Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Echague, Isabela

Title:

Chapter 1 – Units and Measurements

Overview/Introduction

Giving numerical values for physical quantities and equations for physical principles
allows us to understand nature much more deeply than qualitative descriptions alone. To
comprehend these vast ranges, we must also have accepted units in which to express them.
We shall find that even in the potentially mundane discussion of meters, kilograms, and
seconds, a profound simplicity of nature appears: all physical quantities can be expressed as
combinations of only seven base physical quantities.
We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by stating
how it is calculated from other measurements. For example, we might define distance and
time by specifying methods for measuring them, such as using a meter stick and a
stopwatch. Then, we could define average speed by stating that it is calculated as the total
distance travelled divided by time of travel.
Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which are
standardized values. For example, the length of a race, which is a physical quantity, can be
expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance runners). Without
standardized units, it would be extremely difficult for scientists to express and compare
measured values in a meaningful way.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Describe how SI base units are defined;
2. Describe how derived units are created from base units;
3. Express quantities given in SI units using metric prefixes;
4. Use conversion factors to express the value of a given quantity in different units;
5. Find the dimensions of a mathematical expression involving physical quantities;
6. Determine whether an equation involving physical quantities is dimensionally
consistent;

Learning Content/Topic

Lesson 1-1 – Units and Standards

Two major systems of units are used in the world: SI units (for the French
Système International d’Unités), also known as the metric system, and English units
(also known as the customary or imperial system). English units were historically used in
nations once ruled by the British Empire and are still widely used in the United States.
English units may also be referred to as the foot–pound–second (fps) system, as
opposed to the centimeter–gram–second (cgs) system. You may also encounter the
term SAE units, named after the Society of Automotive Engineers.
Virtually every other country in the world (except the United States) now uses SI
units as the standard. The metric system is also the standard system agreed on by
scientists and mathematicians.
SI Base Units
In any system of units, the units for some physical quantities must be defined
through a measurement process. These are called the base quantities for that system
and their units are the system’s base units. All other physical quantities can then be
expressed as algebraic combinations of the base quantities. Each of these physical
quantities is then known as a derived quantity and each unit is called a derived unit. The
choice of base quantities is somewhat arbitrary, as long as they are independent of each
other and all other quantities can be derived from them. Typically, the goal is to choose
physical quantities that can be measured accurately to a high precision as the base
quantities. The reason for this is simple. Since the derived units can be expressed as
algebraic combinations of the base units, they can only be as accurate and precise as
the base units from which they are derived.
Based on such considerations, the International Standards Organization
recommends using seven base quantities, which form the International System of
Quantities (ISQ). These are the base quantities used to define the SI base units.
ISQ Based Quantity SI Based Unit
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Electrical Current ampere (A)
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin (K)
Amount of Substance mole (mol)
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)

Definition of SI Base Units

Meter. The SI unit for length is the meter (abbreviated m); its definition has also
changed over time to become more precise. The meter was first defined in 1791 as
1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. This measurement
was improved in 1889 by redefining the meter to be the distance between two
engraved lines on a platinum–iridium bar now kept near Paris. By 1960, it had
become possible to define the meter even more accurately in terms of the
wavelength of light, so it was again redefined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of orange
light emitted by krypton atoms. In 1983, the meter was given its current definition (in
part for greater accuracy) as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458
of a second. This change came after knowing the speed of light to be exactly
299,792,458 m/s. The length of the meter will change if the speed of light is someday
measured with greater accuracy.
Second. The SI unit for time, the second (abbreviated s), has a long history. For
many years it was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. More recently, a new
standard was adopted to gain greater accuracy and to define the second in terms of
a non-varying or constant physical phenomenon (because the solar day is getting
longer as a result of the very gradual slowing of Earth’s rotation). Cesium atoms can
be made to vibrate in a very steady way, and these vibrations can be readily
observed and counted. In 1967, the second was redefined as the time required for
9,192,631,770 of these vibrations to occur. Note that this may seem like more
precision than you would ever need, but it isn’t—GPSs rely on the precision of atomic
clocks to be able to give you turn-by-turn directions on the surface of Earth, far from
the satellites broadcasting their location.
Kilogram. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (abbreviated kg); from 1795–2018
it was defined to be the mass of a platinum–iridium cylinder kept with the old meter
standard at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. However,
this cylinder has lost roughly 50 micrograms since it was created. Because this is the
standard, this has shifted how we defined a kilogram. Therefore, a new definition was
adopted in May 2019 based on the Planck constant and other constants which will
 never change in value. We will study Planck’s constant in quantum mechanics, which
is an area of physics that describes how the smallest pieces of the universe work.
The kilogram is measured on a Kibble balance. When a weight is placed on a Kibble
balance, an electrical current is produced that is proportional to Planck’s constant.
Since Planck’s constant is defined, the exact current measurements in the balance
define the kilogram.

