ASM Handbook, Volume 4E, Heat Treating of Nonferrous Alloys
G.E. Totten and D.S. MacKenzie, editors
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04e.a0006276
Heat Treating of Copper and
Copper Alloys*
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS constitute
a major classification of commercial metals.
They are widely used because of their excellent
electrical and thermal conductivities, outstand-
ing resistance to corrosion, ease of fabrication,
biofilm and marine applications, and good
strength and fatigue resistance. They generally
are weakly diamagnetic and when alloyed with
paramagnetic elements they can be readily sol-
dered and brazed; many coppers and copper
alloys can be welded by various gas, arc, and
resistance methods. For decorative parts, stan-
dard alloys having specific colors are readily
available. Copper alloys can be polished and
buffed to almost any desired texture and luster.
They can be plated; coated with organic sub-
stances; or chemically colored, patinated with
ferric nitrite, sulfurated potash, ammonium chlo-
ride, or sodium thiosulfate, to further extend the
variety of available finishes. The majority of its
alloys also are highly workable hot or cold,
making them readily commercially available in
various wrought forms: forgings, bar, wire, tube,
sheet, and foil. Besides the more familiar copper
wire, copper and its alloys are used in electrical
and electronic connectors and components,
heat-exchanger tubing, plumbing fixtures, hard-
ware, bearings, and coinage.
The basic types of processes and equipment
for the heat treating of copper and copper alloys
are introduced in this article. Heat treating of
copper and copper alloys includes the processes
of homogenizing, annealing, stress relieving,
and two types of hardening treatments. One type
of hardening treatment involves alloys that are
softened (or solution treated) at high tempera-
ture, quenched, and then hardened at a lower to
intermediate temperature. Alloys that harden
during low-to-intermediate-temperature treat-
ments (after solution treatment and quenching)
include precipitation-hardening, spinodal-
hardening, and order-hardening alloys. The other
type of hardening treatment is by quenching
from high temperatures to produce martensitic-
type (athermal or diffusionless) transformation.
Quench-hardening alloys comprise aluminum
bronzes, nickel-aluminum bronzes, and a few
special copper-zinc alloys. Usually, quench-
* Adapted and revised from A. Cohen, Heat Treating of Copper Alloys, Heat Treating, Vol 4, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1991, p 880–898
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hardened alloys are tempered to improve tough-
ness and ductility and reduce hardness in a man-
ner similar to that used for alloy steels.
Copper Alloys
The metallurgy of copper alloys is suited for
using, singly or in combination, the various com-
mon strengthening mechanisms: solid solution
and work hardening, as well as dispersed particle
and precipitation hardening. The relative amount
of solution strengthening obtained from each ele-
ment or particular combination of elements is
addressed in the section “Strengthening Mechan-
isms” in this article. The range of available solid-
solution compositions of alloying elements is: up
to 35% Zn, 50% Ni (or more as nickel is isomor-
phous with copper), 50% Mn, 9% Al, 11% Sn,
and 4% Si.
The elements most commonly alloyed with
copper are aluminum, nickel, silicon, tin, and
zinc. Most copper alloys retain a face-centered
cubic (fcc) structure, but high-zinc brasses
(>39% Zn) contain mostly the hard body-
centered cubic (bcc) beta phase. Brasses con-
taining between 32 and 39% Zn may have a
duplex (alpha + beta) structure, which makes
them easier to hot work and machine. Coppers
with aluminum contents above approximately
8 wt% also are subject to the formation of a
high-temperature beta phase, which is bcc, like
the beta phase in the copper-zinc system. Rapid
cooling from the high-temperature beta phase
in copper-aluminum alloys generates a marten-
sitic transformation (as in steels) to produce a
nonequilibrium phase (b0 ) that has a hexagonal
crystal structure and is ordered.
Other elements and metals are alloyed in small
quantities to improve certain material characteris-
tics, such as corrosion resistance or machinability.
As with other metal systems, copper is intention-
ally alloyed to improve its strength without
unduly degrading ductility or workability. How-
ever, it should be recognized that additions of
alloying elements also degrade electrical and ther-
mal conductivity by various amounts, depending
on the alloying element, its concentration, and
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its location in the microstructure (solid solution
or dispersoid). The choice of alloy and condition
most often is based on the trade-off between
strength and conductivity. Alloying also changes
the color from reddish brown to yellow (with zinc,
as in brasses) and to metallic white or silver (with
nickel, as in U.S. cupronickel coinage).
Copper alloys also include a family of so-
called high-copper alloys, which are designed
to maintain high conductivity while using disper-
sions or precipitates to increase strength and
resistance to softening. High-copper alloys are
unique in combining high strength with high
thermal and electrical conductivity, two proper-
ties that are seldom found together in the same
material. Typical applications for wrought
high-copper alloys include electrical/electronic
connectors; integrated circuit lead frames; elec-
tronic components for severe, automotive,
under-the-hood environments; circuit breaker
components; and resistance welding equipment.
Cast high-copper alloys are widely used for elec-
trical conducting members.
Designations of Copper and
Copper Alloys
When naming and designating copper alloys,
a comment about the use of the terms brass and
bronze is in order. Generally, brass means
copper-zinc alloys. Originally (from the time
of the Bronze Age), the term bronze referred
to alloys in which tin was the major alloying ele-
ment. However, today (2016) the term bronze is
in common use for a number of alloys that con-
tain other elements with little, if any, tin.
Bronzes generally are used to describe many
different copper-base alloys in which the major
alloying addition is neither zinc nor nickel. There
is one exception, however, to this rule. A group
of alloys referred to as manganese bronzes do
contain zinc as a major alloying element. Manga-
nese bronzes are, in fact, high-strength brasses
and are included as such in the category of brass
alloys.
The most common way to catalog copper and
copper alloys is to divide them into six families:
 312 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

