CLASSICAL PHYSICS and BEYOND (NOTES on the fabric of space – Brian Greene)

 Motion is felt if the object changes its velocity by accelerating and in this case an external
reference need not be required as it is been felt by the object/person. Motion is not felt if
the object has a constant velocity motion in which case an external reference has to be
made in order to know whether the object is in motion or not
 Changes in velocity (like acceleration) don’t require an external comparison. Why?
 Newton was not ready to accept that accelerated motion is beyond the need for external
comparisons. Hence came up with the ‘bucket’ experiment.
 His idea failed when the bucket was given reference to the motion of the water (when there
was relative motion, the water was flat. When there was no relative motion, the water was
concave (refer the experiment for more details).
 Newton came up with the ultimate reference, the absolute space.
a. An object is at rest with respect to absolute space
b. An object is moving with respect to absolute space
c. An object is accelerating with respect to absolute space
 Ex: A skater will not be accelerating with respect to absolute space if the ice arena is
spinning instead of him as his arms would not fling outward. Why?
 The concept of absolute space allowed to identity acceleration while it cannot provide a way
to identify constant velocity motion. Why? Newton’s absolute space should provide
benchmark for all kinds of motion (whether acceleration or constant velocity motion).

NEWTON MACH LEIBNIZ Einstein

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NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

 An object at rest will be at rest. An object at motion will be in motion unless an external
force acts upon
 Force required to accelerate an object is the product of the mass of the object and the
acceleration. F=ma
 For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. If atom A exerts force on B, B exerts
a force equal and opposite on A. The forces as vectors add to zero.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

 Tells how the gravitational attraction diminishes as two objects are separated.
 If you double the distance between two objects, their gravitational attraction will diminish
by a factor of 4 (22 ). If you triple the distance, it will fall by a factor of 9 (32 )
 The force depends on the SQUARE of the distance as it is tied directly to the number of
dimensions of space.

NEWTON >FARADAY-MAXWELL >EINSTEIN

 Light was an electromagnetic wave which interacted with the chemicals in our retinas and
give us the sensation of sight
 No reference was provided against what light moved or relative to what it moved (courtesy
Maxwell). It was not provided as there was no need to provide. The speed of light was
constant (670 million mph) and relative to anything and everything. Nothing moved faster
than the speed of light. It can travel through empty space within any requirement of a
medium. It is a lone traveller (courtesy Einstein)
 For 2 observers moving relative to each other, the observation of space and time are
absolute and universal (courtesy Newton). 2 observers moving in relative to each other will
not get identical measurements regarding space and time (courtesy Einstein)
 Space and time were separate as per Newton. Space and time are one as per Einstein
 An object which is at rest (not moving) will be moving through time and its arrow will be
toward the north of the space time grid. In case the object accelerates, some of its light –
speed motion will be diverted toward the northeast of the space time grid. An object which
travels at close to the speed of light will divert all its motion towards the east of the space
time grid. In other words it will be travelling at the speed of light through space and leaves
no motion for travelling through time.
 Relativity of simultaneity > another observer moving relative to the first will declare that the
events do not all happen at the same time.
 Not everything in relativity is relative.
 If 2 observers moving relative to each other do not agree on the distance and time, there is
one thing they will agree on. Its trajectory. The distance in space time. This is an invariant
quantity which is universal and agreed upon.
 For the object’s trajectory in space time to be straight, it must move in a straight line and its
motion must be uniform through time. The speed and direction must be unchanging and
must be moving with constant velocity.

 Geometrical shapes of trajectories in spacetime provide the absolute standard that

determines whether something is accelerating. Spacetime provides the benchmark.
 As per Newton, gravity is faster than the speed of light. As per Einstein gravity travels at the
speed of light and nothing travels faster than the speed of light.
 Gravity and acceleration are 2 sides of the same coin. The force that one feels from gravity
and the force one feels from acceleration are the same. Einstein called it the PRINCIPLE OF
EQUIVALENCE.
 An object in free fall has given in to gravity and hence is said to be stationary due to the
absence of the effect of gravity. An object which feels gravity is said to be in acceleration.
 Ex: A man in free fall is said to be stationary and a man reading quietly in said to be
accelerating as he is under the effect of gravity. Those observers who feel no force
(including gravity) are said to be nonaccelerating.
 Since gravity and acceleration are equivalent, if you feel gravity, you are accelerating.
 As per general relativity, free fall can provide benchmark for all other types of motion.

QUANTUM MECHANICS

 If the speed and velocity for every particle in the universe is known, we can use the laws of
physics to predict everything about the universe, future and past.
 But we cant know the exact location and exact velocity of even a single particle.
 Quantum Mechanics thrives on probabilities as one cannot predict with certainty on the
position and momentum of particles.
 Locality > to influence something ‘over there’ requires some sort of ‘movement’ from ‘here’
to ‘there’ and only when the someone or something gets there can the influence be
exerted. One can directly affect things which are next to us that are local.
 In Quantum Mechanics we have seen that something we do ‘here’ can influence something
over ‘there’ without anything been sent from here to there. This leads to conclusion that the
universe admits interconnections that are not local. Einstein called it ‘spooky’. Quantum
Mechanics allows ‘entanglement’ a kind of connection that exists between two distant
objects/particles. The conclusion is that our universe is ‘not’ local. Whatever one particle
does, the other will do too even if they are far apart in space.
 Even though we measure an electron’s position as right here right now, a moment ago all it
had were probabilities of being here or there.

Click QUANTUM for detailed description of the quantum world

WAVES

 The highest part of a wave is called a peak or crest. The lowest part is called trough.
 When a peak of one wave and the peak of another crosses they provide the interference
pattern. Same goes for the trough of one wave and the trough of another. When the peak of
one wave crosses the trough of another, they cancel each other out.
 A bright region represents high intensity and a dark region represents low intensity.
 An electron (or other particles) also embodies a wave like character.
 The wave is a probability wave (courtesy Max Born)
 Places where the probability wave is small are locations where the electron is unlikely to be
found (points where waves partially cancel and the intensity is small). Places where the
probability wave is large are locations where the electron is most likely to be found (points
where waves reinforce and the resulting intensity is large). Places where the probability
wave is ZERO are locations where the electron will not be found (points where peaks and
trough of waves cancel each other out).
 Every probability wave extends throughout all of space, throughout the entire universe.
 In the Quantum world everything has a particlelike and wavelike attributes.
  In the Quantum world one can only predict the probability that an electron or a proton can
be found here or there.

