INTELLIGENT ENERGY CONSERVATION SYSTEM

BASED ON A LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

The importance of saving energy in recent times has proved to be paramount, to

sustain environmental conditions and factors as well as to improve cost of energy. The

intelligent conservation system as a proposed solution would help in curbing these factors.

Considering that lighting accounts for 20%-40% of a buildings energy budget. It is important

to find a way to manage these percentages and reduce the energy buildings consume by

implementing a lighting control system; intelligently controlled by a microcontroller.

A lighting control system can be implemented basically on three levels; artificial

light on/off, artificial light with external information, artificial light and day lighting with

HVAC. The control system applied in this project is artificial light control based on external

information. This information is measurement of external conditions within where the

lighting is situated such as ambient light and occupancy sensing. In measuring these

variables, the project makes use of 2 major sensors; Passive Infrared Sensor to sense

occupancy by motion detection, LDR sensor to sense ambient lighting conditions. These two

variables are the major inputs to the control system.

Using a microcontroller, the project sought to model the control system by

programming it and communicating the inputs of the sensors and controlling the output to

the lighting. Other components of the design are optocouplers used to isolate and separate the
mains power from the electronic circuit and also link them and a zero crossing detector as an

external interrupt that controls the dimming property of the system.

In the final analysis, the system proved to be efficient in conserving energy by

reducing power dissipated to the lighting and also reducing the hours used as it is only

activated by motion sensing.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION.................................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION.....................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE...................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND...................................................................................................................1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT....................................................................................................2
1.3 AIM & OBJECTIVES...........................................................................................................2
1.4 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................3
1.5 JUSTIFICATION..................................................................................................................3
1.6 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................................5
2.1. OVERVIEW..........................................................................................................................5
2.2. ENERGY CONSERVATION...............................................................................................5
2.3. END USER EFFIECIENCY..................................................................................................7
2.3.1. WHAT IS DEMAND RESPONSE?..............................................................................8
2.4. LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS.................................................................................... 10
2.4.1. LEVEL 1 (artificial lighting alone):............................................................................. 11
2.4.2. LEVEL 2 (artificial lighting control based on external information):..........................12
2.4.3. LEVEL 3 (artificial lighting and daylight and HVAC system):...................................13
2.5. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................................................. 15
DESIGN ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION................................................................................. 15
3.1. OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................ 15
3.2. DESIGN ANALYSIS.......................................................................................................... 15
3.3. REGULATED POWER SUPPLY....................................................................................... 16

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 3.3.1. Step Down Transformer ................................................................................................ 16
3.3.2. Rectifier ......................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.3. Filter .............................................................................................................................. 17
3.3.4. Regulator ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.4. PIR SENSOR ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.5. OPTOCOUPLER.................................................................................................................. 21
3.6. LDR SENSOR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR) .......................................................... 22
3.7. ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR.......................................................................................... 22
3.8. MICROCONTROLLER ....................................................................................................... 23
3.9. CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION............................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................................. 28
IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING................................................................................................ 28
4.1. OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 28
4.2. CONSTRUCTION................................................................................................................ 28
4.3. TESTING.............................................................................................................................. 28
4.4. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 35
CHALLENGES, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................ 35
5.1. CHALLENGES .................................................................................................................... 35
5.2. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................... 35
5.3. RECOMMENDATION ........................................................................................................ 36
APPENDIX A ....................................................................................................................................... 37
APPENDIX B ....................................................................................................................................... 43
APPENDIX C ....................................................................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 48

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 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: LIGHTING CONTROL INTERGRATION......................................................... 11

Figure 2.2: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING ALONE......................................................................12

Figure 2.3: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTINING BASED ON EXTERNAL INFORMATION........13

Figure 2.4: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING AND DAYLIGHT WITH HVAC SYSTEM.............14

Figure 3.1: BLOCK DIAGRAM ………………………………………………………….…15

Figure 3.2: POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT................................................................................16

Figure 3.3: LM7805 REGULATOR CHIP..............................................................................18

Figure 3.4: PIR SENSOR BLOCK DIAGRAM......................................................................19

Figure 3.5: PIR WITH FRESNEL LENS................................................................................19

Figure 3.6: FRESNEL LENS EFFECT...................................................................................20

Figure 3.7: OPTOCOUPLER WITH TRIAC..........................................................................21

Figure 3.8: LDR VOLTAGE DIVIDER CONFIGURATIONS..............................................22

Figure 3.9: PIN CONFIGURATION FOR PIC16F873A....................................................... 24

Figure 3.10: PROCESS FLOW CHART.................................................................................26

Figure 3.11: FULL CIRCUIT HARDWARE..........................................................................27

Figure 4.1: FULLY IMPLEMENTED CIRCUIT................................................................... 33

Figure 4.2: FULL OUTPUT (LDR IS COVERED)................................................................33

Table 1: DEPENDENCY FACTORS FOR SENSORS.......................................................... 31

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Energy is paramount in every aspect of human activity. The world today seeks to conserve

energy not only due to the declining nature of non-renewable resources but also a way to

tackle the environmental challenges that energy excesses have brought about especially

global warming; its health effects, carbon emissions and footprints, and the costs incurred due

to wastage.