coppers, high-copper (or dilute) alloys, brasses, jointly by ASTM International and SAE Inter- impurities in some alloys will diminish cast-
bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel silvers. national. The Copper Development Association ability and can result in castings of lower
However, the bronzes are generally named to administers the registration, numbering, compi- quality.
indicate the principal type of alloying. For exam- lation, and compositions of specific alloys. Another common designation system used
ple, copper-aluminum alloys are referred to as In the UNS, copper and copper alloys are desig- within the International Organization for Stan-
aluminum bronzes, and copper-tin alloys are nated by five-digit numbers preceded by the letter dardization (ISO) is a compositional system
referred to as tin bronzes. This article emphasizes “C.” This system supersedes an older three-digit described in ISO 1190 Part 1, based on the ele-
the specific type of bronze or the alloying ele- system developed by the U.S. copper and brass ment symbols and the descending order of mag-
ment employed, resulting in nine general cate- industry. The older system was administered by nitude of alloying elements. For example, a
gories of copper and its alloys, as follows: the Copper Development Association (CDA), leaded brass containing 60% Cu and 2% Pb is
and alloys are still sometimes identified by their designated CuZn38Pb2. Because this system is
 Coppers: contain a minimum of 99.3% Cu
CDA numbers. The UNS designations are simply unwieldy when used to describe complex
 High-copper alloys: contain up to 5% alloy-
two-digit extensions of the CDA numbers to alloys, a European numbering system has been
ing elements accommodate new compositions. For example, formulated by the Comité Européen de Normal-
 Copper-zinc alloys (brasses): contain up to
free-cutting brass, once known as CDA Alloy isation (CEN). CEN/TC 132 describes a six-
40% Zn No. 360, became UNS C36000. digit alphanumerical system. The first letter,
 Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes): con-
Using the UNS, numbers ranging from “C,” indicates a copper alloy. A second letter
tain up to 10% Sn and 0.2% P C10000 through C79999 denote wrought was introduced to indicate the material state
 Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum alloys; numbers ranging from C80000 through (i.e., “W” for a wrought material, “C” for cast-
bronzes): contain up to 13.5% Al C99999 denote cast alloys (Table 1). In these ings, and “M” for master alloys). Three num-
 Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes): classes of copper alloys, certain alloy composi- bers are then used to identify the material, and
contain up to 3% Si tions for wrought products have counterparts a final third letter is used to identify the classi-
 Copper-nickel alloys: contain up to 30% Ni among the cast alloys, as outlined in Table 1 fication of individual copper material groups
 Copper-zinc-nickel alloys (nickel silvers): of the UNS for copper and copper alloys. How- and to enlarge the capacity of the designation
contain up to 27% Zn and 18% Ni ever, compositions of copper casting alloys system. A summary of the preferred number
 Special alloys: contain alloying elements to may differ from those of their wrought counter- ranges and letters allocated by the CEN num-
enhance a specific property or characteristic, parts for various reasons. Generally, casting bering system to the different copper alloy
for example, machinability permits greater latitude in the use of alloying groups is shown in Table 2. Comparable CEN
elements because the effects of composition and UNS alloy designations are given in
In this scheme, copper alloys are metals with cop- on hot or cold working properties are not subsequent sections of this article for each of
