ISSN 2319-8885

Vol.03,Issue.01,
January-2014,
Pages:0073-0080
www.semargroup.org,
www.ijsetr.com

Bit Serial Iterative Cordic Implementation for the Calculation of

Trigonometric Functions
CHINTADA RAMANAMMA1, SOLOMON J V GOTHAM2
1
PG Scholar, Dept of ECE, Kaushik College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, Andhrapradesh, India,
E-mail: ramanichintada@gmail.com.
2
Prof, Dept of ECE, Kaushik College of Engineering, Visakhapatnam, Andhrapradesh, India.
E-mail:s_gotham@yahoo.com.

Abstract: A detailed description of the bit-serial implementation and its Control Unit is presented. It is shown that the
improvement is due to a reduction of registers in the implementation and is made possible by ensuring that the angular path is
calculated prior to the corresponding vector paths. In addition, the improved architecture is implemented in Verilog. Rotation of
vectors through fixed and known angles has wide applications in robotics, digital signal processing, graphics, games, and
animation. Therefore, in this paper, we be present Bit Serial Iterative CORDIC Implementation for The Calculation of
Trigonometric Functions. We have synthesized the proposed CORDIC Circuit by xilinx and shown that the proposed design
offer higher throughput, less latency for fixed angles of rotation. CORDIC stands for coordinate rotation digital computer. The
key concept of CORDIC arithmetic is based on the simple and ancient principles of 2-D geometry. This iterative formulation of
a computational algorithm for its implementation is developed for the computation of trigonometric functions and
multiplication. Not only a wide variety of applications of CORDIC have been suggested over the time, but also a lot of progress
has taken place in the area of algorithm design and development of architectures for high-performance and low-cost solutions .

Keywords: Cordic, Trigonometric Functions, Verilog, Iterative.

I. INTRODUCTION
The CORDIC algorithm was first introduced by Jack E.
Volder in the year 1959 for the computation of
Trigonometric functions, Multiplication, Division, Data
type conversion, Square Root and Logarithms. It is a highly
efficient, low-complexity, and robust technique to compute
the elementary functions. The basic Algorithm structure is
described in other information about CORDIC Algorithm
and different Issues are in the CORDIC algorithm has
found its way in various applications such as pocket
calculators, numerical co-processors, to high performance
radar signal processing, supersonic bomber aircraft with
a digital counterpart. CORDIC stands for Coordinate
Rotation Digital Computer. It calculates the value of
trigonometric functions like sine, cosine, magnitude and
phase (arctangent) to any desired precision. It can also
calculate hyperbolic functions (such as sinh, cosh, and
tanh).
The CORDIC works in two different modes, they are
Rotation Mode and Vector Mode. In Rotation Mode the
algorithm rotates a vector with a given angle, and in
Vector Mode the angle between a given vector and the x-
axis is calculated. In this project to find trigonometric
functions CORDIC works in rotation mode only. The
algorithm is multiplication-free and thus well suited for
hardware Implementation. The CORDIC algorithm does
not use Calculus based methods such as polynomial or
rational function approximation. Today cordic algorithm is
used in Neural Network VLSI design, high performance
vector rotation DSP applications, advanced circuit design,
optimized low power design. CORDIC algorithm revolves
around the idea of "rotating" the phase of a complex
number, by multiplying it by a succession of constant
values.
However, the "multiplies" can all be powers of 2, so in
binary arithmetic they can be done using just shifts and
adds; no actual "multiplier" is needed thus it simpler and
do not require complex hardware structure as in the case of
multiplier. Earlier methods used are Table look up method,
Polynomial approximation method etc. for evaluation of
trigonometric functions. It is hardware efficient algorithm.
No multiplier requirement as in the case of
microcontroller.
II. CORDIC ALGORITHM
The CORDIC algorithm is used in different situations
and for different purposes. The common, basic idea

Copyright @ 2014 SEMAR GROUPS TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