DOUBLE SLIT

 When an electron (individual) is fired, its probability wave flows through both slits. This
cases the interference pattern on the screen.
 Whenever we measure the electron’s whereabouts we always find it at one definite position
or the other.
 The probability wave encodes the likelihood that the electron will be found here or there.
 The electron has a definite position only when we ‘look’ at it...at the moment we measure it.
it does not have a definite position before the measurement is taken.
 Maybe each individual electron itself actually travels through both slits on its way to the
screen. Since both waves contribute to what we observe on the screen, perhaps quantum
mechanics is telling us that both potential histories of the electron contribute as well.
 Feynman showed that each such history would contribute to the probability that their
common outcome would be realized and if these contribution were correctly added
together, the result would agree with the total probability predicted by QM. He called SUM
OVER HISTORIES approach to QM.

UNCERTAINITY PRICIPLE

 The more precisely we know the position of a particle, the less precisely we can possibly
know its momentum or speed and vice versa.
 When we measure the position of an object, we interact with it in some way. These
interactions affect not only us, but also the object whose position is being determined. For
ex light can affect the electron’s speed when it bounces off it. Hence the more precisely we
want to determine the electron’s position, the more sharply defined and energetic the light
beam must be, yielding an even larger effect on the electron’s speed. The act of
measurement contaminates or disrupts the electron’s speed.
 These uncertainties go unnoticed in the physical world as the effect is tiny. Uncertainties are
always there but it becomes significant on microscopic scales.
 EX: in ocean waves, we would know the speed of the particles, but not its position. When
measured it could be found anywhere. Here we have not disturbed the particle as we never
touched it. Instead it relies on a basic feature of waves – they can be spread out.
 EPR > Einstein Boris Podolsky, Nathen Rosen > they wanted to show that every particle does
possess a definite position and a definite velocity at any given instance of time. They
remarked that the uncertainty principle had limitations, it partially described the universe, it
was an incomplete theory and there was a deeper framework to be discovered. They
suggested an indirect measurement to avoid contamination by measuring only the ‘right’
moving particle’s position and velocity one can determine the position and velocity of the
‘left’ moving particle (experiment > 2 particles of equal mass that fly off back-to-back, one
towards the right, the other towards the left).
 They regarded both particles as separate and distant entities.
 They fell short of actually determining these attributes. If the velocity was determined for
the right moving particle, we would have disturbed its position and vice versa. If these
attributed were not revealed, there was no way to determine the same for the left moving
particle.
 The Quantum world also specifies that we can never know the spin of a particle about more
than one axis. Spin was used to probe the nature of quantum reality. Even if we can’t
determine the spin of a particle about more than one axis, still, if in fact it has a definite spin
about all axes, then there are testable, observable consequences of that spin.
 Hidden variables > EPR argued that the particles possess features forbidden by the
uncertainty principle even though we can never explicitly know their particular values.
 The reasoning that EPR had that a particle has a definite position, velocity and spin was
proven wrong by nature and hence were forced to conclude that ‘an object over there does
care about what we do to an object over here’. They are called entangled particles. They,
even though spatially separate, do not operate autonomously. The universe was not local.
The outcome of what you do at one location can be linked with what happens at another,
even if nothing travels between the two locations. They are quantum entanglement.
 If two photons were entangled, the measurement of either photon’s spin about one axis
‘forces’ the other distant photon to have the same spin about the same axis. The act of
measuring one photon ‘compels’ the other to snap out of the haze of probability and take on
a definitive spin value that matched the spin of its distant companion. If something were
been transmitted between these two particles that would be travelling instantaneously
conflicting the speed limit set by the special relativity.
 It is not the act of measurement that compels the other to take on a definite state. But the
most probable explanation is that both the particles belong to the same physical entity even
if they sped away from each other and were spatially apart, they were still bound together.
But could information travel fast enough between them? No and the speed limit of special
relativity remains in force. In Quantum mechanics it is the instantaneous change in
probability waves that is responsible for the faster-than-light influence. The collapse of the
wave function happens instantaneously across the whole universe, once you find the
particle here. The probability of its being found anywhere else immediately drops to zero
and this is reflected in an immediate collapse of the probability wave. If one of the particles
is said to have a clockwise spin and is measured, the probability wave will collapse
throughout all of space and setting the counterclockwise part to zero. Its partner will also be
affected by the change no matter how far apart they may be.
 No one understands how and even whether the collapse of a probability wave really
happens.
 Einstein was wrong on some parts
a. He thought the universe was local. What you do here has a relevance to things that are
also here.
b. Objects possess definite values and they don’t wait for someone to bring them into
existence by measuring.
 EPR argued that the reason why two particles behaved in this manner (having identical
properties when measured even with huge spatial distances) is because they possessed
these identical properties all along.
 TIME and ITS ARROW

 Insights from special relativity provide evidence that time DOES NOT flow and there is no
evidence within the laws of physics which supports the sense that time flows.
 Reality embraces part, present and future EQUALLY and that the flow we envision bringing
one section to light as another goes dark is ILLUSORY.
 As it takes time for the light from objects to reach our eyes, we cannot say that something
we see is happening right ‘now’.
 As per special relativity observers moving relative to each other have different conceptions
of what exists at a given moment and hence they have different conceptions of reality. At
everyday speed we don’t notice the discrepancy between our definition of now and anybody
else’s. But there is a tremendous effect if one travels near the speed of light.
 Individuals moving relative to each other even at ordinary every day speed will have
increasingly different conceptions of NOW if they are increasingly FAR APART in space. EX:
Captain Janeway is on a planet in another galaxy and is sitting idly. Imagine that you and she
are not moving relative to each other. Since both of you are not moving in relative to each
other, your NOW will coincide. After a while she stands up and walks AWAY from you. Due
to this her slicing up of spacetime will rotate slightly. The shift in her motion is amplified due
to huge spatial distances between you and her. Your NOW and her NOW will not be the
same. For Janeway the events on earth that belong on her NOW list are events that
happened in the PAST, according to you. According to her, you haven’t even been born.
  If she moved TOWARD you, the angular shift will be the opposite. Her NOW will coincide
with what you would call the future. According to her, you are no longer a part of this
world. The farther away something is, the longer it takes to receive the light it emits.

 Events regardless of when they happen from any particular perspective, just are. They all
exist. They eternally occupy their particular point in spacetime. THERE IS NO FLOW. If I was
having a good time with Sudhir in the year 2003, I still am, since that is just one immutable
location in spacetime. There is no such thing as a FLOW OF TIME.
 Each moment in spacetime still exits whether or not some light illuminates it. Every moment
is illuminated and it remains illuminated. Time more closely resembles a giant block of ice
with every moment forever frozen into place.
 The laws of physics show a complete symmetry between past and future. It treats both
equally. The ‘arrow of things unfolds’ are not to be found in the fundamental laws of
physics.
 TIME REVERSAL SYMMETRY > events which can unfold in reverse. The laws of physics
actually declare this can happen. But why is that we don’t see these reversals in nature?
 By reversing an object’s velocity, by setting it off in the same speed but in the opposite
direction, one can make it fully retrace its original trajectory, but in REVERSE. But this
doesn’t mean we are reversing time.