per contents less than approximately 94%, but not important. However, imbalances among certain the general types of copper alloys (pure copper,
less than 50%, and having no other element speci- elements and trace amounts of certain high-copper alloys, etc.).
fied in excess of the copper content. An exception
to this definition occurs in the case of some cast
copper-lead alloys, where the lead slightly exceeds
the copper content in certain alloys that are com- Table 1 Generic classification of copper and copper alloys
monly designated as copper alloys (e.g., alloy Generic name UNS No. Composition
C98840 containing 44.0 to 58.0 Pb). Wrought alloys
The first family, the coppers, is essentially Coppers(a) C10100–C15815 >99% Cu
commercially pure copper, which ordinarily is High-copper alloys(b) C16200–C19900 >96% Cu
soft and ductile and contains less than approxi- Brasses C20100–C28000 Cu-Zn
mately 0.7% total impurities. The high-copper Leaded brasses C31200–C38500 Cu-Zn-Pb
Tin brasses C40400–C48600 Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb
alloys contain small amounts of various alloying Phosphor bronzes C50100–C52480 Cu-Sn-P
elements, such as beryllium, cadmium, chro- Leaded phosphor bronzes C53400–C54400 Cu-Sn-Pb-P
mium, and iron, each having less than 8 at.% Copper-phosphorus and copper-silver-phosphorus alloys(c) C55180–C55284 Cu-P-Ag
solid solubility; these elements modify one or Aluminum bronzes C60800–C64210 Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn
Silicon bronzes C64700–C66100 Cu-Si-Sn
more of the basic properties of copper. The Other copper-zinc alloys C66300–C69710 Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Sn-Al-Si-Co
remaining families of copper alloy contain one Copper-nickels C70100–C72950 Cu-Ni-Fe
of five major alloying elements as its primary Nickel silvers C73500–C79830 Cu-Ni-Zn
alloying ingredient: Cast alloys
Coppers(a) C80100–C81200 >99% Cu
Alloying Solid solubility at 20  C High-copper alloys(d) C81400–C82800 >94% Cu
Family element (70  F), at.% Red and leaded red brasses C83300–C83810 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb (82–94% Cu)
Brasses Zinc 37 Semi-red and leaded semi-red brasses C84200–C84800 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb (75–82% Cu)
Phosphor bronzes Tin 9 Yellow and leaded yellow brasses C85200–C85800 Cu-Zn-Pb
Aluminum bronzes Aluminum 19 Manganese bronzes and leaded manganese bronzes(e) C86100–C86800 Cu-Zn-Mn-Fe-Pb
Silicon bronzes Silicon 8 Silicon brasses/bronzes C87300–C87800 Cu-Zn-Si
Copper-nickels, nickel Nickel 100 Copper-bismuth and copper-bismuth-selenium alloys C89320–C89940 Cu-Sn-Zn-Bi-Se
silvers Tin bronzes C90200–C91700 Cu-Sn-Zn
Leaded tin bronzes C92200–C94500 Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb
Nickel-tin bronzes C94700–C94900 Cu-Ni-Sn-Zn-Pb
Aluminum bronzes C95200–C95900 Cu-Al-Fe-Ni
Copper-nickels C96200–C96950 Cu-Ni-Sn
In North America, the Unified Numbering Nickel silvers C97300–C97800 Cu-Ni-Zn-Pb-Sn
System (UNS) is the accepted designation for Leaded coppers C98200–C98840 Cu-Pb
copper and copper alloys. This system was Special alloys C99300–C99750 Cu-Zn-Mn-Al-Fe-Co-Sn-Pb
developed during the 1970s to give a precise (a) Metals that have a designated copper content of 99.3% or higher. (b) For wrought products, those alloys with designated copper contents less than
description of the composition range for each 99.3% but more than 96% that do not fall into any other copper alloy group. (c) Brazing filler-metal alloys. (d) Cast high-copper alloys have
designated copper contents in excess of 94%, to which silver may be added for special properties. (e) Also referred to as high-strength and leaded
alloy, and it is now an internationally recog- high-strength yellow brasses
nized designation system. The UNS is managed

