction can be fabricated by joining an n-type and a p-type semiconductor

material together.
The p-n junction refers to the boundary between the p-type and n-type regions.
-ve immobile ions +ve immobile ions

Diffusion allows electrons and
holes to meet and recombine
near the junction, leaving
immobile +ve and ve ions.
Electric field set up by these ions
opposes further electron-hole
recombination, hence forming the
depletion region.
p-type n-type
Depletion region
p-n junction Holes Electrons
Fig. 17: Formation of depletion region
 Depletion Region
 On opposite sides of the p-n junction are the p-type and n-type regions of the
semiconductor:
In the p-type region, the majority charge carriers are positively charged holes;
the impurity atoms (acceptors) become immobile negative ions.
In the n-type region, the majority charge carriers are negatively charged electrons;
the impurity atoms (donors) become immobile positive ions.
 As shown in Fig. 17, at any finite temperature, diffusion of the mobile charge carriers
occurs, i.e. the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region move
about randomly.
In general, the diffusion of any particles tends to produce a net flow of particles from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Holes (highly concentrated in the p-type region) tend to diffuse across the junction to the
n-type region.
Electrons (highly concentrated in the n-type region) tend to diffuse across the junction to
the p-type region.

 As the holes and electrons diffuse across the junction in opposite directions, most of
them meet and recombine. The excess energy during the electron-hole recombination
can be released as electromagnetic radiation or thermal energy.
As the electrons and holes recombine near the junction, the region becomes virtually
depleted of mobile charge carriers. Hence, this region is called the depletion region
(recombination region).
 The p-type side of the depletion region is negatively charged due to the immobile
negative ions, while the n-type side of the depletion region is positively charged due to
the immobile positive ions.
This sets up an electric field across the p-n junction, pointing from the n-type side to the
p-type side. It is sufficient to oppose further diffusion across the junction by the majority
charge carriers, i.e. the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region.
 The electric field at the p-n junction mentioned above can be seen as a junction barrier.
The associated potential difference is known as junction potential.
Example 9
In a p-n junction, free electrons near the junction in the n-type material diffuse across the
junction into the p-type material. Diffusion occurs because
A the concentration of free electrons in n-type material is small and in p-type material
is large.
B the concentration of free electrons in n-type material is large and in p-type material
is small.
C the small potential across the depletion layer cause electrons to diffuse
continuously across the p-n junction.
D of different thermal agitation of atoms in the n-type and p-type material.
Ans: ( B )
Example 10
Which of the following statements regarding a p-n junction is incorrect?
A At the p-n junction, electrons from the n-type material migrate to the p-type material
as the free electrons from n-type material are attracted to the positively-charged
holes in the p-type material.
B At the p-n junction, the electrons and the holes re-combined to set up a depletion
region in which there no longer exist freely moveable charge carriers.
C Across the depletion region, an electric field is gradually established - negative on

the side of p-type material due to the extra electrons, positive on the side of n-type
material due to the loss of free electrons.

D When the n-type material is connected to the positive terminal of a battery in a circuit
while the p-type material is connected to the negative terminal of the battery, the p-n
junction does not allow current to flow through.
Ans: ( A )
 Rectifier (p-n junction diode)
 If we connect the p-type material of a p-n junction diode to the positive terminal of a
battery (high potential) and the n-type material to the negative terminal (low potential),
the p-n junction diode is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig. 18(a) below.
The applied electric field (due to the battery) opposes the electric field at the junction
(junction barrier).
The net effect due to a greater applied field causes the majority charge carriers (holes in
p-type material and electrons in n-type material) to flow across the junction (holes to
negative terminal and electrons to the positive terminal), causing a narrowing of the
depletion region.
The movement of these majority charge carriers thus conduct an electric current ( mA).
 If we connect the p-type material of a p-n junction diode to the negative terminal of a
battery (low potential) and the n-type material to the positive terminal (high potential), the
p-n junction diode is said to be reverse biased as shown in Fig. 18(b).
Holes in the p-type material flow to the negative terminal while the electrons in the n-type
material flow to the positive terminal, causing the widening of the depletion region. With
the reinforcing of the applied electric field by the junction electric field, the majority
charge carriers are unable to flow across the junction.
p-n p-n
 +  +
 
 
+ +
+ 

+
+


+
+
+
junction E-field junction E-field
applied E-field applied E-field
holes flow
electrons flow
current
(a) Forward biased p-n junction (b) Reverse biased p-n junction
Fig. 18: Forward- & Reverse-biased p-n junction

 Fig. 19 shows the I-V characteristics of a diode.