ENTROPY (S=K log W courtesy Ludwig BOLTZMANN)

 Entropy is a concept that makes the idea precise by counting the number of ways, consistent
with the laws of physics, in which any given physical situation can be realized.
a. High Entropy > There are many ways to achieve out of order outcome. There is disorder.
b. Low Entropy > There are a few ways to achieve out of order outcome. There is order.
Features of Entropy

a. Is a measure of the amount of disorder in a physical system.

b. In physical systems with many constituents there is a natural evolution toward greater
disorder since disorder can be achieved in so many ways than order. Physical systems tend
to evolve toward the state of higher entropy.

EX: In a coke bottle > Low entropy = gas all bunched in a small region. High entropy = the coke bottle
opens and the gas escapes into a larger area and spreads out.

Entropy can increase if it is given room to increase. Entropy can increase if it starts out low.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Conservation of energy (first law)

 The tendency of physical systems to evolve toward states of higher entropy (second law)

NOTE > Things can go from a higher entropic state to a lower state. Such events are rare.

 The second law of thermodynamics has given an ARROW OF TIME in which the molecules of
CO2 from the coke bottle become more and more uniformly spread out achieving higher and
higher entropy. The forward in time arrow points in the direction of increasing entropy.
 Since Newton’s laws of physics have no built in temporal orientation, systems will evolve
from lower to higher entropy toward the future WORKS EQUALLY WELL when applied
TOWARD THE PAST.
 The second laws of thermodynamics states that if a physical system happens NOT to posses
the higher entropy, it is likely that it WILL HAVE and previously HAD MORE entropy. Here the
entropic arrow of time is DOUBLE HEADED. But here the reasoning is not accurate when
applied towards the past as it gives ridiculous conclusions.
 The physical system in high entropy state simply is. Thats the norm. The one in lower
entropy is not as per the norm. This requires explanation.
 a. Proposal 2 > things began in a high entropy state > evolves to a state of low entropy (this
went against the second law. But doesn’t evolve into an even lower state of entropy) >
evolves back to high entropy again.
b. Proposal 1 > things began in a low entropy state > later evolves into a high entropy state.
 Proposal 2 is statistically favoured as they have higher entropy in the past and the future.
 Our universe is in order. How can it be in a low entropic state?
 The more ordered the universe is today 9the greater the dip in low entropy) the more
surprising and unlikely is the statistical (a happy fluke) aberration required to bring it into
existence.
  If evolution NEVER happened and we got here via an aberrant jump toward low entropy, the
aberration would have been FAR LESS EXTREAME if there WERE’NT such a consistent and
ordered evolutionary fossil record.
 How and why the universe went so far overboard and achieved a state of such LOW
ENTROPY? Is it possible to have entropy to our future HIGHER, but entropy to our past
LOWER? It is. But only if things were very special early on.

Chicken feeds on energy with LOW entropy and gives out HIGH entropy to the environment via heat
> we trace the LOW entropy energy to the sun > which was formed from diffused gas in space > gas
originated from the big bang itself.

CONCLUSION > the gas filling the universe had extraordinarily low entropy. The big bang started the
universe off in a state of low entropy and that state appears to be the source of the order we
currently see. The current order is a cosmological relic. But as per previous discussion after the big
bang the gas should have been in total disorder (high entropy). But here we completely ignored
GRAVITY. Gravity caused the gas to fragment into clumps, not uniformity. It is the state toward
which a gas tends to evolve. For the initial diffuse gas cloud, we find that the entropy decreases
through the formation of orderly clumps is more than compensated by the heat generated as the
gas compresses, and, ultimately, by the enormous amount of heat and light released when nuclear
fusion begins to take place.

NOTE > the overall whelming drive toward disorder does not mean that orderly structures like starts
and planets and life can’t form. They can and they obviously do.
  The big band was the ultimate source of low entropy.
 We all carry a drive to achieve a high entropy state. EX: An egg falls and splatters but doest
un-splatters. Incredible order at the beginning is what started it all off and we have been
living through the gradual unfolding toward HIGHER disorder or HIGHER entropy ever since.

CONCLUSION

 Only if the big bang started in a low entropic state, we can trust our memories of a past with
low entropy.
 W cannot have high entropy in the past and future as the universe began in a state of low
entropy.
 Entropy increases toward the future
 Conditions at the birth of the universe are critical to directing time’s arrow.
 The fact that things start like this and end like that, but never start like that and end like this
began its flight in the highly ordered, low entropic state of the universe at its conception.

A PUZZLE

Why the universe began in the state of low entropy only to slowly evolve toward higher and higher
entropy?

From the stand point of probability it is more likely that we have risen from a rare statistical
aberration away from total disorder (high entropy), rather than having slowly evolved from the even
more unlikely low entropy. Yet when we went with the odds and imagined that everything popped
into existence by a fluke we found ourselves in a quagmire. So we are inclined to go with a low
entropy big bang as the explanation for the arrow of time.

SPACE TIME AND COSMOLOGY

Symmetry > we are concerned with whether the laws governing those observations (the laws what
we see before and what we see after some manipulation) remains unchanged.

A. Translational Symmetry > to where you are (changed location)

B. Rotational Symmetry > how we happen to be oriented in space (every spatial direction is on
equal footing with every other).
Light is unaffected by motion as the cue ball is unaffected by rotations.
Symmetries are the foundation from which laws spring.

 The existence of time relies on the ABSENCE of a particular symmetry; things in the universe
must change from moment to moment for us even to define a notion of moment to
moment.

Two critical insights on the uniformity of radiation in the cosmic scale

1. The earliest stages of the universe was not populated by high entropic matter like black
holes since such a heterogeneous environment would have left a heterogeneous imprint
on the radiation
 2. The evolution must have been nearly identical across the cosmos. It must have evolved
in the same way since the big bang

This kind of uniformity allows the astronomers in the Milky Way galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy to
agree on the universe’s history and age. There is a universal synchrony. Our universe does not so
much symmetry as to render time meaningless, but does have enough symmetry that it allows us to
speak of its overall age and its overall evolution through time.

Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaitre > the gravitational pull of the matter and radiation
spread throughout the cosmos implies that the fabric of space must be either stretching or
contracting, but it could not be staying fixed in size. The origin of the outward motion is NOT an
explosion that took place within space, but the swelling of space itself. In such a case there is no
special point that is the center of the outward motion. No special galaxy or point.