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 Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 313

Temper Designations good conductivity. Another family of heat treat- the amount of ductility required for the applica-
able copper alloys is aluminum bronzes contain- tion. Whether applied by processing to shape
The temper designations for wrought copper ing more than 10% Al, as described further in the and thickness, as a rolled strip or drawn wire, or
and copper alloys were traditionally specified article “Heat Treating of Bronzes” in this by forming into the finish component, as an elec-
on the basis of cold reduction imparted by rolling Volume. trical connector, the amount of work hardening
or drawing. This scheme related the nominal The commonly used solid-solution hardening applied is limited by the amount of ductility
temper designations to the amount of reduction elements are zinc, nickel, manganese, aluminum, required by the application. Worked copper can
stated in Brown & Sharpe gage numbers for tin, and silicon, listed in approximate order of be recrystallized by annealing at temperatures
rolled sheet and drawn wire (Table 3). However, increasing effectiveness. As a general compari- as low as 250  C (480  F), depending on prior
heat treatable alloys and product forms such as son, Table 5 is a list of selected wrought copper degree of cold work and time at temperature.
rod, tube, extrusions, and castings were not read- alloy compositions and their mechanical proper- While this facilitates processing, it also means
ily described by this system. To remedy this situ- ties in the annealed and hard (work-hardened) that softening resistance during long-time expo-
ation, ASTM B601, “Standard Practice for condition. The relative amount of solution sures at moderately elevated temperatures can
Temper Designations for Copper and Copper strengthening obtained from each element or be a concern, especially in electrical and elec-
Alloys—Wrought and Cast,” was developed. particular combination of elements is roughly tronic applications where I2R heating is a factor.
This standard established an alphanumeric code indicated by the increase in tensile strength for For applications above room temperature, but
that can be assigned to each of the standard various alloys in the annealed condition. In this at temperatures lower than those inducing
descriptive temper designations (Table 4). table, the alloys are arranged in their common recrystallization in commercial heat treatments,
alloy group: the coppers (99.3% min Cu), the thermal softening can occur over extended
high coppers (94% min Cu), brasses (copper- periods, and characteristics such as the half-
Strengthening Mechanisms zinc), bronzes (copper-tin, or copper-aluminum, softening temperature should be considered; that
or copper-silicon), copper-nickels, and the nickel is, the temperature for which the worked metal
Solid-solution strengthening and work hard- silvers (Cu-Ni-Zn). softens to half its original hardness after a spe-
ening are the principal strengthening mechan- cific exposure time, usually 1 h. If resistance to
isms of copper alloys. Few types of copper Work Hardening of Copper softening at slightly elevated temperature is
alloys are hardenable by heat treatment, such as required, C11100 often is specified. This copper
high coppers containing beryllium or chromium Work hardening is the only strengthening contains a small amount of cadmium, which