 CHINTADA RAMANAMMA, SOLOMON J V GOTHAM

between the different usages is that through a series of Let’s find how equation 3 and 4 came into picture. As
additions and subtractions, it is possible to approximate shown in the figure1, a vector V (x, y) can be resolved in
vector rotations in the complex plane. This can be used in two parts along the x - axis and y –axis as r cosФ and r
e.g. the calculation of trigonometric or hyperbolic values. sinФ respectively. Figure2 illustrates the rotation of a
The CORDIC works in two different modes rotation mode vector.
and vector mode. In Rotation Mode the algorithm rotates
a vector with a given angle, and in Vector Mode the angle
between a given vector and the x-axis is calculated. The (5)
algorithm is multiplication-free and thus well suited for
hardware implementation. In this paper, the CORDIC is
used for the calculation of the trigonometric functions sine
and cosine of an input angle. For that purpose, the
CORDIC is working in Rotation Mode, with the input
=1
vector being known in advanced, and found to be X0 /R
=0
and Y0 , where R is a radius correction factor, that will
depend on the number of stages of the CORDIC. The
vector of each new stage is then found as

Xn+1= Xn ± Yn /2n (1)

The constant angles, α0 to αN−2, with N being the

number of stages, are hard coded in the design. They are
stored as negative values and fed to the A/S units of the Figure2. Vector V with magnitude r and phase Ф
angular path, bit by bit, through the MUXes. It is noted
that the final stage in the CORDIC require no calculation X= r cos Ф
in the angular path. Y= r sin Ф (6)
Similarly from figure1 it can be seen that vector V and
Yn +1= Yn∓ Xn/2n (2) V ' can be resolved in two parts. Let V has its magnitude
and phase as r and Ф respectively and V ' has its
With S being the stage number, and the sign of the magnitude and phase as r and Ф' where V ' came into
operation depending of the sign of the angle picture after anticlockwise rotation of vector V by an angle
addition/subtraction. Further, the input angle is limited to Ф. From figure1 it can be observed
values between 0 and π/2 (90◦). This is not a problem
when calculating trigonometric functions, since all angles Ф’- Ф= Ф (7)
can easily be moved or mirrored into the first quadrant.
Ф’= Ф+ Ф (8)
A. Basic Equation of Cordic Algorithm
Volder's algorithm is derived from the general equations OX’= X’= r cos Ф’
for a vector rotation. If a vector V with coordinates (x, y) = r cos (Ф+Ф)
is rotated through an angle Ф then a new vector V ' can be = r (cos Ф.cos Ф – sin Ф.sin Ф)
obtained with coordinates (x’, y’) where x' and y' can be = (r.cos Ф) cos Ф-(r.sin Ф)sin Ф (8)
obtained using x, y and Ф by the following method.
Using figure2 and equation6 OX ' can be represented as
(3)
OX’= X’= x cosФ– y sin Ф (9)
Similarly, OY’

(4) OY’ = Y’= y cos ϕ + x sin ϕ (10)

Similarly, value for the vector V ' in the clockwise

direction rotating the vector V by the angle ϕ and the
equations obtain in this case be

X’= x cos ϕ + y sin ϕ (11)

Y’= x sin ϕ – y cos ϕ (12)

