Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

2.10 Expectation Values

If a system is in state 𝜑 which is not an eigen state of a such operator 𝐴̂, then it
is not possible to say with certainty what measured value will be found for A.
Therefore, one has to use the average value 〈𝐴〉 = 𝐴̅ which called in Q.M.
expectation value of A. however, it is defined mathematically as;

 Aˆ  d
*

A   A  …………(2-17)
  d
*

For a normalized wave function 𝜑;

A   A   * Aˆ  d

The probability that a measurement leads to the eign value for such a case is defined
as follows;
2
 n* d
pn  …………(2-18)
 * d
For a normalized wave function 𝜑;
𝑝𝑛 = |∫ 𝜓𝑛∗ 𝜙𝑑𝜏|2

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

2.11 Completeness principle

We have learned that for each operator 𝐴̂ there are a set of eigen values an
(a1,a2,a3,…) with corresponding eigen wave functions 𝜓𝑛 ( 1 , 2  3 , .....). The not
eigen function 𝜙 can be expanded in terms 𝜓𝑛 as follows;
  c1 1  c2 2  c3 3  ...........  cn n   cn n …………(2-19)
n
Equation (2-19) called the completeness or linear superposition principle. Since the
total probability is unity we can prove the the following important relation

 cn
2
 1 , as follows;
n

   d  1
*

all space

 n cn  n  cm  m  1
* *

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

 cn* cm  n* m d  1
n m

 cn* cm  nm  1
n m

 cn* cn 1
n

 cn
2
1 …………(2-20)
n

Each term in the last equation (|𝑐𝑛 |2 ) represent the probability that the system being
in state n. Therefore, the physical meaning of this equation is that the total
probability (1) is equal to the partial probabilities (|𝑐1 |2 + |𝑐2 |2 + |𝑐3 |2 + ⋯) for the
system to be in all of the different states.
On the other hand, each term may regarded to the probability that a measurement
for an observable A leads to the eigen value an , and can be proved as follows;
𝑝𝑛 = |∫ 𝜓𝑛∗ 𝜙𝑑𝜏|2
2
  n* (c1 1  c2 2    ) d
2
 cn  n*  n d
 cn  nn
2

2
p n  cn …………(2-21)

2.12 Probability distribution

Actually, we can prove that the probable results on measure the observable A for

a system describe by the non-eigen function 𝜑, is given by;  A   cn

2
an as
n

follows;
 A    * Aˆ  d
  { cn n }* A{ cm m }d
n m

      cm A m d
cn* *
n
n m

 cn*  cm am  n* m d
n m

  cn* cm am  nm
n m
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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

  cn* cn an
n

 A   cn  an
2
…………(2-22)
n
This means that the expectation value of A is the sum of each eigen value an times
2
the corresponding partial probability cn of the system to be in that state n .
2.13 Variance
The variance defined as the deviation in the measurement result from its expectation
value. It is define by the root-mean-square deviation as follows;
1
A  {( A   A ) 2 } 2
…………… (2-23a)
The last definition can be formulate to another for as follows;
(A) 2  ( A   A ) 2 

  * ( A   A ) 2 d

  * ( A2  2 A A   A 2 )  d

  * A2  d   * (2 A A ) d   *  A 2  d

(A) 2   A 2   2 A A   A 2

(A) 2   A 2    A 2 …………… (2-23b)

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

2.14 Equation of motion and constant of motion

When a wave function  is an eigen function for the operator  with eigen
value a. Then all measurements process for the observable A leads to the eigen value
a. i.e.  A  a . In this case the observable A is called constant of motion (or
A
conserved), which means that A is time independent quantity. i.e. A   0 . Let
t
us try to prove this fact.