that are heat treated to obtain high strength and mechanism used with pure copper, limited by raises the temperature at which recovery and
recrystallization occur.
Oxygen-free copper, electrolytic tough pitch
Table 2 Summary of preferred designators for copper alloys in the Comité Européen de copper, and fire-refined tough pitch copper also
Normalisation (CEN) system are available as silver-bearing coppers having
specific minimum silver contents. The silver,
Number ranges available for Final letter, designating Number range allocated to
Material groups positions 3, 4, and 5 material group materials preferred by CEN which may be present as an impurity in anode
copper or may be alloyed intentionally to mol-
Copper 001–999 A 001–049A
001–999 B 050–099B ten cathode copper, also imparts resistance to
Miscellaneous copper alloys 001–999 C 100–149C softening to cold-worked metal. Silver-bearing
001–999 D 150–199D coppers and cadmium-bearing coppers are used
001–999 E 200–249E for applications such as automotive radiators
001–999 F 250–299F
Copper-aluminum alloys 001–999 G 300–349G and electrical conductors that must operate at
Copper-nickel alloys 001–999 H 350–399H temperatures above approximately 200  C
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys 001–999 J 400–449J (400  F). Silver imparts modest annealing resis-
Copper-tin alloys 001–999 K 459–499K tance to copper without significantly affecting
Copper-zinc alloys, binary 001–999 L 500–549L
001–999 M 550–599M its electrical conductivity. This is why coppers
Copper-zinc-lead alloys 001–999 N 600–649N containing residual silver have been used for
001–999 P 650–699P electrical products that must not soften as a
Copper-zinc alloys, complex 001–999 R 700–749R result of exposure to soldering temperatures.
001–999 750–799S
Copper material not standardized 800–999 A–S(a) 800–999(a) Arsenic, cadmium, and zirconium coppers
by CEN/TC 133 (C14200, C14300, and C15000, respectively)
(a) Letter as appropriate for the material group have similar properties. Cadmium also imparts
wear resistance, a useful property for sliding
electrical contacts. Arsenic improves resistance
to both corrosion and high-temperature oxida-
Table 3 Temper designations for wrought copper and brass based on cold reduction tion; these properties are required for products
such as heat-exchanger tubing. Tellurium-
Rolled sheet Drawn wire
bearing coppers (C14500 and C14510) and
Nominal temper Increase in B & S gage Reduction in thickness True Reduction in Reduction in True
designation numbers(a) and area, % strain(b) diameter, % area, % strain(b)
sulfur-bearing copper (C14700) are free-
machining and are supplied as rods for making
¼ hard 1 10.9 0.116 10.9 20.7 0.232 high-conductivity parts by screw machining.
½ hard 2 20.7 0.232 20.7 37.1 0.463
3
/4 hard 3 29.4 0.347 29.4 50.1 0.694 Coppers C15715 through C15760 are disper-
Hard 4 37.1 0.463 37.1 60.5 0.926 sion strengthened with aluminum oxide to
Extra hard 6 50.1 0.696 50.1 75.1 1.39 inhibit softening at elevated temperatures
Spring 8 60.5 0.928 60.5 84.4 1.86 (Fig. 1). The combination of thermal stability
Extra spring 10 68.6 1.16 68.6 90.2 2.32
Special spring 12 75.1 1.39 75.1 93.8 2.78 and high electrical conductivity is useful in
Super spring 14 80.3 1.62 80.3 96.1 3.25 applications such as heavy-duty electrical con-
(a) B & S, Brown & Sharpe. (b) True strain equals ln A0/A, where A0 is the initial cross-sectional area, and A is the final area. nectors, vacuum tube components, and resis-
tance welding electrodes.