Ex of the balloon with pennies stuck on them > if the balloon doubles in size by swelling, all spatial
separations will double in size as well. Pennies that were 1 inch apart will now be 2 inches apart and
so on. Pennies that were farther away will separate more quickly as greater increase in separation
means a greater speed. General Relativity treats all location in space symmetrically. There is also
symmetry in time. Clocks that move along with one or another galaxy must also tick at the same
rate and hence record an identical amount of elapsed time.

The uniformity of the microwave background radiation and distribution of galaxies throughout space
allows us to infer uniformity of time. The clocks are not moving through space here, but moving
along with space. ..clocks whose motion comes from the expansion of space. Astronomers do find
that the microwave background to be a little warmer in one direction of space and a little colder in
the opposite direction. This is a ready made test which shows that radiation is not homogeneous if
we take additional motion beyond that from the cosmic flow of spatial expansion. The crest and
trough of the radiation will hit the earth at different frequencies. Higher frequency means higher
temperature, so you will find the radiation in the direction you are heading a bit warmer than the
radiation reaching you from behind. Only when astronomers correct for the effect these relatively
slight additional motions have on the microwaves we receive, does the radiation exhibit the
uniformity of temperature between one part of the sky and another.

The galaxies are rushing faster than the speed of light as they are not moving through space, but
there motion is due to the stretching of space itself. There is no conflict with special relativity here.
Each galaxy stays fixed in the fabric of space as the forces (electromagnetic, strong and weak, gravity
) that hold them are far stronger than the outward pull of the expanding space. Hence galaxies do
not expand themselves along with space.

How do we know the shape of the universe? Spherical (positive), saddle (negative)or flat (no
curvature. Zero).

Multiple Big Bang > If the universe is spatially infinite, there are already an infinite spatial expanse at
the moment of the big bang. These extreme conditions existed everywhere and not just at one single
point. In such a case, the big bang took place everywhere on the infinite expanse.
http://www.livescience.com/15530-multiverse-universe-eternal-inflation-test.html

http://www.universetoday.com/87927/testing-the-multiverse-observationally/

NOTE> > > after the big bang, space swelled, but its overall size did not increase since something
already infinite cant get any bigger. What did increase are the separations between objects like
galaxies. There is evidence that space is not curved. Space is as of now flat and infinitely large.

HIGGS

Phase Transition > the changes from solid to liquid and liquid to gas

ICE > Heat to 0degrees C > Liquid state> Heat to 100degree C > Gas state (we have made these
transitions more symmetric as they change from solid to liquid to gas. The molecules will look the
same in whichever way we rotate). Phase transition is accompanied by an INCREASE in symmetry.

Gas state > Cool to 100degree c > Liquid state > Cool to 0degree C > ICE. Phase transition is
accompanied with decrease in symmetry.

 The substance that condensed or froze when the universe cooled through particular
temperatures is a filed called the HIGGS FIELD. We are now living in this condensed or
frozen phase of the universe. It experienced reduction in symmetry.

Interesting NOTE > >an ordinary refrigerator magnet can pick up a paper clip, thereby overcoming
the pull of the entire earth’s gravity. Gravity is the weakest force.

Various fields

 Gravitational field (Gravitons are messenger particles)

 Electromagnetic fields (photons are messenger particles)
 Yang Mills fields (strong and weak nuclear forces)
 Electron field (similar to electromagnetic field but where electrons play a role
 Higgs field (this has not been detected yet. Higgs Boson. The entire universe is permeated by
an ocean of Higgs filed. A relic of the big bang)
 Inflaton field (caused the space to expand)

NOTE > Higher the temperature, the more ferociously the value of a field will undulate up
and down.

 For most fields their VALUES got closer to ZERO as the universe expanded and cooled. At
some moment, the value of a particular field might JITTER slightly above zero (a peak) and a
moment later it might dip slightly below zero (a trough) but on average the value of most
fields closed in on zero.
 When the temperature of the universe dropped, the higgs field condensed to a NONZERO
value throughout space. This formation is called HIGGS FIELD VACUUM EXPECTATION VALUE
or the HIGGS OCEAN.
 The value of the filed > distance between the frog and the worms. The farther the
frog is from the worms, the larger the value of a field.
 The energy contained in that field value > height of the frog. Higher up on the bowl
the frog happens to be, the more energy the field contains.
 Behaviour pattern > when the universe is hot, fields jump from value to value, much
as the frog jumps from place to place. As the universe cools, field jumps less often
and their values slide downward to LOWER ENERGY.

 If the field’s potential energy looks like 9.1 a and b, the field’s value will make it all
the way down to zero.
 If the field’s potential energy looks like 9.1 c, the field’s value will not make it to
zero, but a NONZERO distance from the bowl’s center. The field will have a
NONZERO value. The latter behaviour is of a higgs field.
  As the universe cools, the higgs field’s value gets caught in the valley and never
makes it to zero.
 But it can make it to zero, if it has the energy to surmount the bowl’s central bump.
A higgs field with little or no energy will slide to the bowl’s valley – a nonzero
distance from the bowl’s center – and hence will have a nonzero value.

Why objects resist acceleration? A mechanism whereby an object acquires its mass that fights
acceleration? Do we feel the higgs ocean?

The forces we all exert thousands of times a day in order to change the velocity of one object or
another are forces that fight against the drag of the higgs ocean. Higgs field resist accelerated
motion. An object moving at a constant speed in space will not be slowed down by friction with the
higgs ocean. Only when we speed up the particle or slow down does the ocean of higgs field makes
its presence known by the force we have to exert. Higgs ocean gives mass to fundamental particles
such as electron and quarks, but when these particles combine into composite particles like protons,
neutrons and atoms, other sources of mass come into play. As a result of their interactions with
higgs ocean, elementary particles resist attempts to change their velocities, they acquire mass.

 If a particle moves smoothly through the higgs ocean with little or no interaction, there will
be little or no drag and the particle will have little or no mass. EX: photon. Like some
unknown person passing through the paparazzi freely.
 If a particle interacts significantly with the higgs ocean, it will have a higher mass. EX: top
quark. Like a movie star trying his best to pass through the paparazzi. They have to push
much harder.
 If it weren’t for the higgs ocean, all fundamental particles would be like the photon and have
no mass whatsoever.
NONZERO VALUE > Million Billion Degrees (1015 ) and this is 100 million times the temperature of
the core of the sun. The universe’s temperature dropped to this number.

A higgs ocean could not have formed prior to 10−11 seconds after the big bang as it was too hot. The
ocean would have evaporated immediately and without the higgs ocean, particles would not resist
undergoing accelerated motion and hence mass would have been zero.

Higgs ocean is described as a cosmological phase transition. We see 2 features here

1. There was a decrease in symmetry. Before the formation of the higgs ocean all particles had
zero mass (all matter particles and force particles). Later the symmetry between the masses
was lost after the formation of the higgs ocean.
2. Particles that had been massless suddenly acquired nonzero masses.