In Nigeria today, a lot of energy is wasted because industries, power companies, offices

and households use more energy than is actually necessary to fulfil their needs. With

energy efficiency practices and products, the nation can save over 50% of the present

energy consumed in the country. The energy presently generated in our country could be

sufficient for the entire Nigerian population. (Uyigue, 2007)

The potential for energy savings in the Nigerian economy is huge, especially in the three

main energy demand sectors, namely household, industry and transportation. In the

household sector, there is considerable energy loss due to inefficient energy saving

practices.

Similarly, there is considerable scope for energy conservation in the Nigerian industries.

Energy audit studies have shown that as much as twenty five per cent of industrial energy can

be saved through simple housekeeping measures. (Energy Commision for Nigeria, APRIL

2003)

1
Progress can begin immediately because knowledge and technology exist today to slash the

energy used in households, while at the same time improving levels of comfort. This would

be done by providing an energy conservation system in a typical household. This system is

a demand response incentive for individuals to be able to save energy in their homes.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Conservation of energy is paramount in the world today. Households for example

can conserve energy with very little human intervention. They are the focal point of the

project because they have a higher demand for energy and a lot can be harvested from them

and thereby saving them cost and improving energy efficiency. Rooms such as kitchen,

toilets and bedrooms are areas seasonally in use and account for most of the wasted energy

in a typical household. The project seeks to implement an intelligent energy conserving

system lighting in a typical household.

1.3 AIM & OBJECTIVES

The aim of this project is to design a system which would allow energy efficiency in a

building using a demand response incentive that is: motion and occupancy sensors to control

usage of lighting systems

To achieve solution to the above stated problems, the following objectives have to be put in

place in order to achieve the desired result of the project. These are:

1. To study rooms in a building with high energy demand that are prone to

wastage, based on occupancy frequency and load analysis

2
 2. To design a model that would implement the system’s operation

3. To program the microcontroller in the system to make it and intelligent system

4. To test and analyse the system

1.4 METHODOLOGY

To achieve the desired objectives, the intelligent energy conservation system would be

implemented in the following ways:

1. The system would be designed to be implemented in a typical household measured,

considering the power specifications, design requirements, circuit components and

microcontroller software.

2. The circuit would be designed and analysed using mathematical equations and

circuit design software

3. The components would then be acquired and configured for the system, the

PIR sensor, microcontroller, and power supply components

4. The acquisition and programming of the microcontroller PIC16F873A to interface

the sensors with the system

5. The entire system would then be fully implemented , tested and further analysed

1.5 JUSTIFICATION

The need for a demand response energy system is necessary in an environment where

knowledge of energy efficiency is limited. The energy saving system provides an effective

method towards energy efficiency to be implemented in a household, by imbibing the

3
practice of power saving from lighting with the least possible human intervention. It

also aims to save cost to the energy consumer on electricity bills.

1.6 CONCLUSION

The importance of conserving energy in a building cannot be overemphasised and a

practical solution to improve the energy management in homes would be analysed and

implemented

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. OVERVIEW

This chapter discusses energy conservation, its impact to the environment generally.

The impact of lighting in buildings, how they account for major energy losses and also

highlights strategies implemented in homes and office buildings to improve efficient use of

energy.

2.2. ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be

achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while

achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy

conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national

security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct

consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and

promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency

and thus maximize profit.

Energy conservation supports the eco-friendly lifestyle by providing energy, which saves

your money and at the same time saves the earth. When you decrease the amount of

energy you use you automatically make efforts to reduce increasing global warming.

(VADER, NISHA V. and PATIL, R.U, 2009)

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Reducing the impacts of the use of energy has been described as one of the key technical,

political and moral challenges facing the world today. While the world works towards the

use of cleaner energy, our priority should be to use the energy we generate more efficiently.

According to a publication by the International Rivers, energy efficiency measures are

cheaper, cleaner and faster to install than any other energy options. (Uyigue, 2009) Energy

efficiency measures have the potential to promote economic development and can lead to

job creation and saving of personal income. More also, energy efficiency will play a pivotal

role in the mitigation of climate change; a large part of the greenhouse gases emitted into the

atmosphere come from energy generation. This assertion is contained in the Fourth

Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which

has demonstrated that improved energy efficiency will play a key role in our mitigation of

climate change.