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 314 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

Table 4 ASTM B601 temper designation codes for copper and copper alloys
Temper Temper Temper
designation Temper name or material condition designation Temper name or material condition designation Temper name or material condition

Cold-worked tempers(a) Annealed tempers(d) TL04 TF00 cold worked to full hard
H00 1
/ 8 hard TL08 TF00 cold worked to spring
O10 Cast and annealed (homogenized)
TL10 TF00 cold worked to extra spring
H01 ¼ hard O11 As-cast and precipitation heat treated
H02 ½ hard O20 Hot forged and annealed Mill-hardened tempers
H03 3
/4 hard O25 Hot rolled and annealed
H04 Hard TM00 AM
O30 Hot extruded and annealed
H06 Extra hard TM01 ¼ HM
O31 Extruded and precipitation heat treated
TM02 ½ HM
H08 Spring O40 Hot pierced and annealed
H10 Extra spring TM04 HM
O50 Light annealed
TM06 XHM
H12 Special spring O60 Soft annealed
H13 Ultra spring TM08 XHMS
O61 Annealed
H14 Super spring O65 Drawing annealed Quench-hardened tempers
O68 Deep-drawing annealed
Cold-worked tempers(b) TQ00 Quench hardened
O70 Dead-soft annealed
TQ50 Quench hardened and temper annealed
H50 Extruded and drawn O80 Annealed to temper, 1/ 8 hard
H52 Pierced and drawn TQ55 Quench hardened and temper annealed, cold
O81 Annealed to temper, ¼ hard
drawn and stress relieved
H55 Light drawn; light cold rolled O82 Annealed to temper, ½ hard
H58 Drawn general purpose TQ75 Interrupted quench hardened
H60 Cold heading; forming Annealed tempers(e)
Precipitation-hardened, cold-worked, and thermal-stress-
H63 Rivet OS005 Average grain size, 0.005 mm relieved tempers
H64 Screw OS010 Average grain size, 0.010 mm
TR01 TL01 and stress relieved
H66 Bolt OS015 Average grain size, 0.015 mm
H70 Bending TR02 TL02 and stress relieved
OS025 Average grain size, 0.025 mm
TR04 TL04 and stress relieved
H80 Hard drawn OS035 Average grain size, 0.035 mm
H85 Medium-hard-drawn electrical wire OS050 Average grain size, 0.050 mm Solution-treated and spinodal-heat-treated temper
H86 Hard-drawn electrical wire OS060 Average grain size, 0.060 mm
TX00 Spinodal hardened
H90 As-finned OS070 Average grain size, 0.070 mm
OS100 Average grain size, 0.100 mm Tempers of welded tubing(f)
Cold-worked and stress-relieved tempers
OS120 Average grain size, 0.120 mm
HR01 H01 and stress relieved WH00 Welded and drawn to 1/ 8 hard
OS150 Average grain size, 0.150 mm
HR02 H02 and stress relieved WH01 Welded and drawn to ¼ hard
OS200 Average grain size, 0.200 mm
HR04 H04 and stress relieved WH02 Welded and drawn to ½ hard
HR08 H08 and stress relieved Solution-treated temper WH03 Welded and drawn to 3/4 hard
HR10 H10 and stress relieved WH04 Welded and drawn to full hard
TB00 Solution heat treated
HR20 As-finned WH06 Welded and drawn to extra hard
HR50 Drawn and stress relieved
Solution-treated and cold-worked tempers WM00 As welded from H00 (1/ 8-hard) strip
WM01 As welded from H01 (¼-hard) strip
Cold-rolled and order-strengthened tempers(c)
TD00 TB00 cold worked to 1
/ 8 hard
WM02 As welded from H02 (½-hard) strip
TD01 TB00 cold worked to ¼ hard
HT04 H04 and order heat treated WM03 As welded from H03 (3/4-hard) strip
TD02 TB00 cold worked to ½ hard
HT08 H08 and order heat treated WM04 As welded from H04 (full-hard) strip
TD03 TB00 cold worked to 3
/4 hard
WM06 As welded from H06 (extra-hard) strip
As-manufactured tempers TD04 TB00 cold worked to full hard
WM08 As welded from H08 (spring) strip
M01 As-sand cast Solution-treated and precipitation-hardened temper WM10 As welded from H10 (extra-spring) strip
M02 As-centrifugal cast WM15 WM50 and stress relieved
TF00 TB00 and precipitation hardened
M03 As-plaster cast WM20 WM00 and stress relieved
M04 As-pressure die cast Cold-worked and precipitation-hardened tempers WM21 WM01 and stress relieved
M05 As-permanent mold cast WM22 WM02 and stress relieved
TH01 TD01 and precipitation hardened
M06 As-investment cast WM50 As welded from annealed strip
TH02 TD02 and precipitation hardened
M07 As-continuous cast WO50 Welded and light annealed
TH03 TD03 and precipitation hardened
M10 As-hot forged and air cooled WR00 WM00; drawn and stress relieved
TH04 TD04 and precipitation hardened
M11 As-forged and quenched WR01 WM01; drawn and stress relieved
M20 As-hot rolled Precipitation-hardened and cold-worked tempers WR02 WM02; drawn and stress relieved
M30 As-hot extruded WR03 WM03; drawn and stress relieved
TL00 TF00 cold worked to 1/ 8 hard
M40 As-hot pierced WR04 WM04; drawn and stress relieved
TL01 TF00 cold worked to ¼ hard
M45 As-hot pierced and rerolled WR06 WM06; drawn and stress relieved
TL02 TF00 cold worked to ½ hard