The equations (9), (10), (11), (12) can be represented in

the matrix form as
Figure1. Rotation of a vector V by the angle Ф
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
 Bit Serial Iterative Cordic Implementation for the Calculation of Trigonometric Functions
(13)
The individual equations for x. and y' can be rewritten
as
X’= x. cos (ϕ) ± y.sin (ϕ) (14)
Y’= y. cos (ϕ) ± x.sin (ϕ) (15)
Volder observed that by factoring out a cosϕ from both
sides, resulting equation be in terms of the tangent of the
angle ϕ, the angle of which we want to find the sin and
cos. Next if it is assumed that the angle ϴ is being an
aggregate of small angles, and opposite angles is chosen
such that their tangents are all inverse powers of two, then
this equation can be rewritten as an iterative formula.
X’= cos (ϕ) (x ± y.tan (ϕ)) (16)
Y’= cos (ϕ) (y ± x.tan (ϕ)) (17)
Z'=Z ± ϕ, here ϕ is the angle of rotation (± sign is showing
the direction of rotation) and Z is the argument. For the
ease of calculation here only rotation in anticlockwise
direction is observed first. By rearranging the equations
(8) and (9)
X’= cos (ϕ) (x - y.tan (ϕ)) (18)
Y’= cos (ϕ) (y + x.tan (ϕ)) (19)
The multiplication by the tangent term can be avoided if
the rotation angles and therefore tan (ϕ) are restricted so
that tan (ϕ) = 2-i .In digital hardware this denotes a simple
shift operation. Furthermore, if those rotations are
performed iteratively and in both directions every value of
tan (ϕ) is represent able with ϕ = arc tan (2-i) the cosine
term could also be simplified and since cos (ϕ) = cos (-ϕ) it
is a constant for a fixed number of iterations.
This iterative rotation can now be expressed as:
Xi+1 = ki [xi - yi di 2-i] (20)
Yi+1 = ki [yi + xi di 2-i] (21)
Where, i denotes the number of rotation required to reach
the required angle of the required vector, cos (arc tan (2 -i))
and di = ±1. The product of the Ki’s represents the so-
called K factor.
(22)
Where
(ϕ is the angle of rotation here for n time’s rotation). The
above rotations requirement and adding and subtracting of
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
the different ϕ can be understood by the following
example of a balance.
III. COMPUTATION OF SINE AND COSINE
Elementary functions, especially trigonometric
functions, play important roles in various digital systems,
such as graphic systems, automatic control systems, and so
on. The CORDIC (Coordinate Rotation Digital Computer)
is known as an efficient method for the computation of
these elementary functions. Recent advances in VLSI
technologies make it attractive to develop special purpose
hardware such as elementary function generators. Several
function generators based on the CORDIC have been
developed. The CORDIC can also be applied to matrix
triangularization, singular value decomposition, and so on.
In this chapter, different hardware is dealt for sine and
cosine computation using CORDIC. In sine and cosine
computation by the CORDIC, iterative rotations of a point
around the origin on the X-Y plane are considered. When
implementing a sine and cosine calculator in digital
hardware, the expense of the multiplication needed for
many algebraically methods, should be kept in mind.
Alternative techniques are based on polynomial
approximation, table-lookup etc. as well as shift and add
algorithms.
Among the various properties that are desirable, we
can cite speed, accuracy or the reasonable amount of
resource. The architecture of FPGAs specifies suitable
techniques or might even change desirable properties.
Because the number of sequential cells and amount of
storage area, needed for table-lookup algorithms, are
limited but combinational logic in terms of LUT (Look Up
Table) in the FPGA's (Field Programmable Gate Array)
CLBs (Configurable Logic Blocks) is sufficiently
available, shift and add algorithms fit perfectly into an
FPGA.
A. Cordic Hardware
A straight forward hardware implementation for
CORDIC arithmetic is shown below in figure3. It requires
Figure3. Hardware elements needed for the CORDIC
method
 CHINTADA RAMANAMMA, SOLOMON J V GOTHAM
three registers for x, y and z, a look up table to store the
values of αi = tan-1 2-i, and two shifter to supply the terms
2-ix and 2-iy to the adder/ subs tractor units. The di factor (-
1 and 1) is accommodated by selecting the (shift) operand
or its complement.
B. Generalized Cordic
The basic CORDIC method can be generalized to
provide the more powerful tool for function evaluation.
Generalized CORDIC is defined as follows:
Xi+1 = xi – μ di yi 2-i
Yi+1 = yi + μ di xi 2-i
Zi+1 = zi - αi di (23)
[Generalized CORDIC iteration]
Noting that the only difference with basic CORDIC is the
introduction of the parameter μ in the equation for x and
redefinition of αi. The parameter μ can assume one of the
three values:
μ = 1 Circular Rotations (Basic CORDIC) αi= tan-1 2-i
μ = 0 Linear Rotation αi= tan-1 2-i
μ = -1 Hyperbolic Rotation αi= tanh-1 2-i
Figure3 illustrates the three type of rotation in generalized
CORDIC. For the circular case with μ = 1, we introduce
rotations that led to expansion of vector length by a factor