NOTE > the symmetry between the electromagnetism (photon) and weak nuclear forces (W and Z
particles) are not apperant today due to the formation of the higgs ocean as the universe cooled.
They all interact with the higgs ocean differently. Photons pass through easily. But the W and Z
have to push their way through the higgs ocean acquiring masses that are 86 and 97 times that of
a proton respectively. The symmetry is broken due to the higgs ocean. Both were once part of the
same force.

 Only by raising the temperature high enough, by vaporizing the higgs ocean would the full
symmetry be made apparent. Acquiring an average value of zero throughout space.
 At high energies and temperature there was complete symmetry among the 3
nongravitational forces (electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces)
Grand Unified Higgs > this also condensed into a nonzero value when the universe dropped below
1028 degrees. When this grand unified higgs ocean formed, the universe went through a phase
transition and a reduction in symmetry. The strong force broke off from the electroweak force.
Grand unification has not been confirmed experimentally unlike the electroweak unification.

Electroweak higgs > the unification of electromagnetism and weak nuclear force. A fraction of a
second and a drop of billions and billions of degree later, the electroweak higgs condensed, causing
the weak and the electromagnetic forces to spilt apart.

Is higgs ocean the ‘aether’?

Higgs ocean’s existence would also do 2 more things

1. It will provide direct evidence when various aspects were part of a symmetric whole
2. The emptiest space need not involve a state of absolute nothingness. Empty space will
always be filled with higgs field.

Because of cosmic phase transitions, particular symmetries have been lost. The overall entropy of
the universe has steadily increased. In the beginning the universe must have been highly ordered.

But what if the higgs field’s value should land on the energy bowl’s central plateau and remains
there as the universe continued to cool?

This would mean that the higgs field has SUPERCOOLED and even if you would have expected the
higgs field to approach the low energy valley as the temperature of the universe has dropped, it
remains trapped in the high energy configuration. This might have an effect in the expansion of the
universe. (SEE POINT 7 OF THE INFLATIONARY COSMOLOGY SECTION, PAGE 15)

http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2011/08/23/a-higgs-setback-did-stephen-hawking-
just-win-the-most-outrageous-bet-in-physics-history/?WT.mc_id=SA_facebook

INFLATIONARY COSMOLOGY

 At a right environment gravity can be repulsive.

 Einstein came up with the cosmological constant to support his notion of a static and
unchanging universe by balancing the attractive force and repulsive force of gravity.
 As per Einstein, mass, energy and PRESSURE contributes to the strength of the gravitational
field.
 Outward pressure is called a positive pressure. It makes a positive contribution to gravity.
When the pressure sucks inward instead of pushing outward, pressure can be negative.
Negative pressure contributes to negative or repulsive gravity. For ordinary matter like
proton and electron, pressure is positive which is why the cosmological constant cant be
composed of anything familiar. If a pressure in a region is negative, it contributes to the
gravitational push to the gravitational field permeating the region.
 If the negative pressure in a region is negative enough, repulsive gravity will dominate.
Gravitywill push things apart rather than draw them together. Einstein’s equations showed
 that energy has a negative pressure. Negative pressure overwhelms the gravitational
attraction coming from the positive pressure and so repulsive gravity wins the competition.
 Hubble declared that the universe was not static but was expanding. Einstein declared his
cosmological constant as his greatest blunder.
 The higgs field that was caught on the plateau has the same properties as the cosmological
constant. It suffuses space with energy and NEGATIVE PRESSURE. It had a repulsive force
that drives the space to expand.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT AND SUPERCOOLED HIGGS FIELD

COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT SUPERCOOLED HIGGS FIELD

 Cosmological constant is constant. It
provides a constant, unchanging
outward push.
 The outward push of the cosmological
constant is not monumental compared
to the supercooled higgs field.
 Supercooled higgs field need not be
constant. Higgs field may slide down to
the bowl’s lowest energy level. It acts
as a cosmological constant but only for
a brief moment.
 The outward push supplied by the higgs
field’s repulsive gravity is monumental.

CONCLUSION> with the above observations we have :

 The higgs field will stay on the plateau only for the briefest of instants in a negative pressure
and in a high energy state.
 This will lead to a short lived outward burst of spatial expansion. (courtesy Alan Guth)

AS PER ALAN GUTH, THE COSMOLOGICAL PICTURE IS GIVEN BELOW

The universe was enormously dense > energy carried by the higgs field (INFLATON FIELD) >
perched at a value far from the lowest point on its potential energy bowl > negative pressure
generated a repulsive gravitational force > inflaton field drove the universe to inflate > repulsive
force lasted 10−35 seconds > the universe swelled by a huge factor of 1030 1050 10100 > the
repulsive force was turned off when the field slid off the high energy plateau to the bottom of the
bowl 10−35 seconds after the burst began > it relinquished its pent-up energy to the production of
ordinary particles of matter and radiation which uniformly filled the expanding space > STANDARD
BIG BANG THEORY TAKES OVER FROM HERE > space continued to expand and cool > particles were
clumped to form galaxies, starts and planets due to the attractive gravitational pull. Here the
repulsive gravity is not dominant > INFLATIONARY THEORY PREDICTS > the ordinary attractive
gravity slowed the spatial expansion > as the universe grew the attractive gravitational pull
diminished > after 7 billion years repulsive gravitational force of the cosmological constant
becomes dominant > since then the rate of spatial expansion has been continually increasing > the
sun’s low entropy energy was used by planets and animals on earth to form low entropy life forms
> high entropy was given out as waste and heat by them > the universe’s drive to achieve high
entropic state and its due to this that provided the arrow of time.

 In many models of inflation in which the expansion is greater than 1030, the expansion is so
enormous that the region we are able to see is but a tiny fraction of the whole universe.
 Some of their light have not even reached earth and may not reach until our sun engulfs the
earth during its last stages.
 In the standard big bang model, the bang happened at time zero. This is viewed as the
creation event.

 In the inflationary cosmology, the bang happened only when the conditions were right and
need not have coincided with the creation of the universe. This is best thought as AN EVENT
that the pre-existing universe experienced and not necessarily as THE EVENT that created
the universe.

INFLATIONARY COSMOLOGY solves the following problems which the standard big bang theory
failed to.