Energy efficiency does not mean that we should not use energy, but we should use energy in

a manner that will minimize the amount of energy needed to provide services. This is

possible if we improve in practices and products that we use. If we use energy efficient

appliances, it will help to reduce the energy necessary to provide services like lighting,

cooling, heating, manufacturing, cooking, transport, entertainment etc. Hence, energy

efficiency products essentially help to do more work with less energy. For instance, to light a

room with an incandescent light bulb of 60 W for one hour requires 60 W/h (that is 60 watts

per hour). A compact fluorescent light bulb would provide the same or better light at 11 W

and only use 11 W/h. This means that 49 W (82% of energy) is saved for each hour the light

is turned on. (Uyigue, 2009)

6
2.3. END USER EFFIECIENCY

Energy efficiency lowers energy use while providing the same level of service.
Energy conservation reduces unnecessary energy use. Both energy efficiency and
conservation provide environmental protection and utility bill savings. Energy efficiency
measures can permanently reduce peak demand by reducing overall consumption. In
buildings this is typically done by installing energy efficient equipment and/or operating
buildings efficiently. Energy‐efficient operations, a key objective of new building

commissioning and retro‐commissioning (for existing buildings), require that building systems operate in an integrated manner

Energy efficient practices are not so common in Nigerian homes and institutions. Due to

inconsistency of power in the country, most individuals and institutions take less interest in

energy conservation. In public institutions such as universities, government ministries were

also found to have their outdoor lighting switched on during the day. Many respondents to a

study carried out by energy efficiency survey in Nigeria blame the Power Holding Company

of Nigeria (PHCN) for this behaviour. According to them, when there is power outage

during the dark hours of the day and it lingers into the day, they forget to put off their

outdoor lighting. (Uyigue, 2009)

Since the introduction of smart meters by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria, more

people would become aware of how their inefficient energy consuming practices affect

their bills as there is now regularity on electricity charges gradually nationwide. A lot of

energy can be saved if Nigerians cultivate the habit of putting off their outdoor lighting in

the day time. Energy saved from using the natural light instead of light bulbs during the day

can be made available for use in offices and for industrial activities.

7
In end-use efficiency we refer to technologies, appliances or practices that improve the

efficient use of energy at the level of the final user. For example the appliances we use in our

houses and offices. Though this term is not limited to electrical appliances, it can also be used

for other areas of efficiency such as measures to improve the ability of houses to absorb and

retain heat in winter and keep out heat in the summer. On the side of utility companies,

providing electricity, they can also device ways and technologies to promote the efficient use

of energy. These are Demand side and Demand response

2.3.1. WHAT IS DEMAND RESPONSE?

Demand Response (DR) is a term used for programs designed to encourage end-users

to make short-term reductions in energy demand in response to a price signal from the

electricity hourly market, or a trigger initiated by the electricity grid operator. Typically, DR

actions would be in the range of 1 to 4 hours and include turning off or dimming banks of

lighting, adjusting HVAC levels, or shutting down a portion of a manufacturing process.

Alternatively, onsite generation can be used to displace load drawn from the electricity power

grid.

Lighting accounts for a substantial amount of a building’s energy budget. Estimates vary in

the literature, with percentages from 20% to 40% being reported. Some of this variation

comes from the variation in building designs. One study found that between 440 Wh and

1400 Wh of electricity were wasted per day on unneeded lighting in three office

environments. Over an entire year, this would correspond to waste between 160 kWh and 511

kWh. (Pierkaz, 2012)

Demand shedding is a temporary reduction or curtailment of peak electric demand. Ideally a

demand shedding strategy would maximize the demand reduction while minimizing any loss

of building services.

8
Lighting demand shed strategies tend to be simple and depend widely on wiring and controls

infrastructures.

Estimating the demand savings potential of lighting strategies depend on how the demand

savings are achieved. Demand response control capability of lighting systems is generally

determined by the characteristics of lighting circuit and control system. There are two ways

to implement demand response control with lighting

 Absolute reduction

 Relative reduction.

Absolute reduction is achieved by programming pre-set lighting level for times when demand

response is required. This may be configured in many different ways based on the lighting

control strategies, i.e. half the fixtures on, one third of the lamps in each fixture on, or all

lamps at 70% of full light output.

The problem with an absolute reduction approach is that it does not yield any savings or may

even increase lighting electricity consumption if the lighting levels are the same as or lower

than the pre-set levels at the time demand response is initiated. Therefore, although this

approach is easy to implement with current lighting control systems, the demand savings

estimate varies depending on the building use and occupancy.