SI Derived Units
You are probably already familiar with some derived quantities that can be
formed from the base quantities in the table above. For example, the geometric concept
of area is always calculated as the product of two lengths. Thus, area is a derived
quantity that can be expressed in terms of SI base units using square meters. Similarly,
volume is a derived quantity that can be expressed in cubic meters (m 3). Speed is length
per time; so in terms of SI base units, we could measure it in meters per second (m/s).
Volume mass density (or just density) is mass per volume, which is expressed in terms
of SI base units such as kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3). Angles can also be thought
of as derived quantities because they can be defined as the ratio of the arc length
subtended by two radii of a circle to the radius of the circle. This is how the radian is
defined. Depending on your background and interests, you may be able to come up with
other derived quantities, such as the mass flow rate (kg/s) or volume flow rate (m 3/s) of a
fluid, electric charge (A⋅s), mass flux density [kg/(m 2⋅s)], and so on. For now, the point is
that every physical quantity can be derived from the seven base quantities and the units
of every physical quantity can be derived from the seven SI base units.
Quantity SI Unit SI Symbol SI Based Units
Force, Weight Newton N kg*m*s-1
Work, Energy, Heat Joule J N*m
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W J/s
Electric Charge Coulomb C A*s
Voltage Volt V W/A
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb V*s
Inductance Henry H Wb/A
Capacitance Farad F C/V
Resistance Ohm Ω V/A

For the most part, we use SI units in this text. Non-SI units are used in a few
applications in which they are in very common use, such as the measurement of
temperature in degrees Celsius (°C), the measurement of fluid volume in liters (L), and
the measurement of energies of elementary particles in electron-volts (eV). Whenever
non-SI units are discussed, they are tied to SI units through conversions.

Metric Prefixes
SI units are part of the metric system, which is convenient for scientific and
engineering calculations because the units are categorized by factors of 10. For
example, a centimeter is one-hundredth of a meter (in symbols, 1 cm = 10 –2 m) and a
kilometer is a thousand meters (1 km = 10 3 m). Similarly, a megagram is a million grams
(1 Mg = 106 g), a nanosecond is a billionth of a second (1 ns = 10 –9 s), and a terameter is
a trillion meters (1 Tm = 1012 m).
Prefix Symbol Meaning
yotta- Y 1024
zetta- Z 1021
exa- E 1018
peta- P 1015
tera- T 1012
 giga- G 109
mega- M 106
kilo- k 103
hecto- h 102
deka- da 101
deci- d 10-1
centi- c 10-2
milli- m 10-3
micro- µ 10-6
nano- n 10-9
pico- p 10-12
femto- f 10-15
atto- a 10-18
zepto- z 10-21
yocto- y 10-24

English Unit Equivalents

Though metric system of units is the most common system of units, English units
are still used sometimes on some cases. However, there are only few English units we
commonly see nowadays.
ISQ Quantity Metric Unit English Unit
Length meter (m) Foot (ft)
Mass kilogram (kg) Slugs
Temperature °C Degree Fahrenheit (°F)
Force Newton (N) Pound Force (lbf)
Volume Liter (L) or m3 Gallon (gal)
Area Hectare (ha) Acre
Pressure Pascal (Pa) lb/in2 (psi)

From these base units, there are also different English units larger or smaller in
value than the base units such as mile, yard, inch, and kip. Some of the unit conversion
equivalents from Metric to English system are given below.
ISQ Quantity Metric Unit English Unit Equivalent
1m 3.28 ft
Length 2.54 cm 1 in
1 km 1.609 mile
Mass 1 kg 0.0685 Slugs
Volume 3.785 L 1 gal
Area 1 ha 2.47 acres
Force 1N 2.2046 lb
Pressure 1 kPa 0.145 psi