 Horizon Problem > uniformity of the microwave background radiation. The temperature is
identical in all directions. As per the inflationary theory, space expands slowly enough in the
very beginning for a uniform temperature to be broadly established and then, through an
intense burst of ever more rapid expansion, the universe makes up for the sluggish start and
widely disperses nearby regions.
 Flatness Problem > matter/energy density of the early universe was extraordinarily close to
the critical density. Inflationary expansion ensured that the part of space we have access to
 was driven toward a flat shape. Even if the entire universe was curved, the OBERVABLE
universe would be very nearly FLAT.
 Inflationary theory predicts that the matter/energy density we observe should be nearly 100
of the critical density
a. 5% > ordinary matter
b. 25% > Dark matter > matter that does not clump together in stars and hence does not
give light and thus exerts a gravitational pull (attractive) without revealing itself visible.
Are they made of exotic particles? Neutrinos, as they pass through bulk matter without
leaving a trace. Photino, Zino, higgsino. The particles if heavy have a name. These
particles are known as WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles)
c. 70% > Dark energy> as the universe expands, the attractive gravitational force weakens
and the repulsive gravity took control and the era of decelerated spatial expansion
would have given way to a new era of accelerated expansion. The universe does have a
cosmological constant and for billions of years, repulsive gravity dominated.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/10/111004-nobel-prize-physics-universe-
expansion-what-is-dark-energy-science/?source=link_fb20111004news-physicsnobelexplainer

Deceleration Parameter > the rate at which the slowing of the expansion of the universe occurs.
Ordinary attractive gravity has been slowing the expansion of space. So we thought. The method
required 2 things.

1. Distance of an astronomical object (this was provided by the standard candle of an Ia class
supernova which burned with the same intrinsic brightness. When the white dwarf star
reaches the critical limit of 1.4 solar mass by sucking the surface material from a nearby
companion star and goes supernova. All such supernovas have the same brightness).
2. The speed with which the object is receding from us (by Doppler effect)

CONCLUSION> the universe was not decelerating, but was expanding or speeding up.
QUANTUM JITTERS AND INFLATION

 If the universe is uniform on a large scale, where did the small scale lumpiness come from?
 As per inflationary cosmology, the initial nonuniformity that ultimately resulted in the
formation of galaxies and stars came from QUANTUM MECHANICS
 Uncertainty Principle also implies that the more precisely the value of a field is determined,
the less precisely its rate of change at that location can be determined.
 Due to uncertainty Principle, a particle is free to take this or that velocity, to assume a
mixture of many different velocities and hence it will jitter frantically, going this way and
that.
 Same holds true for fields. If the field’s rate of change cant be determined with total
precision, then we also cant determine what the value of the field will be at any location.
The field will undulate up and down at this or that speed or it may assume a mixture of
many different rates of change and hence its value will jitter randomly.
 They are called QUANTUM JITTERS or FLUCTUATIONS.
 Inflationary expansion inflates the microscopic to macroscopic.
 Due to the random difference in jitters, the energy in one location will be different in
another location. The random differences in jitters in one spatial location and another
would have created inhomogeneity in the microscopic realm. Due to inflation, these tiny
variations would have stretched to scales far larger than the quantum domain, yielding a
small amount of lumpiness.
 Inflation smears them across the sky
 After the brief inflationary phase, these lumps continued to grow through gravitational
clumping forming galaxies, stars and planets.
  Due to the jitters inherent to the uncertainty principle, nothing is ever perfectly uniform in
the quantum world.
 As per quantum mechanics, the inflaton field also experienced jitters on its way down to the
lower energy state. Its value may have suddenly jumped up a little but over here and a little
bit over there. Due to this the inflation reached the value of lowest energy at different
places at slightly different moments. The expansion than shut down at slightly different
times at different location in space so that the amount of spatial expansion at different
location varied slightly giving rise to wrinkles or inhomogeneities.
 COBE and WMAP have determined that temperature in one spot in space was 2.7249 K and
2.7250 K in another and 2.7251 K in still another. The microwave background picture has
splotches which are inbetween. A sign that space is flat. If it were spherical, it would be
bigger due to the outward bloatness. If it were a saddle, it would be a bit smaller due to
inward shrinking.
 When these jitters are smeared across the sky, they make it slightly hotter in one region and
slightly cooler in another.
 These field jitters exist in empty space. Space that seem to contain no matter and no fields.
 A field’s value can jitter around the value ZERO but it cant be uniformly zero throughout a
region for more than a brief moment. The fields undergo VACUUM FLUCTUATION (SEE
CASIMIR EFFECT below).

Where all the mass and energy making up the universe did came from?

The fast moving particles in our universe work against the inward force as space expands. The
inward force of gravity. The total energy of the particles of matter and radiation drops as it gets
transformed to gravity. Gravity depletes the energy in fast moving particles of matter and radiation
as space swells. As the universe expands, matter and radiation lose energy to Gravity while an
inflaton field GAINS energy from gravity.

In the Standard big bang theory, as the universe expanded the mass and energy carried by matter
and radiation has decreased. The mass and energy in the early universe greatly exceeded what we
see today.

In inflationary cosmology, matter and radiation were produced at the end of the inflationary phase
as the inflaton field released it pent-up energy by rolling from perch to valley. Inflaton field feeds on
gravity and so the total energy the inflaton field carried increased as space expanded.

At the onset of inflation, the inflaton field didn’t need to have much energy, since the expansion it
was about to spawn would enormously amplify the energy it carried. EX: the size of the universe
increased by a factor of 1030 which means the volume of the universe increased by a factor of
(10¿¿ 30)3 ¿ = 1090 .

Why the curvature of space was smooth, ordered and uniform to extremely high accuracy rather
than being riddled with a variety of huge wraps and curves, also like those generated by black holes?

Although attractive gravity causes the clumps of matter and creases of space to grow, the repulsive
gravity does the opposite. It causes them to diminish, leading to an ever smoother, ever more
uniform outcome.
CONCLUSION OF INFLATION > A smooth uniform spatial expansion populated by a nearly uniform
distribution of matter. But the inflationary stretching of the quantum jitters still produced a
minuscule unavoidable non uniformity. But that tiny non uniformity overlaid an otherwise smooth
universe.

The total entropy goes up due to inflation BUT it goes up much less than it might have. Inflation is
estimated to have produced 1080 particles of matter and radiation. Such embodies a huge amount of
entropy. Thus even though the gravitational entropy decreased, the increase in entropy from the
production of these particles of matter and radiation more than compensated. The total entropy
increased as expected from the second law of thermodynamics.

Inflation generated low entropy universe. By the end of inflation, entropy increased. But by
nowhere near the factor by which the spatial expanse had increased. This gives the direction of the
time’s arrow.

What are the conditions necessary for inflation?

The tremendous advantage of the inflationary incarnation of BOLTZMANN’s idea is that a small
fluctuation early on – a modest jump to the favourable conditions, within the tiny nugget of space-
inevitably yields the huge and ordered universe we are aware of. In most the fluctuation wouldn’t
have had the right value. An ultramicroscopic fluctuation weighing a mere twenty pounds, occurring
within an ordinary, unremarkably environment of DISORDER, gave rise to the necessary conditions.
Everything we see may have resulted from a CHANCE FLUCTUATION out of a highly DISORDERED
state of primeval chaos. There could have been many nuggets scattered here and there that
underwent space smoothing inflationary expansion.