Relative reduction means reducing loads with respect to the level of lighting at the time of

demand response. Instead of reducing to a pre-set level, a certain per cent reduction over the

current value is achieved during a demand response event. Implementation requires that the

light output from the lamp or power output from the ballast is communicated back to the

lighting control system, so central closed loop control is required. Systems with such

sophisticated controls tend to be newer and more expensive. The decision to implement

9
absolute or relative lighting reduction depends on the building lighting infrastructure, the

lighting use in the building, and the capabilities of the installed lighting control system.

An effective control system is essential for optimizing natural day lighting and electric

lighting for energy savings and occupant satisfaction. This allows changes to the electric

lighting output to be unnoticeable to occupants. This strategy can reduce glare and eye

fatigue and generate energy savings. An extension of manual control also leads to automatic

dimming systems, such as daylight harvesting control. This system can be applied to homes,

classrooms and offices where there is sufficient daylight to obtain savings from dimming

electric lights (Motegi, 2006)

2.4. LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS

Lighting control systems can range from a very simple manual on/off switch that is

operated by the occupant, to a system of addressable ballasts, dimmers, photosensors and

occupant sensors all controlled by a central computer. Such systems are widely available, and

are encouraged by energy codes and green building rating systems, yet there are limited

studies of the long-term performance of such systems in the field. For example, Jennings et al

found that private offices with occupancy sensors saved 20-26% compared to the manual

operation of a wall switch alone. In offices where automatic daylight dimming controls were

installed and properly commissioned additional savings of 21% were obtained over a seven-

month period. Galasiu et al measured a saving of up to 70% in an open plan office with the

combined use of an occupancy sensor, photosensor and a personal dimming control. Had the

various controls been installed individually they would have saved, on average: occupancy

sensors 35%, photosensors 20% and individual dimming controls 11%. Automatic and

manual controls in private offices in a study by Morrow et al saved 61% of the energy over a

10
10 hour schedule; 46% of the savings were due to motion sensors and automatic dimming

while the remaining 15% was due to occupant switching and dimming. (BIRT, 2009)

Three levels of integration can be distinguished for the indoor lighting control. These are

(Rundquist, 1996):

 The first level takes into account the artificial lighting alone.

 The second level takes into account artificial lighting and its control by external

information like day lighting, occupancy.

 The third level takes into account artificial lighting dealing with artificial lighting

plus external interaction with external elements like HVAC systems and blinds

Figure 2.1: LIGHTING CONTROL INTERGRATION

2.4.1. LEVEL 1 (artificial lighting alone):

The user controls the artificial lighting through a manual switch/dimmer. This allows

artificial lighting control according to a manual switch (ON/OFF or dimming). This

11
solution is one of the most used systems in building consisting of only a switch for a lamp or

a group of lamps.

Figure 2.2: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING ALONE

2.4.2. LEVEL 2 (artificial lighting control based on external information):

An illuminance sensor and an occupancy sensor have been combined to the

manual switch-dimmer in order to increase the visual comfort of the occupant. For each

sensor, a priority level is set.

This system allows artificial lighting control according to:

 A manual switch (on/off) or dimming with a high priority level

 An occupancy sensor with an intermediate priority level

 An illuminance sensor (in order to assume a constant light level) with a low priority

level

12
 Figure 2.3: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTINING BASED ON EXTERNAL INFORMATION

2.4.3. LEVEL 3 (artificial lighting and daylight and HVAC system):

There is a full integration of the lighting system with the HVAC systems and

the blinds system in order to increase the visual and thermal comfort of the occupant.

This system allows control of artificial lighting, day lighting (with blinds) and HVAC.

Supplementary sensors are presented with their own priority level, such as:

 A manual temperature set point button with a high priority level

 A manual switch blind button with a high priority level

13
  An indoor temperature sensor and wind speed sensor with an intermediate priority

level

 A glare sensor with a low priority level

Figure 2.4: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING AND DAYLIGHT WITH HVAC SYSTEM

2.5. CONCLUSION

The importance of energy efficiency cannot be over emphasized. Highlighted are

strategies that are standardly implemented and can be applied indigenously. This project

would implement a Level 2 control system to create an energy efficient system.

14
 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION

3.1. OVERVIEW

This section contains considerations made in design and construction of the

hardware aspect of the project.

3.2. DESIGN ANALYSIS

` . The components for any lighting control system depends on the conditions to be

considered that would reflect at the output of the system which is the

lighting/lighting system.

The following conditions are to be measured/ considered to operate the lighting system:

 Occupancy/ Human presence

 Level of day lighting/ ambient light

220v MAINS SUPPLY Lighting

Regulated Power supply Override

Optocoupler

Mains Supply
Zero Crossing Control line
LDR Detector 5V supply
µC

PIC16873A
PIR Sensor

Figure 3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

15
The block diagram represents the operation and hardware layout of the lighting

control system. Each of the components considered are described accordingly.