These unit equivalents from Metric system to English system can be used to
convert from one unit to another unit from the same unit system. The following are the
equivalents of English to English unit system.
Quantity Unit Unit Equivalent
Length 1ft 12in
1yd 3ft
1 mile 5280ft
Volume 1 gal 4 quarts
1 quart 2 pints
1 pint 16oz
Lesson 1-2 – Units Conversion
It is often necessary to convert from one unit to another. For example, if you are
reading a European cookbook, some quantities may be expressed in units of liters and
you need to convert them to cups. Or perhaps you are reading walking directions from
one location to another and you are interested in how many miles you will be walking. In
this case, you may need to convert units of feet or meters to miles.
In unit conversion, we generally multiply the unit to be converted by the ratio of its
equivalent unit at the unit itself such that the unit to be converted will be cancelled.
Consider the following examples given below:

Example 1: Convert 10m to ft.

Example 2: Convert 1km to yd.

Example 3: Convert 12km2 to mile2.

( )
( )
( )
In case that there are exponent (square, cube) on the unit to be converted,
we simple raised the fraction to the exponent equal to the exponent of the unit
to be converted to be able to cancel out the unit with exponent.

Example 4: Convert 100L to ft3.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Example 5: Convert 10 lb/in2 to lb/ft2.

( )
( )

Lesson 1-3 – Dimensional Analysis

The dimension of any physical quantity expresses its dependence on the base
quantities as a product of symbols (or powers of symbols) representing the base
quantities. For example, a measurement of length is said to have dimension L or L1, a
measurement of mass has dimension M or M 1, and a measurement of time has
dimension T or T1. Like units, dimensions obey the rules of algebra. Thus, area is the
product of two lengths and so has dimension L 2, or length squared. Similarly, volume is
the product of three lengths and has dimension L 3, or length cubed. Speed has
dimension length over time, L/T or LT–1. Volumetric mass density has dimension M/L 3 or
ML–3, or mass over length cubed. In general, the dimension of any physical quantity can
be written as LaMbTcIdΘeNfJg for some powers a,b,c,d,e,f, and g. We can write the
dimensions of a length in this form with a=1 and the remaining six powers all set equal to
zero: L1=L1M0T0I0Θ0N0J0. Any quantity with a dimension that can be written so that all
seven powers are zero (that is, its dimension is L0M0T0I0Θ0N0J ) is called dimensionless
(or sometimes ―of dimension 1,‖ because anything raised to the zero power is one).
Physicists often call dimensionless quantities pure numbers.
Based Quantity Symbol for Dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T
 Electrical Current I
Thermodynamic Temperature θ
Amount of Substance N
Luminous Intensity J

Physicists often use square brackets around the symbol for a physical quantity to
represent the dimensions of that quantity. For example, if r is the radius of a cylinder and
h is its height, then we write [r]=L and [h]=L to indicate the dimensions of the radius and
height are both those of length, or L. Similarly, if we use the symbol A for the surface
area of a cylinder and V for its volume, then [A] = L2 and [V] = L3. If we use the symbol m
for the mass of the cylinder and ρ for the density of the material from which the cylinder
is made, then [m]=M and [ρ]=ML−3.

The importance of the concept of dimension arises from the fact that any
mathematical equation relating physical quantities must be dimensionally consistent,
which means the equation must obey the following rules:
 Every term in an expression must have the same dimensions; it does not make
sense to add or subtract quantities of differing dimension (think of the old saying:
―You can’t add apples and oranges‖). In particular, the expressions on each side
of the equality in an equation must have the same dimensions.
 The arguments of any of the standard mathematical functions such as
trigonometric functions (such as sine and cosine), logarithms, or exponential
functions that appear in the equation must be dimensionless. These functions
require pure numbers as inputs and give pure numbers as outputs.

If either of these rules is violated, an equation is not dimensionally consistent and

cannot possibly be a correct statement of physical law. This simple fact can be used to
check for typos or algebra mistakes, to help remember the various laws of physics, and
even to suggest the form that new laws of physics might take. This last use of
dimensions is beyond the scope of this text, but is something you will undoubtedly learn
later in your academic career.

Example 1: Determine the dimension of velocity from the formula s=vt

Solution

Where s=distance travelled

v=velocity
t=time

The dimension of [s] is L and [t] is T.