NOTE > We are still not clear what happened in the pre-inflationary realm.

CASIMIR EFFECT

Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir in 40s determined how vacuum fluctuation of the electromagnetic
field could be experimentally detected.

 By placing 2 metal plates in an empty region, he could induce a subtle modification to these
vacuum field jitters. The region between the plates will have FEWER fluctuations.
 Much as a reduction of air in a region creates a pressure imbalance, the reduction in
quantum field jitters between the plates become a bit weaker than those outside the plates
and this imbalance DRIVES THE PLATES TOWARD EACH OTHER.
 Known as Casimir force.
 Because of quantum uncertainty, empty space is teaming with quantum activity.
 A gravitational field also fluctuates up and down and is also subject to jitters and since the
gravitational field is synonymous with the shape of space, such quantum jitters means the
shape of space fluctuates randomly. These are so small to be sensed directly and
surrounding environment appears to be smooth. But on smaller scales, the larger the
uncertainty, the more tumultuous the quantum fluctuation becomes.

PLANCK LENGHT > 10−33 > A millionth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a centimetre >
space becomes a boiling cauldron of fluctuations.
PLANCK TIME > 10−43 > A tenth of a millionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second >
roughly the time it takes light to travel a planck length.

Scales SHORTER than the planck distances and duration, quantum uncertainty renders the fabric of
the cosmos so twisted and distorted that the usual conceptions of space and time are NO LONGER
APPLICABLE

PLANCK MASS > 1019 > 10 billion billion times the mass of a proton. Roughly the mass of a
bacterium. SEE MORE IN STRINGS AND BRANES

REASONS WHY QUANTUM MENHANICS AND GENERAL RELATIVITY MUST BE RECONCILED

1. We are one universe and strongly believe that we must have one theory
2. To determine what happens in the centre of a black hole. We need QM to understand
the singularity and GR to understand the gravitational force due to its mass.
3. To understand the early universe when the entire energy and mass is contained in a
speck thats less than a hundredth of a billionth of a billionth of a size of a single atom.

LITTLE BIT OF STRINGS AND BRANES

How does string theory calm the fluctuation of spacetime at ultramicroscopic distances?

The quantum fluctuation arises only when we consider quantum uncertainty on scales shorter than
the planck length. In string theory, the strings are the size of the planck length. By limiting how small
you can get, string theory limits how violent the jitters of the gravitational field become.

 In string theory, the usual concept of space and time simply don’t apply on scales finer than
the planck scale – the scale of strings themselves. There would be no such thing as a
distance shorter than the planck length or a duration shorter than the planck time.
 In string theory the mass of a particle is nothing but the energy of its vibrating string. If a
string vibrates faster and more furiously, it will give more energy and more energy means
more mass for a particle.
 A massless particle like the photon or graviton corresponds to a string executing the gentlest
vibrational pattern that it possible can.
 The stiffness of a string is proportional to its length. Long strings are easy to bend. Shorter
strings are more rigid.
 The possible masses of string vibration are 0 times the planck mass, 1 times the planck mass,
2 times the planck mass and so on.

NOTE > heavy particles tend to be unstable and they disintegrate quickly into a lower mass
particle ultimately generating the lightest and more familiar species.

 String theory PREDICTS the number of spatial dimensions. Its not an assumption or a guess.
It predicts 10 spacetime dimensions.

Why do elementary properties have the right properties to allow nuclear fusion and allow life to
evolve?
The STANDARD MODEL cant offer a solution as the particle properties are part of its required input.
In String theory particle properties are DETERMINED by stings vibrational patterns and so the theory
holds the promise of providing an explanation. (FOR MORE INFORMATION ON STRINGS CLICK HERE)

Frame dragging > rotating objects DRAG spacetime. An object caught in the frame drag will be
whipped around as it journeys downward a rotating neutron star or a black hole. From the view
point of the unfortunate object, it is not been whipped around. Instead its falling straight down. But
because the space is swirling the spacetime grid gets twisted.

Gravitational waves or ripples in space > space can assume a fixed warped shape if matter is
perfectly still, but ripples undulate through its fabric when matter moves to and fro. Gravitational
waves travel WITHIN space and not THROUGH space like electromagnetism, sound or water wave.
They are travelling distortion in the geometry of space itself. With every passing peak and trough a
gravitational wave’s distorted geometry would STRETCH space and EVERYTHING in it in one direction
and then COMPRESS space and EVERYTHING in it in a perpendicular direction. No one has directly
detected a gravitational wave. http://www.universetoday.com/88008/searching-for-gravitational-
waves/

Two-dimensional representation of gravitational waves generated by two neutron stars surrounding each other. 

 Cosmic rays, the elementary particles that stream through space and continually bombard
our atmosphere, might also initiate production of microscopic black holes if gravity on
microscopic scale is far stronger than formally thought, the highest energy cosmic rays
particles might have just enough to create tiny black holes when they violently slam into the
upper atmosphere.

http://www.universetoday.com/88230/ring-of-anti-protons-found-encircling-earth/

 The energy at the end of a collision at LHC or fermilab may be LESS than the energy at the
beginning. Why? Energy can SEEP into the cracks, the tiny additional space provided by the
extra dimensions and hence be overlooked in the energy accounting calculations.

MOTIVES OF FERMILAB AND LHC

 To find the higgs particle

  To detect evidence of supersymmetry. These supersymmetric particles could be thousand
times as massive as a proton and you need more power to produce them.

ANTIMATTER (Click here to go to this topic which is discussed in a fresh doc)

Quintessence > Quintessence provides an acceleration expansion that at some point draws to a
close. The expansion will be a bit milder and last longer. This will drive a comparatively slow and
steady accelerated phase of spatial expansion. Whereas a cosmological constant is constant. It
provides a never ending accelerated expansion so the universe will expand ever more quickly and
become even more diluted and spread out.

TELEPORTATION, A REALITY?

 As per Quantum Mechanics, every electron in the universe is identical to every other. Same
mass, electric charge, strong and weak nuclear properties and spin. What can differ are the
PROBABILITY that they are located at various positions, the PROBABILITY that their spins are
pointing in particular direction and particular velocities and energies. Two can be in a
different QUANTUM STATES. But if both electrons are in a quantum state, they are perfect
twins.
 If we begin with a particle here and put another particle of the same species in the same
quantum state at a distant location, the resulting particle would be indistinguishable from
the original and the process would be called QUANTUM TELEPORTATION.
 If you can travel to the past, you CANT change it. you are and will be always part of the past,
the very same past that leads you to your travelling to it.
 But what about free will? If free will IS AN illusion and time travel to the past is possible we
cant change what has been done as laws of physics gets in the way. You cant change the
unchangeable. If free will IS NOT an illusion and time travel to the past is possible, your
journey may not have been only through time but also FROM ONE PARALLEL UNIVERSE TO
ANOTHER.