 A   * Aˆ  d
  * ˆ 
 A  A   ( A   * A ) d ………….. (a)
t t t
 
i  Hˆ  
t
 …………. (b)
 *
 i  ( Hˆ  ) 
*
t 
Substitute of equation (b) in equation (a) yields;
i i
A   { ( Hˆ  )* Aˆ    * AHˆ  } d
 
According to the definition of Hermitian operator we obtain;

 Aˆ  ( Hˆ  ) d   * Hˆ Aˆ  d
*

d i
 A  A   * ( Hˆ Aˆ  Aˆ Hˆ )  d
dt 
In Q.M we define that;
A  A …………(2-24)
i
 A   * ( Hˆ Aˆ  Aˆ Hˆ )  d

ˆ  i H
A


ˆ ,Aˆ  ……...…… (2-25)
Equation (25) is called the equation of motion, which imply that an observable A is
a constant of motion (conserved) when its operator being commute with the
Hamiltonian operator.

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

Example: Show that, the linear momentum p x of a free particle is a constant of

motion.
Solution:

ˆ  2 2
H  V ( x)
2m x 2
For a free particle V ( x)  0 , thus;

 2 2
Hˆ 
2m x 2

p 


i ˆ
H , pˆ 
i
p  ( Hˆ pˆ  pˆ Hˆ )

i
p   ( Hˆ pˆ  pˆ Hˆ )

i  2 2     2  2
p   {( )  ( i  )  ( i  )  ( )}
 2m x 2 x x 2m x 2
i i 3  3 i 3  3
p   {  }
 2m x 3 2m x 3
p  0

Since, p  0 thus, p  constan of motion

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

2.15 Ehrenfest theorems

Ehrenfest theorems are a mathematical expressions expressed by the German
scientist Paul Ehrenfest as in the following two relations;
d 1
a)  x   p x 
dt m
d V
b)  p x     . The prove of each of these two identities is illustrated below.
dt x
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d 1
a)  x   p x 
dt m
 x   * xˆ dx

d d
 x   * xˆ dx
dt dt
 * 
  x(  * ) d ………………. (a)
t t
   2 2
The T.D.S.E. given by; i     V (r ) , So, divided by i yields;
t 2m
 i 2 V (r )
   …………….... (b)
t 2m i
The complex conjugate of (a) leads to;
 *  i 2 * V (r ) *
   ……………… (c)
t 2m i
Substitute of equations (b and c) in (a) yields;
d i
dt
 x 
2m  ( * x  2  x  2 * ) d …. .…..…….. (d)

Using Greens Theorem;

 (  2 x  x  2 * ) d   ( *x  x  * )  ds  0
*

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

The boundary condition imposed on  make the surface integral equal to zero.
Where, the probability of finding the particle outside the volume is equal to zero i.e.
the wave function  is equal to zero on the surface.

  (  2 x d   x 2 *d
*

Therefore, equation (d) becomes;

d i
dt
 x 
2m  ( * x  2  * 2 x ) d ……………… (e)

Since;  2 x    x   x  2    

  2 x  x  2  2  ……………. (f)
x
Substitute of equation (f) in (e) we get;
d i 
dt
 x 
2m  ( * x  2  * x  2  2 *
x
) d

 i * 
m 
  d
x
1 

m  * (i ) d
x
1

m   * pˆ x  d

d p 
  x  x
dt m
d V
b)  p x    
dt x

 p x    * (i )  d
x
d d 
 p x   i  * d
dt dt x
d *    * 
 p x   i  (  ) d ……………. (a)
dt x t t x

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 Quantum Mechanics Chapter Two

   2 2
Regarding the T.D.S.E.: i     V (r ) , and dividing by: i yield;
t 2m
   2 V (r )
   ………….... (b)
t 2mi i
The complex conjugate leads to;
 *  2 * V (r ) *
   …….……….. (c)
t 2mi i
The substitution of (b) and (c) in (a) leads to;
d   2 V  2 * V * 
 p x   i  [ * (    )(     ) ] d
dt x 2mi i 2mi i x
d  2 * 2  *   2 2 *  
 px    [    V   V * ] d
dt 2m x x 2m x x
d *  *   2  2 * * 2 
 p x     (
2m  x
V  V  ) d  [     ( )] d
dt x x x
Apply Greens theorem on the second term we get;
   
 [ x    * 2 ] d   [  *  * ]  ds  0
2 *
x x x
However, the integration of the first term is;
 V 
   ( * (V  ) V  * d
x x x
d V
 p x     *  d
dt x
d V
 p x    
dt x

02