Therefore, the dimension of velocity is
[ ]

Example 2: If the dimension of acceleration is LT-2, determine whether the formula

s = vt + 0.5at2 is dimensionally consistent.
Solution

Where a=acceleration
s=distance travelled
v=velocity
t=time
 For dimensional checking, we disregard the constants since these are
pure numbers.

The dimension of [s] is L, [t] is T and [v] is LT-1.

Therefore, the dimension of velocity is

[ ]

[ ]
Since we are checking only the dimension, L-L, unit length subtracted
from unit length will result to a unit length.
[ ]
Therefore, the given formula is dimensionally consistent with the dimension of
acceleration.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 1
1. On a sheet of paper, list down as many units as you can.
2. Based from your list of units, make a table showing the equivalent values of each unit
on the other unit on the same quantity.

Activity 2
1. Prove that 1mile is equal to 5280ft.
2. Convert 5 acres to square feet.
3. How many gallons are there in 1 cubic meter?
4. Derive the formula in converting degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.
5. Pressure: Convert 1mmHg to inches of water.

Activity 3
1. Determine the dimension of pressure based from the formula P=ρgh. Where P is the
pressure produced at the bottom of substance, ρ is the substance density, g is the
gravitational pull, and h is the height of column of substance.
2. Determine whether the dimensions of work and energy are the same.
3. What is the dimension of the unit of power which is Watts (W).

References
1. openstax.org
2. physics.nist.gov
3. byjus.com
 Republic of the Philippines
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela

Title:

Chapter 2 – Motion along a Straight Line and Two-Dimensions

Overview/Introduction

A full treatment of kinematics considers motion in two and three dimensions. For
now, we discuss motion in one dimension, which provides us with the tools necessary to
study multidimensional motion. A good example of an object undergoing one-dimensional
motion is the maglev (magnetic levitation) train depicted at the beginning of this chapter. As
it travels, say, from Tokyo to Kyoto, it is at different positions along the track at various times
in its journey, and therefore has displacements, or changes in position. It also has a variety
of velocities along its path and it undergoes accelerations (changes in velocity). With the
skills learned in this chapter we can calculate these quantities and average velocity. All
these quantities can be described using kinematics, without knowing the train’s mass or the
forces involved.
In this chapter, you will learn why it is important to identify a reference frame in order
to clearly describe motion. For now, the motion you describe will be one and two
dimensional. Within this context, you will learn the difference between distance and
displacement as well as the difference between speed and velocity. To give a complete
description of kinematics, we must explore motion in two and three dimensions. After all,
most objects in our universe do not move in straight lines; rather, they follow curved paths.
From kicked footballs to the flight paths of birds to the orbital motions of celestial bodies and
down to the flow of blood plasma in your veins, most motion follows curved trajectories. In
this chapter we also explore two special types of motion in two dimensions: projectile motion
and circular motion.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Define position, displacement, and distance travelled;
2. Calculate the total displacement given the position as a function of time;
3. Calculate the average velocity given the displacement and elapsed time;
 4. Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity;
5. Calculate the speed given the instantaneous velocity;
6. Calculate the average acceleration between two points in time;
7. Explain the difference between average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration;
8. Identify which equations of motion are to be used to solve for unknowns;
9. Use the kinematic equations with the variables y and g to analyse free-fall motion;
10. Solve for the position, velocity, and acceleration as functions of time when an object
is in a free fall;
11. Calculate position vectors in a multidimensional displacement problem;
12. Solve for the displacement, velocity and acceleration in two dimensions;
13. Use one-dimensional motion in perpendicular directions to analyse projectile motion;
14. Calculate the range, time of flight, and maximum height of a projectile that is
launched and impacts a flat, horizontal surface;
15. Solve for the centripetal acceleration of an object moving on a circular path; and
16. Use the equations of circular motion to find the position, velocity, and acceleration of
a particle executing circular motion;

Learning Content/Topic

Lesson 2-1 – Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity

When you’re in motion, the basic questions to ask are: Where are you? Where
are you going? How fast are you getting there? The answers to these questions require
that you specify your position, your displacement, and your average velocity—the terms
we define in this section.