(1+ tan αi)1/2 = i/ cos αi in each step and by K =
1.646760258121.overall, where the vector length is the
familiar ri=(x2+y2)1/2 . With reference to figure3.2, the
rotation angle AOB can be defined in terms of the area of
sector AOB as follows:
Angle AOB= 2(area AOB)/ (OU)2
The following equations, repeated here for ready
comparison, characterize the results of circular CORDIC
rotations:
Xm =k(x cos z - y sin z)
Ym =k(y cos z + x sin z)
Zm =0 (24)
(Circular rotation mode, Rule: choose di ϵ {-1, 1} such that
z→0)
Xm = k(x2+y2)1/2
Ym = 0
Zm = z + tan-1(y/x) (25)
(Circular vectoring mode, Rule: choose di ϵ {-1, 1} such
that y→0).
In linear rotations corresponding to μ = 0, the end
point of the vector is kept on the line x=x0 and the vector
length is defined by ri=xi. Hence, the length of the vector is
always its true length OV and the scaling factor is 1. The
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
following equations characterized the results of linear
CORDIC rotations:
Xm = x
Ym = y+xz
Zm = 0 (26)
C. The Cordic Algorithm for Computing a Sine and
Cosine
Jack E. Volder described the Coordinate Rotation
Digital Computer or CORDIC for the calculation of
trigonometric functions, multiplication, division and
conversion between binary and mixed radix number
systems. The CORDIC-algorithm provides an iterative
method of performing vector rotations by arbitrary angles
using only shifts and adds. Volder's algorithm is derived
from the general equations for vector rotation. If a vector v
with components (x, y) is to be rotated through an angle ϕ
a new vector v' with components (x', y') is formed by (as
in equation 3 and 4):
X = r cos ϴ
Y = r sin ϴ (27)
(28)
Figure4. Rotation of a vector V by the angle ϕ
The individual equations for x’ and y’ can be rewritten as:
X’ = (x cos ϕ – y sin ϕ) (29)
Y’ = (y cos ϕ + x sin ϕ) (30)
And rearranged so that:
X’ = cos ϕ(x – y tan ϕ) (31)
Y’ = cos ϕ(y + x tan ϕ) (32)
D. A Bit-Parallel Iterative CORDIC
The CORDIC structure as described by the schematics
in Figure 3.5 when directly translated into hardware. Each
branch consists of an adder-sub tractor combination, a
shift unit and a register for buffering the output. At the
beginning of a calculation initial values are fed into the
register by the multiplexer where the MSB of the stored
value in the z-branch determines the operation mode for
the adder-sub tractor.
 Bit Serial Iterative Cordic Implementation for the Calculation of Trigonometric Functions
Figure5. Iterative CORDIC
D. A Bit-Parallel Unrolled CORDIC
Instead of buffering the output of one iteration and
using the same resources again, one could simply cascade
the iterative CORDIC, which means rebuilding the basic
CORDIC structure for each iteration. Consequently, the
output of one stage is the input of the next one, as shown
in Figure 3.6, and in the face of separate stages two
simplifications become possible. First, the shift operations
for each step can be performed by wiring the connections
between stages appropriately. Second, there is no need for
changing constant values and those can therefore be
hardwired as well. The purely unrolled design only
consists of combinatorial components and computes one
sine value per clock cycle.
Figure6. Unrolled CORDIC
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
However, inserting registers between stages would also
reduce the maximum path delays and correspondingly a
higher maximum speed can be achieved. It can be seen,
that the number of CLBs stays almost the same while the
maximum frequency increases as registers are inserted.
The reason for that is the decreasing amount of
combinatorial logic between sequential cells. Obviously,
the gain of speed when inserting registers exceeds the cost
of area and makes therefore the fully pipelined CORDIC a
suitable solution for generating a sine wave in FPGAs.
Especially if a sufficient number of CLBs is at one's
disposal, as is the case in high density devices like
XILINX's Virtex or ALTERA's FLEX families, this type
of architecture becomes more and more attractive.
E. A Bit-Serial Iterative CORDIC
Problems which involve repeated evaluation of a fixed
set of nonlinear, algebraic equations appear frequently in
scientific and engineering applications. Examples of such
problems can be found in the robotics, engineering
graphics, and signal processing areas. Evaluating
complicated equation sets can be very time consuming in
software, even when co-processors are used, especially
when these equations contain a large number of nonlinear
and transcendental functions as well as many
multiplication and division operations. Both, the unrolled
and the iterative bit-parallel designs, show disadvantages
in terms of complexity and path delays going along with
the large number of cross connections between single
stages. To reduce this complexity we can change the
design into a completely bit-serial iterative architecture.
Bit-serial means only one bit is processed at a time and
hence the cross connections become one bit-wide data
paths.
CLOCK RATE / (NUMBER OF ITERATIONS * WORD
WIDHT)
Figure7. Bit-serial CORDIC
 CHINTADA RAMANAMMA, SOLOMON J V GOTHAM