(Note that under reverse biased, a very small current ( A) flows due to the movement
by the minority charge carriers. This trickle current saturates at a small maximum value,
which depends only on the temperature of the semiconductor.)
Fig. 19: I-V characteristics of a diode
Example 11
In the diagrams below, the symbols + + + and - - - represent the majority carriers in the
p-type and n-type sides of a p-n junction.
Which pair of diagrams illustrates how a p-n junction acts as a rectifier?

Solution: (Ans D )
A: (left) Forward biased, conventional current in the wrong direction

B: (left) Reverse biased, no current; (right) forward biased, should have current
C: similar to B
 Acknowledgement & References
1. JJC lecture notes of earlier cohorts

2. Hecht, E. (1998). Optics. Massachusetts: Addison Wesley Longman.
3. Kuhn, K. J. (1998). Laser Engineering. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
4. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/optmod/lasapp.html
5. http://agamemnon.cord.org/cm/leot/Module8/module8.htm

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JJ 2015 J2 H2 Physics (9646) 19.

Lasers & Semiconductors

LASERS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

 Basic principles of lasers

(c) Describe the formation of energy bands in a solid.

(d) Distinguish between conduction band and valence band.

Physics Department Page 1 of 22

The energy absorbed may be thermal, electrical or light (EM radiation).

 If the energy absorbed is a photon of the right frequency, it is known as a stimulated

Spontaneous emission is a process where a photon is emitted randomly without any

As shown in Fig. 2, an excited atom at excited state E2 randomly transits to a lower

Fig. 2: Spontaneous emission

Physics Department Page 2 of 22

Stimulated emission is a process where a photon is emitted due to a transition of an

Fig. 3: Stimulated emission

Physics Department Page 3 of 22

This can be achieved through “pumping” – excitation of the atoms by supply of

What is stimulated emission in LASER?

A An electron from a higher energy level falling to a lower level.

B A charged particle causing light to be emitted from an excited atom.

D A photon causing another photon of the same frequency to be emitted from an

In the action of a laser, population inversion refers to

B more atoms in a high energy state than in a lower one

D charged particles causing light to be emitted from excited atoms

 Conditions for a Laser Beam

To produce a laser beam, three conditions must be satisfied:

1 The system must be in a state of population inversion.

Physics Department Page 4 of 22

( Light, electrical or thermal)

Fig. 5: Laser action in the cavity

Physics Department Page 5 of 22

Fig. 6: generation of photons via stimulated emission

What is the wavelength,  of the laser light emitted?

A 550 nm B 598 nm C 694 nm D 772 nm

Energy of laser photon E = E3  E2 = (0.18)  (1.79) = 1.61 eV

Physics Department Page 6 of 22

 Helium-neon (He-Ne) Laser

Fig. 7: Cavity of He-Ne Laser

Fig. 8: Energy level transitions for He & Ne atoms

Physics Department Page 7 of 22

 Supermarket barcode scanners:

Physics Department Page 8 of 22

 CD and DVD players:

 Cutting and welding:

(c) Describe the formation of energy bands in a solid.

Formation of energy bands in a solid

(a) Splitting of 2 allowed (b) Splitting of 2 allowed (c) Formation of 2 allowed

r = interatomic separation, ro = interatomic separation at equilibrium

Physics Department Page 9 of 22

energy levels in an energy levels in a energy levels in a energy bands in a

Physics Department Page 10 of 22

(d) Distinguish between conduction band and valence band.

Valence band (VB) and Conduction band (CB)

Fig. 12: Band gap of various materials

Physics Department Page 11 of 22

(I) (II) (III)

(I): wide band gap – insulator