Time
How does time relate to motion? We are usually interested in elapsed time for a
particular motion, such as how long it takes an airplane passenger to get from his seat to
the back of the plane. To find elapsed time, we note the time at the beginning and end of
the motion and subtract the two. For example, a lecture may start at 11:00 A.M. and end
at 11:50 A.M., so that the elapsed time would be 50 min. Elapsed time Δt is the
difference between the ending time and beginning time.
Formula for elapsed time:

Where: = elapsed time

= ending time
= beginning time

Position
To describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe its position
(x): where it is at any particular time. More precisely, we need to specify its position
relative to a convenient frame of reference. A frame of reference is an arbitrary set of
axes from which the position and motion of an object are described. Earth is often used
as a frame of reference, and we often describe the position of an object as it relates to
stationary objects on Earth. For example, a rocket launch could be described in terms of
the position of the rocket with respect to Earth as a whole, whereas a cyclist’s position
could be described in terms of where she is in relation to the buildings she passes. In
other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in motion relative to
Earth. To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not Earth, as the reference frame. To describe the position of an object
undergoing one-dimensional motion, we often use the variable x. Later in the chapter,
during the discussion of free fall, we use the variable y.
Displacement
If an object moves relative to a frame of reference - for example, if a professor
moves to the right relative to a whiteboard - then the object’s position changes. This
change in position is called displacement. The word displacement implies that an object
has moved, or has been displaced. Although position is the numerical value of x along a
straight line where an object might be located, displacement gives the change in position
along this line. Since displacement indicates direction, it is a vector and can be either
positive or negative, depending on the choice of positive direction. Also, an analysis of
motion can have many displacements embedded in it. If right is positive and an object
moves 2 m to the right, then 4 m to the left, the individual displacements are 2 m and −4
m, respectively.
Formula for displacement:

Where: = change in the position of the object or called the displacement

= final position of the object
= initial position of the object

Objects in motion can also have a series of displacements. In the previous

example of the pacing professor, the individual displacements are 2 m and −4 m, giving
a total displacement of −2 m. We define total displacement ΔxT, as the sum of the
individual displacements, and express this mathematically with the equation

Where: = total displacement

= individual displacement
i = initial position of the object
f = final position of the object

Average Velocity
To calculate the other physical quantities in kinematics we must introduce the
time variable. The time variable allows us not only to state where the object is (its
position) during its motion, but also how fast it is moving. How fast an object is moving is
given by the rate at which the position changes with time.
For each position xi, we assign a particular time ti. If the details of the motion at
each instant are not important, the rate is usually expressed as the average velocity .
This vector quantity is simply the total displacement between two points divided by the
time taken to travel between them. The time taken to travel between two points is called
the elapsed time Δt.
Formula for average velocity:

Where: = average velocity

= displacement or total displacement

= elapsed time

It is important to note that the average velocity is a vector and can be negative,
depending on positions x1 and x2.

Lesson 2-2 – Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

 We have now seen how to calculate the average velocity between two positions.
However, since objects in the real world move continuously through space and time, we
would like to find the velocity of an object at any single point. We can find the velocity of
the object anywhere along its path by using some fundamental principles of calculus.
This section gives us better insight into the physics of motion and will be useful in later
chapters.

Instantaneous Velocity
The quantity that tells us how fast an object is moving anywhere along its path is
the instantaneous velocity, usually called simply velocity. It is the average velocity
between two points on the path in the limit that the time (and therefore the displacement)
between the two points approaches zero.
To illustrate this idea mathematically, we need to express position x as a
continuous function of t denoted by x(t).
The expression for the average velocity between two points is

To find the instantaneous velocity at any position, we let t1=t and t2=t+Δt

After inserting these expressions into the equation for the average velocity
Take the limit as Δt→0 to find the expression for the instantaneous velocity
[ ]

This formula for the instantaneous velocity was express as the derivative of the
position of the object with respect to time.
For simpler discussion, we denote instantaneous velocity as velocity and for
simpler calculation; we used the formula for velocity as

Where: = velocity at time t or simple

= displacement at time t
t = elapsed time at time t

Speed
In everyday language, most people use the terms speed and velocity
interchangeably. In physics, however, they do not have the same meaning and are
distinct concepts. One major difference is that speed has no direction; that is, speed is a
scalar.
We can calculate the average speed, ŝ by finding the total distance travelled
divided by the elapsed time

Average speed is not necessarily the same as the magnitude of the average
velocity, which is found by dividing the magnitude of the total displacement by the
elapsed time. For example, if a trip starts and ends at the same location, the total
displacement is zero, and therefore the average velocity is zero. The average speed,
however, is not zero, because the total distance travelled is greater than zero. If we take
a road trip of 300 km and need to be at our destination at a certain time, then we would
be interested in our average speed.
Lesson 2-3 – Acceleration
The importance of understanding acceleration spans our day-to-day experience,
as well as the vast reaches of outer space and the tiny world of subatomic physics. In
everyday conversation, to accelerate means to speed up; applying the brake pedal
causes a vehicle to slow down. We are familiar with the acceleration of our car, for
example. The greater the acceleration, the greater the change in velocity over a given
time.
Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by a period of time during which the
change occurs.