3.3. REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

The lighting control system would require a smooth DC supply. This supply

chosen would be able to give out the required output from an AC source. The

functioning components of this supply include:

 Step down transformer

 Diode Bridge rectifier

 Filter

 Regulator

Figure 3.2: POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

3.3.1. Step Down Transformer

A typical transformer consists of two coils (windings) linked by an iron core and are

linked by a magnetic field. The transformer is used to convert electricity from one voltage to

16
another with minimal loss of power, usually and AC source at the primary because they

require a changing magnetic field to be created in the core. The step down is used to

reduce the voltage from the mains supply of 220v to 12v. The resulting voltage is the fed

to the rectifier.

3.3.2. Rectifier

Rectification is a process of converting AC to DC voltage. The rectifier performs this

function, essential to the power supply circuit. There are two different rectification circuits;

the full wave and the half wave. Diodes are the components that make up the rectifier.

A full wave rectifier made up of four diodes is selected for this project. These four diodes are

arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the ac waveform are converted to DC.

3.3.3. Filter

A smoothing capacitor is used here to generate a ripple free DC. A smoothing

capacitor is also a filter capacitor and it converts the full wave rectified AC output into a

smooth DC. The power rating of the capacitor must be greater than the off load output

voltage supply. The capacitor chosen is rated at 1000µFarad. The ripple that appears in the

capacitor is directly proportional to the load current and inverse to the capacitive value. The

capacitor selected keeps the peak-to-peak values of the ripple minimum under full load

condition.

3.3.4. Regulator

Regulators are often used to make the power supply output insensitive to input

voltage amplitude variations and further reduce the ripple voltage. The regulator is also be

used to adjust or change the dc output voltage and limit the amount of current delivered

by the power supply. Regulators are a form of dc-to-dc converter.

17
For the purpose of this project, a single regulator chip is used to provide the desired

constant dc output of 5V, which is independent of the input voltage to a reasonable extent.

The regulator used is AN7805 (commonly stated as 7805).

Figure 3.3: LM7805 REGULATOR CHIP

3.4. PIR SENSOR

PIR (Passive Infrared Sensors) are basically made up of pyroelectric sensors which can

detect levels of infrared radiation. The pyroelectric sensor is made of a crystalline material

that generates a surface electric charge when exposed to heat in the form of infrared

radiation. When the amount of radiation striking the crystal changes, the amount of charge

also changes and can then be measured with a sensitive FET device built into the sensor.

18
 Figure 3.4: PIR SENSOR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The sensor elements are sensitive to radiation over a wide range so a filter window is added

to the TO5 package to limit detectable radiation to the 8 to 14mm range which is most

sensitive to human body radiation. Typically, the FET source terminal pin 2 connects through

a pull-down resistor of about 100 K to ground and feeds into a two stage amplifier having

signal conditioning circuits. The amplifier is typically bandwidth limited to below 10Hz to

reject high frequency noise and is followed by a window comparator that responds to both the

positive and negative transitions of the sensor output signal.

Figure 3.5: PIR WITH FRESNEL LENS

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The front part of the sensor module has a Fresnel lens to focus the infrared light on to the

sensor element. A Fresnel lens is a Plano Convex lens that has been collapsed on it to form a

flat lens that retains its optical characteristics but is much thinner and therefore has less

absorption loss. A Fresnel lens is usually thin and flexible and is about 0.015 inch (0.38mm)

thick with grooves molded into one surface. The groove side of the lens usually faces the PIR

sensor. A Fresnel lens both captures more IR radiation and focuses it to a small point. This

focal point moves across the sensor as the IR source moves and exposes one element at a

time. A Fresnel lens can extend detection range to about 100 feet.

Figure 3.6: FRESNEL LENS EFFECT

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The PIR sensor requires an initial stabilization time of about 10 to 60 seconds in order to

function properly. During this time, the sensor gets familiar with the surrounding

environment, and any motion in its field of view should be avoided. The PIR sensor has a

typical range of 20 feet, and is designed to adjust to slowly changing conditions such as

the gradual change in the thermal profile of the surrounding as the day passes.

3.5. OPTOCOUPLER

This is used to isolate the high voltage side of the system from the low voltage but

enabling it to be controlled. Optocouplers help to control one circuit from another circuit

with no electronic connection between the two circuits for example to control a device

(switching it ON or OFF) from the Wiring hardware. The Optocoupler, driven by the

supply's PWM, serves as the link to maintain the supply's desired output voltage. When the

output voltage deviates either due to line and/or load changes, the supply's error amplifier

attempts to compensate. It compares its input with a reference voltage, and the error signal

thus controls the output of the PWM. In turn, the PWM directs the primary-side power

MOSFETs via the Optocoupler.