Ideas for time travel

 Stockum > infinitely long spinning cylinder. Spactime gets caught in the whirlpool
 Godel > the entire universe rotates creating a time machine
 Richard Gott > cosmic strings
 Kip Thorne > Wormhole

WORMHOLES

 A tunnel through space.

 A previously NONEXISTENT tube of space
 If removed, the space it occupied would vanish
 They can provide shortcuts through space and TIME
 Time for moving mouth of one wormhole, just like time on a moving clock, slows down, so
that the moving mouth is transported to the future.
 The other mouth can remain fixed in the present time.
 This way we establish a time difference between the wormhole mouths by moving one
relative to the other.
 No one knows whether wormholes even exist.
 Some may have been there in the microscopic realm due to quantum fluctuation. The
challenge will be to enlarge one to the macroscopic realm.
 We may be able to tear open the fabric of space to create a wormhole. But we don’t know if
its possible by the laws of physics.
 Wormholes are unstable and they tend to collapse inward in a fraction of a second.
 Exotic matter may provide an outward push to keep it stable. By virtue of having negative
energy, exotic matter can generate an outward push repulsive gravity to keep the wormhole
stable.
  Quantum fluctuations, the jitters arising from the quantum uncertainty experienced by all
fields, even in empty space might destroy a wormhole. A feedback mechanism may be
responsible. Vacuum fluctuation from the future can travel through the wormhole to the
past filling it ever increasing energy. Such an intense energy build up can destroy the
wormhole.
NOTE > the time machines that have thus far been proposed DO NOT allow travel to a time
PRIOR to the construction of the first time machine itself

Composite spacetime > one that is TIMELESS and SPACELESS

BLACK HOLES

 Features are its MASS, ELCETRIC CHARGE, RATE OF SPIN

 Blackholes have the highest entropy. A monopoly on maximum disorder.
 As matter takes a plunge across a blackhole’s EVENT HORIZON, the entropy of the blackhole
and its size INCREASES.

NOTE > the size of a blackhole is proportional to its mass. So you pump more matter into the hole,
it gets heavier and bigger

 The maximum entropy that can be crammed into a region of space is equal to the entropy
contained within a black hole whose size equals that of the region in question. Thus an
amount of entropy contained within a black hole not only tells us a fundamental feature of
the black hole, but also about space.
 The entropy of a black hole is NOT proportional to its VOLUMN, but to the area of its EVENT
HORIZON. To its surface area.
 Black hole sets a limit to the amount of entropy that can be crammed into a region of space.
Figure out how much entropy a black hole has and that is the absolute limit on the amount
of entropy the region of space can contain.
 Since this entropy is proportional to the black hole’s surface area (EVENT HORIZON) - which
equals the surface area of the region - the maximum entropy any given region of space can
contain is PROPORTIONAL to the region’s surface area.
 Gravity matters and things clump
 Hence maximum entropy potential for a region of space is proportional to its surface area,
not its volume. In that case, the fundamental degrees of freedom actually reside on the
region’s surface and not within its volume. The universe is like a HOLOGRAM.
 If we place a chess board on the event horizon with each square being one planck length by
one planck length, then the black hole’s entropy equals the number of such squares that can
fit on its surface. Each planck square is a minimal fundamental unit of space and each
carries a minimal single unit of entropy. Nothing can take place within the planck square as
such activity could support disorder.

http://www.universetoday.com/88137/pardon-me-but-your-black-hole-is-leaking/

 If a black hole has entropy, it must have temperature and if it has temperature, it must
radiate.
 If a pair of particles say electron and positron come into existence they annihilate
  But if they are created at the event horizon of the blackhole, one of the particles can be
sucked into the blackhole while the other one flies away
 The net result if that some small part of the blackhole’s energy is given to the escaping
particle and thus the mass of the blackhole decreases slightly. The rate of evaporation for
massive blackhole is slow, but the rate of evaporation can be swift for a blackhole toward
the end of its life
 To date, no blackhole has been observed ending its life in this way

HOLOGRAPIC PRINCIPLE

 A hologram is a 2D piece of light and matter which projects a 3D image

 The everyday life may be a holographic projection of physical processes taking place on a
distant 2D surface. (courtesy Leonard Susskind)
 If the maximum entropy of a region of space is proportional to its surface area and not its
volume, the holographic principle is easy to understand. Whatever is happening in and
around us may be a projection of the real processes taking place on a thin, distant surface
and generating the holographic ILLUSIONS of daily life.
 The BULK and BOUNDARY description by MALDACENA where a hypothetical 5D spacetime
has a boundary that has one boundary less. Hence the boundary will be 4D (3 of space and 1
of time). The physics witnessed by an observer living within this universe could be
completely described in terms of physics taking place on the universe’s boundary.
 Bulk theory includes gravity. The boundary theory does not.
 String theory has the capacity to support the holographic principle.
 This provides another hint that spacetime is NOT fundamental.
 This strongly challenges the primacy of space and time

CONSTITUENTS OF SPACETIME

 The search continues for nature’s basic material

 One proposal comes from string theory
 The other from LOOP QUANTUM GRAVITY

STRING THEORY SAYS > like a shirt stitched out of threads, the fabric of the cosmos is
stitched out of strings. Matters like you and me would then amount to additional
agglomerations of vibrating strings. The concept of space and time fail to have meaning until
innumerable strings weave together to produce them.

Here we need a SPACELESS and TIMELESS formulation of string theory, in which spacetime
emerges from the collective behaviour of strings. This is called BACKGROUND INDEPENDENT
FORMULATION.

 As per the braneworld scenario, what are the branes made of then? Strings? Or are both
made of some other FINER ingredients?
 M theory contains ZERO branes (0 branes) that has no spatial extent like point particles.
These 0 banes like others, comes with strings attached and hence their interactions are
governed by strings.
 A version is created in which 0 branes are THE fundamental ingredients that can be
combined to generate STRINGS and the other HIGHER DIMENSIONAL BRANES.
 If this is true than spacetime itself is composed of appropriate aggregates of 0 branes.

 String theorist start with a small (quantum) and move to the large (gravity). While loop
quantum gravity starts with the large (gravity) and move toward the small (quantum).
 String theory presupposes a background spacetime within which strings move and vibrate.
As per loop quantum gravity there is no need for a background spacetime.
 In string theory there are loops of strings. In loop quantum gravity, there are elementary
loops of space and that space comes in discrete indivisible chunks. EX: one planck length or
two planck length are more are possible but not FRACTIONS like 1.6 or 2.7 etc.