Where: = acceleration at time t

= change in velocity at time t
= time

The formula above implies that the dimension for acceleration is

Acceleration as a Vector
Keep in mind that although acceleration is in the direction of the change in
velocity, it is not always in the direction of motion. When an object slows down, its
acceleration is opposite to the direction of its motion. Although this is commonly referred
to as ―deceleration‖ – the negative acceleration. The term deceleration can cause
confusion in our analysis because it is not a vector and it does not point to a specific
direction with respect to a coordinate system, so we do not use it. Acceleration is a
vector, so we must choose the appropriate sign for it in our chosen coordinate system.

Average Acceleration
Average Acceleration is the average rate at which velocity changes.

Where: = acceleration at time t

= change in velocity at time t
= elapsed time at time t

Average acceleration is distinguished from instantaneous acceleration, which is

acceleration at a specific instant in time. The magnitude of acceleration is often not
constant over time. For example, runners in a race accelerate at a greater rate in the first
second of a race than during the following seconds. You do not need to know all the
instantaneous accelerations at all times to calculate average acceleration. All you need
to know is the change in velocity (i.e., the final velocity minus the initial velocity) and the
change in time (i.e., the final time minus the initial time), as shown in the formula.

Lesson 2-4 – Motion with a Constant Acceleration

You might guess that the greater the acceleration of, say, a car moving away
from a stop sign, the greater the car’s displacement in a given time. But, we have not
developed a specific equation that relates acceleration and displacement. In this section,
we look at some convenient equations for kinematic relationships, starting from the
definitions of displacement, velocity, and acceleration. We first investigate a single object
in motion, called single-body motion. Then we investigate the motion of two objects,
called two-body pursuit problems.
Notations
First, let us make some simplifications in notation. Taking the initial time to be
zero, as if time is measured with a stopwatch, is a great simplification.
Since elapsed time is

taking t0=0

means that

where tf is the final time on the stopwatch.

When initial time is taken to be zero, we use the subscript 0 to denote initial
values of position and velocity. That is, x0 is the initial position and v0 is the initial velocity.
We put no subscripts on the final values. That is, t is the final time, x is the final position,
and v is the final velocity. This gives a simpler expression for elapsed time,

It also simplifies the expression for displacement, which is now

Also, it simplifies the expression for change in velocity, which is now

To summarize, using the simplified notation, with the initial time taken to be zero,
Elapsed time:

Displacement:

Change in velocity:

Average Velocity:

Acceleration:

Displacement and Position from Velocity

To solve for the displacement and position of an object at a given velocity, we
start deriving from the simplified formula for velocity (average velocity)

From this formula, we solve for x since that is the final position,

However, the final position of the object with respect to its starting position is
simply the same as its displacement, thus

The above formula is the formula in finding displacement with the given time and
average velocity.
When the acceleration is constant, the average velocity is simply the mean of the
initial and final velocity, that is

Final Velocity from Constant Acceleration and Time

From the formula of the acceleration
 Solve for the final velocity which is denoted by v

In addition to being useful in problem solving, the equation

gives us insight into the relationships among velocity, acceleration, and time. We
can see, for example, that
 Final velocity depends on how large the acceleration is and how long it lasts
 If the acceleration is zero, then the final velocity equals the initial velocity (v = v0),
as expected (in other words, velocity is constant)
 If a is negative, then the final velocity is less than the initial velocity
All these observations fit our intuition. Note that it is always useful to examine
basic equations in light of our intuition and experience to check that they do indeed
describe nature accurately.