Figure 3.7: OPTOCOUPLER WITH TRIAC

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3.6. LDR SENSOR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR)

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor

circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000

ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. To configure

the circuit, the sensor would be used as a part of a potential divider; this converts the change

in resistance to voltage. The output voltage is proportional to how much light is on the

sensor. This is used to measure the ambient light in the room.

Figure 3.8: LDR VOLTAGE DIVIDER CONFIGURATIONS

3.7. ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR

The zero crossing circuit consists of the voltage to current converting resistors R1-R2,

full-wave rectifier diodes D1-D4, a voltage averaging and storing capacitor C1, the

optocoupler U3, and transistor Q1 that functions as a voltage comparator. R4 provides base

current for Q1, and doubles as an input voltage divider together with resistors R1-R2. R4

limits and sets the current into the optocoupler LED. D5 provides a proper charge current

path for C1, preventing the reverse-biasing of the Q1 b-e junction.

22
Transistor Q1 stays off during the majority of the mains cycle, during which C1 is charged

via R1-R2 and D5. Q1 turns on and feeds current from C1 to the optocoupler via R4,

whenever the mains voltage (divided by (R1+R2)/R3) is lower than the voltage across C1.

The voltage across C1 will reach within about 400ms an equilibrium that defines the final

operating point. The voltage across C1 never exceeds 10 volts with the given resistor ratios.

The voltage stabilizes at a point when the average current charged equals the average current

consumed. The typical pulse width is 1ms at 50Hz. The output pulse width is fairly constant,

independent of the designated AC-line voltage (220VAC). This makes this simple zero

crossing detector quite unique, since the mains voltage does not affect the pulse width nor its

position.

The circuit’s total power consumption is a 120mW at 220VAC. The majority of this power is

dissipated in the input resistors R1-R2. The peak current flowing into the optocoupler LED varies

almost linearly with the mains voltage. This does not cause any inaccuracies to the zero crossing

function, as long as the optocoupler output is always allowed to saturate - even at the lowest

mains voltage. This factor determines the minimum allowed value of the pull-up resistor R5. The

4N35 optocoupler has a guaranteed CTR (Current Transfer Ratio) of 100%.

3.8. MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip, which includes on single chip, all or most of

the parts needed for a controller. The microcontroller typically includes: CPU (Central

Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable

Programmable Read Only Memory), I/O (input/output) – serial and parallel, timers, interrupt

controller.

The microcontroller selected for this project is the PIC16F873A. The features are stated

thusly; it is a 28 pin dual-in-line-package it has three I/O ports; Ports A, B and C. it is a

23
CMOS FLASH- based 8-bit microcontroller with 128 bytes of EEPROM data memory,

self-programming, an ICD, 2 comparators, 5channels of 10-bit analog-to-digital converter.

The synchronous serial port can be configured as either a 3- wire serial peripheral interface

or a 2 wire inter- integrated circuit bus.

Figure 3.9: PIN CONFIGURATION FOR PIC16F873A

3.9. CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION

Figure 3.11 shows the circuit and how the components are interfaced with the

microcontroller. The PIC16F873A has 3 I/O Ports. The ports A serve as digital I/O and

analog input simultaneously. PIN 1 is the VPP, where the programming voltage is supplied.

Crystal oscillator is connected to the clock input and out pins OSC1 and OSC2 to

generate the clock waveform. The oscillator produces square wave pulses whose frequency is

controlled by the oscillator which regulates the master clock and system timing. The

analogue pins AN0 receive the signal from the LDR, and converted by Analogue-To Digital

24
Converter, the ambient light sensed by the LDR, is converted to voltage and imputed to the

analogue input port. The LDR voltage divider is in dark configuration mode. The Analogue

to Digital converter, coverts analogue signals, such as voltage to binary numbers. The

intensity of light from the LDR would vary the range of the A-TO-D. The maximum voltage

is 5 volts. The ADC module in the microcontroller has a resolution of ten-bit; therefore the

converter can divide the analog input voltage between 0V-5V to which is 1024 levels.

If the brightness corresponds to 3 volts, the analog input, the ADC would convert it as

follows

5= 614.4

This would correspond to 1001100110.

The result is sent to the ARESL OR ARESH register of the microcontroller, which is low

byte or high byte. The ADCON1 register determines the output if it’s a high or a low.

The PIR module is connected to a digital I/O port RB5, when it senses movement; the

output, which is a digital LOW would then HIGH, then LOW again. The high would indicate

that movement has been sensed by the controller. During this high state the light is ON.

The zero cross detector is connected to the hardware interrupt of the system, the 4N25

zero crossing optocoupler provides a narrow 120 hertz pulse at 0 and 180 degrees of the sine

wave generated by the AC. The interrupt is triggered when the sine wave passes zero and 180

degrees. This causes a delay and dims the light depending on the voltage value.