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS The above figure shows the top level RTL schematic
diagram of CORDIC algorithm, where x_i, y_i and theta_i
are 17-bit inputs and x_o, y_o and theta_o are the outputs.

Figure8. Simulation results

Sine and cosine values from 0o - 30o

Fig10(b)

The above figure shows the hardware implementation of

the CORDIC algorithm.

Figure9. Sine and cosine values from 0o-30o at

Transcript window

V. SYNTHESIS RESULTS
A. RTL Schematic of Cordic Algorithm

Fig10(c)

Figures10 (a, b, c): RTL schematics of CORDIC

algorithm

The above figure shows the add/subtract block of the

CORDIC algorithm. The single block will perform the add
Fig10 (a) and subtract both functions.
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
 Bit Serial Iterative Cordic Implementation for the Calculation of Trigonometric Functions

B. SYNTHESIS REPORT be implemented using PDPs (Programmable Digital

Processors). But a large amount of data processing is
required because of complex computations. In future there
is a chance to Implementation of dif algorithm, DFT
computation and simulation for more number of points and
Implementation and simulation for DHT, DCT and DST
calculations also.

VII. REFERENCES

[1] Johan Lofgren and Peter Nilsson, Dept. of Electrical

and information technology, Lund University, Bit Serial
CORDIC: Architecture and Implementation
Improvements, Sweden

[2] Volder J. E., .The CORDIC trigonometric computing

technique., IRE Trans. Electronic Computing, Volume
EC-8, pp 330 - 334, 1959.

[3] Lindlbauer N., www.cnmat.berkeley.edu/~norbert/

CORDIC/node3.htmlhtt.

[4] Avion J.C., http://www.argo.es/~jcea/artic/

CORDIC.html.

[5] Qian M., .Application of CORDIC Algorithm to

Neural Networks VLSI Design., IMACS Multiconference
on .Computational Engineering in Systems Applications
(CESA)., Beijing, China, October 4-6, 2006.

[6] Lin C. H. and Wu A. Y., .Mixed-Scaling-Rotation

CORDIC (MSR-CORDIC) Algorithm and Architecture
for High-Performance Vector Rotational DSP
Applications., Volume 52, pp 2385- 2398, November
2005.

[7] Walther J.S.A, .Unified algorithm for elementary

functions., Spring Joint Computer Conference, pp 379 -
385, Alantic city, 1971.

[8] Kolk K. J. V., Deprettere E.F.A. and Lee A Floating

Point Vectoring Algorithm Based on Fast Rotations.,
Journal of VLSI Signal Processing, Volume25, pp
125.139, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 2000.

Total latency 2.275ns (1.726ns logic, 0.549ns route) [9] Antelo E., LangT. and Bruguera J. D., .Very-High
(75.9% logic, 24.1% route) Radix CORDIC Rotation Based on Selection by
Rounding., Journal of VLSI Signal Processing, Vol.25,
VI. CONCLUSION 141.153, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 2000.
In this paper, a new and improved bit-serial CORDIC
architecture is presented. It is shown how it is possible to [10] Delosme M. J. Lau, C. Y. and Hsiao S. F., .Redundant
reduce the number of registers by calculating the angular Constant-Factor Implementation of Multi-Dimensional
path prior to the vector paths in the CORDIC. Some extra CORDIC and Its Application to Complex SVD., Journal of
registers and extra logic are needed to store the sign bits of VLSI Signal Processing, Volume 25, pp 155.166, Kluwer
the angular calculations. However, this is substantially less Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 2000.
than the area reduction in the vector paths. The improved
architecture is 20 % smaller and consumes 26 % less [11] Choi J. H., Kwak J. H. and Swartzlander, Journal of
power. The CORDIC algorithm is a powerful and widely VLSI Signal Processing, Volume 25, Kluwer Academic
used tool for digital signal processing applications and can Publishers, Netherlands, 2000.
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research
Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080
 CHINTADA RAMANAMMA, SOLOMON J V GOTHAM

Author’s Profile:

CHINTADA. RAMANAMMA,
has completed B.Tech (E.C.E)
from Sanketika Vidya Parishad.
College of Engineering, pursuing
M.Tech in Kaushik College of
Engineering, Affiliated to
JNTUK, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Her main research interest
includes in Electronics,
Embedded & VLSI Systems.

SOLOMON JV GOTHAM, did

B.Tech from VR Siddhartha
College of Engineering,
Affiliated to Acharya Nagarjuna
University, Vijayawada and
M.Tech from GITAM college of
Engineering, affiliated to Andhra
University, Andhra Pradesh,
India. His main research interests
include Communications, Signal Processing, VLSI and
Biomedical Signal Processing. And having 22 yrs
experience.

International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research

Volume.03, IssueNo.01, January-2014, Pages:0073-0080