Final Position from Constant Acceleration and Time

To find for the final position of an object from constant acceleration, we can
combine the equations for displacement at velocity. We start with the formula

Add v0 to both sides of the equation

Divide both sides of the equation by 2

But we know that the left side of the equation is simply the average velocity

Then, substitute the equation to the equation for displacement

( )
The formula we use for solving the final position and displacement from a
constant acceleration is

Final Velocity from Distance and Acceleration

To solve for the final velocity we use the previous equations and start with the

Solve for t

Substitute the formula of t to the equation of displacement

( )
Simplify
( )
Substitute the equation of average velocity
 ( )( )
Simplify the equation

Derived Equations/Formulas
Displacement:

( )

Velocity:

Acceleration:

Lesson 2-5 – Free Fall

An interesting application of the different equations derived in constant
acceleration is called free fall, which describes the motion of an object falling in a
gravitational field, such as near the surface of Earth or other celestial objects of planetary
size. Let’s assume the body is falling in a straight line perpendicular to the surface, so its
motion is one-dimensional. For example, we can estimate the depth of a vertical mine
shaft by dropping a rock into it and listening for the rock to hit the bottom. But ―falling,‖ in
the context of free fall, does not necessarily imply the body is moving from a greater
height to a lesser height. If a ball is thrown upward, the equations of free fall apply
equally to its ascent as well as its descent.

Gravity
The most remarkable and unexpected fact about falling objects is that if air
resistance and friction are negligible, then in a given location all objects fall toward the
center of Earth with the same constant acceleration, independent of their mass. This
experimentally determined fact is unexpected because we are so accustomed to the
effects of air resistance and friction that we expect light objects to fall slower than heavy
ones. Until Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) proved otherwise, people believed that a heavier
object has a greater acceleration in a free fall. We now know this is not the case. In the
absence of air resistance, heavy objects arrive at the ground at the same time as lighter
objects when dropped from the same height.
For the ideal situations of these first few chapters, an object falling without air
resistance or friction is defined to be in free fall. The force of gravity causes objects to fall
toward the center of Earth. The acceleration of free-falling objects is therefore called
acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration due to gravity is constant, which means we can
apply the kinematic equations to any falling object where air resistance and friction are
negligible.
Acceleration due to gravity is so important that its magnitude is given its own
symbol, g. It is constant at any given location on Earth and has the average value

Or in English unit

One-Dimensional Motion Involving Gravity

The best way to see the basic features of motion involving gravity is to start with
the simplest situations and then progress toward more complex ones. So, we start by
considering straight up-and-down motion with no air resistance or friction. These
assumptions mean the velocity (if there is any) is vertical.
 If an object is dropped, we know the initial velocity is zero when in free fall.
 When the object has left contact with whatever held or threw it, the object is in
free fall.
 When the object is thrown, it has the same initial speed in free fall as it did before
it was released.
 When the object comes in contact with the ground or any other object, it is no
longer in free fall and its acceleration of g is no longer valid.
Under these circumstances, the motion is one-dimensional and has constant
acceleration of magnitude g. We represent vertical displacement with the symbol y.

Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free Fall

We assume here that acceleration equals −g (with the positive direction upward).

Where g represents acceleration due to gravity and y represent vertical/free

falling displacement.

Lesson 2-6 – Kinematics on Two or Three Dimensions

Displacement
To describe motion in two and three dimensions, we must first establish a
coordinate system and a convention for the axes. We generally use the coordinates x, y,
and z to locate a particle at point P(x, y, z) in three dimensions. If the particle is moving,
the variables x, y, and z are functions of time (t):

The position vector from the origin of the coordinate system to point P is ⃗ (t).
⃗
 Velocity Vector
In the previous chapter we found the instantaneous velocity by calculating the
derivative of the position function with respect to time. We can do the same operation in
two and three dimensions, but we use vectors. The instantaneous velocity vector is now

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ [ ]

If only the average velocity is of concern, we have the vector equivalent of the
one-dimensional average velocity for two and three dimensions:

⃗ ⃗
⃗

Acceleration Vector
In addition to obtaining the displacement and velocity vectors of an object in
motion, we often want to know its acceleration vector at any point in time along its
trajectory. This acceleration vector is the instantaneous acceleration and it can be
obtained from the derivative with respect to time of the velocity function, as we have
seen in a previous chapter. The only difference in two or three dimensions is that these
are now vector quantities. Taking the derivative with respect to time v⃗ (t), we find

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ [ ]

The acceleration in terms of components is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗

Also, since the velocity is the derivative of the position function, we can write the
acceleration in terms of the second derivative of the position function:

References
1. openstax.org
2. physics.nist.gov
3. byjus.com