25
Figure 3.10: PROCESS FLOW CHART

26
Figure 3.11: FULL CIRCUIT HARDWARE

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING

4.1. OVERVIEW

This chapter gives the result of the test carried out on the constructed model. It covers

the final implementation of the designed circuitry, the operation of the system and final

evaluation of the output of the system.

4.2. CONSTRUCTION

The physical realization of the project is very vital. This is design considerations are put to

test. Here the paper work is transformed into a finished hardware.

After carrying out all the paper design and analysis, the project was implemented, constructed and

tested to ensure its working ability. The construction of this project was done in three different stages.

 The implementation of the whole project on a solder-less experiment board (bread board).

 The soldering of the circuits on Vero-boards.

 The coupling of the entire project to the casing.

4.3. TESTING

During the testing phase, the effects of the sensors were consider and responded to the

output, which is the lighting (a 100 watt bulb), to observe the process.

The output power of the bulb in total darkness that is, when the LDR voltage Vout is at maximum

(5Volts). The bulb gave out the maximum brightness. This corresponds to the full output power of the

bulb (100 WATTS).

28
 = 0.454 Amps

Under bright conditions, the zero crossing detector with the triac, delays (about 800µS) the

microcontroller which simultaneously dims the output, the voltage across the LDR drops because of

the current ambient conditions. The output of the test light drops brightness, this reduces the full

wattage also.

The voltage drop across the LDR is about 0.09, the bulb is dimmest. The voltage drop is 99 Volts

from measurement with a multimeter

Therefore output power

99×0.454= 44.946 WATTS

If daylight sensing is considered with the motion sensing, the amount of energy in watt hours

is considered. In order to estimate the lighting energy consumption and related impact of

controls the simplified equation from the European standard EN 15193 (Manancia, 2000)

Where,

W - Total energy used for lighting: the amount of energy consumed in period t, by

the luminaires when operating, and parasitic loads when the luminaires are not

operating in a room or zone, measured in kWh.

29
 WL, T - Energy consumption used for illumination: the amount of energy consumed

in period t, by the luminaires to fulfill the illumination function and purpose in the

building, measured in kWh.

WP, T - Luminaire parasitic energy consumption - the parasitic energy consumed in

period t, by the charging circuit of emergency lighting and by the standby control

system controlling the luminaires, measured in kWh.

∑{( ( (

Where,

td - Daylight operating hours.

tn - Non-daylight operating hours.

P –Total installed lighting power, measured in watts.

FD -Daylight dependency factor - factor relating the usage of the total install lighting

power to daylight availability in the room or zone.

FO - Occupancy dependency factor - factor relating the usage of the total installed

lighting power to occupancy period in the room or zone.

FC - Constant illuminance factor- the factor relating to the usage of the total installed

power when constant illuminance control is in operation in the room or zone.

{{ ⌊ ( ⌋ (

30
 In this system, no external lights were considered hence WP, T=0

From standard tables of dependency factors, the following are:

Table 1: DEPENDENCY FACTORS FOR SENSORS

TYPE OF DIMMING DAYLIGHT OCCUPANCY

DEPENDENCY FACTOR DEPENDENCY FACTOR

NO DIMMING 1 1

PRESENCE/ MOTION 1 0.9

DETECTOR

DAYLIGHT SENSOR 0.8 0.9

PRESENCE/ MOTION & 0.72 0.72

DAYLIGHT SENSOR

To calculate the efficiency of this system, the total energy consumption of the zone

tested related impact of controls the simplified equation, was considered based on

 Presence of the intelligent conservation, where occupancy and daylight impact the

output

 Absence of intelligent conservation, where there is no external control system

The variables for this test are:

Daylight hours= 12 (Dusk to Dawn)

Non-daylight hours (operating) =6(Dawn to Midnight)

Emergency light hours=0

Constant illuminance factor=1

31
Dependency ratios are given in table 1

For presence of intelligent conservation:

{( ( (
=1.1620 KWh

1. 1620 KWh

For absence of intelligent conservation:

{( ( (
=1.8 KWh

1. 8KWh

The efficiency of the system is thus:

0.638

35.44%

32
 Figure 0.1: FULLY IMPLEMENTED CIRCUIT

Figure 0.2: FULL OUTPUT (LDR IS COVERED)

4.4. CONCLUSION

This chapter discussed the implementation and testing of the system to determine its

effectiveness and optimum performance. The intelligent energy conservation system after

33
implementation and tests is efficient for just a single test bulb. This can be applied to several

luminaires and the efficiency would increase accordingly.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE

CHALLENGES, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. CHALLENGES

Like every research and practical engineering work, diverse kinds of challenges

and problems are often encountered. A number of problems and challenges were

encountered during the course of implementing this project.

During the construction phase, I had problems with the PIR sensor. The sensitivity

of the sensor was dependent on environmental temperature and brightness. The effects were

better towards evening conditions or dull environments. This was corrected by including

and extra enclosure for the sensor to reduce false triggering and under-sensitivity.

The sensor also needs to observe motion, so when an occupant is static, it seizes to

sense movement and lights are triggered off.

5.2. CONCLUSION

The intelligent energy system is an efficient system for controlling the use of lights.

The ease in the operation makes it practicable in residential buildings and office buildings

also. In Nigeria where energy efficient systems are not common nut energy demand is high,

the intelligent energy conservation system due to its demand response nature can provide an

energy management solution for most end users. Energy savings realised from its use would

reflect financially, as cost of recharging prepaid meters would reduce, and also the

environmental impact of energy efficiency.

35
5.3. RECOMMENDATION

The intelligent energy conservation system can be improved by incorporating other

types of sensors such as ultrasonic sensors, wind speed sensors and CO₂ sensors to
implement in larger spaces in buildings. These sensors would consider other environmental
conditions within the building to make the energy management more efficient and effective.

It would also curb the limitations of the PIR sensor of not detection static human

presence. It can also be expanded to include HVAC systems such as air conditioners,

electronic devices and appliances in kitchens and offices such as computers, cookers,

microwave ovens just to name a few

36
APPENDIX A

PROGAMMING CODE FOR PIC 16F873A

#define dimmer PORTC.F4

#define up PORTB.F1

#define down PORTB.F2

#define auto_ldr PORTB.F3

#define auto_pir PORTB.F4

#define ldr_indicator PORTB.F5

#define pir_indicator PORTB.F6

#define pir PORTB.F7

unsigned char a;

unsigned char aa;

unsigned char aaa;

void interrupt(void) {

37
for(a = 0; a < aa; a++) {

dimmer = 0;

delay_us(800);

dimmer = 1;

INTCON.INTF = 0;

unsigned int val;

void main()

aaa = 0;

ADCON1 = 0x80;

TRISC.F4 = 0;

TRISB.F1 = 1;

TRISB.F2 = 1;

TRISB.F3 = 1;

TRISB.F4 = 1;

TRISB.F5 = 0;

38
TRISB.F6 = 0;

TRISB.F7 = 1;

TRISA = 255;

delay_ms(4000);

INTCON.GIE = 1;

INTCON.INTE = 1;

INTCON.PEIE = 0;

OPTION_REG.INTEDG = 1;

aa = 5;

for(;;) {

if (aaa == 0) {

val =Adc_Read(0);

if (val < 70) aa = 12;

else if ((val >=70) && (val < 140)) aa = 11;

else if ((val >=140) && (val < 210)) aa = 10;

else if ((val >=210) && (val < 280)) aa = 9;

else if ((val >=280) && (val < 350)) aa = 8;

39
else if ((val >=350) && (val < 420)) aa = 7;

else if ((val >=420) && (val < 490)) aa = 6;

else if ((val >=490) && (val < 560)) aa = 5;

else if ((val >=560) && (val < 630)) aa = 4;

else if ((val >=630) && (val < 700)) aa = 3;

else if ((val >=700) && (val < 770)) aa = 2;

else if ((val >=770) && (val < 840)) aa = 1;

else if (val >=840) aa = 0;

delay_ms(10);

if (pir == 0) {

//dimmer = 1;

INTCON.INTE = 1;

delay_ms(5000);

else {

INTCON.INTE = 0;

dimmer = 0;

}if (auto_ldr == 0) {

aaa = 100;

40
 INTCON.INTE = 0;

dimmer = 0;

delay_ms(1000);

dimmer = 1;

delay_ms(1000);

dimmer = 0;

INTCON.INTE = 1;

else {

if (up == 0) {

if (aa > 0) {

aa = aa - 1;

/ E=B;

}delay_ms(100);

if (down == 0) {

41
if (aa < 12 ) {

aa = aa + 1;

//E = B;

} delay_ms(100);

if (auto_ldr == 0) {

aaa = 0;

INTCON.INTE = 0;

dimmer = 0;

delay_ms(1000);

dimmer = 1;

delay_ms(1000);

dimmer = 0;

INTCON.INTE = 1;

42
APPENDIX B

DATASHEET FOR PIC16F873A

43
44
APPENDIX C

INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE FOR PIC 16F873A

45
46
47
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Anon., 2012. DORMITORY MOTION SENSOR LIGHTING. ETA KAPPA NU, ELECTRICAL, COMPUTER AND
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING SOCIETY.

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buildings.org/wiki/index.php/Energy_Conservation 2012 AUGUST 2012].

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VADER, P., 2009. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM., 2009.

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