(a) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on cold rolling or cold drawing. (b) Cold-worked tempers to meet standard requirements based on temper names applicable to specific products. (c) Tempers
produced by controlled amounts of cold work followed by a thermal treatment to produce order strengthening. (d) Annealed to meet specific mechanical property requirements. (e) Annealed to meet prescribed nominal average
grain size. (f) Tempers of fully finished tubing that has been drawn or annealed to produce specified mechanical properties or that has been annealed to produce a prescribed nominal average grain size are commonly identified
by the appropriate H, O, or OS temper designation.

Work Hardening of Copper Alloys
Work hardening is the principal hardening
mechanism used for most copper alloys, and
most wrought alloys are available in various
cold-worked conditions. Even those alloys that
are precipitation hardenable often are provided
in the mill-hardened tempers; that is, they have
been processed by cold working before or after
precipitation hardening. The degree of work
hardening depends on the type and amount of
alloying element and whether the alloying ele-
ment remains in solid solution or forms a dis-
persoid or precipitate phase. The degree of
work hardening seen with cold working several
selected single-phase copper alloys is illustrated
by the cold rolling curves in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 plots the tensile strength of various
alloys for different degrees of worked tempers.
As an example, the variation in tensile properties
with cold working of an annealed Cu-30Zn alloy
(C26000) is shown in Fig. 3. The degree of work
hardening depends on the type and amount of
alloying element. For the leaner alloys (below
approximately 12% Zn, or approximately 3% Al,
for example), processing generates dislocations
that develop into entanglements and into cells,
with some narrow shear band formation beyond
approximately 65% cold reduction in thickness.
After approximately 90% cold work, the distinct
copper or metal deformation crystallographic
texture begins to develop. With the richer solid-
solution alloys that lower the stacking-fault

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 Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 315

Table 5 Compositions and properties of selected wrought copper alloys

Tensile strength Yield strength
Alloy UNS No. Nominal composition Treatment MPa ksi MPa ksi Elongation, % Rockwell hardness

Pure copper
Oxygen-free high conductivity C10200 99.95 Cu ... 221–455 33–66 69–365 10–53 55–4 ...

High-copper alloys
Beryllium-copper C17200 97.9Cu-1.9Be-0.2Ni or Co Annealed 490 71 ... ... 35 60 HRB
Hardened 1400 203 1050 152 2 42 HRC
Brass
Gilding, 95% C21000 95Cu-5Zn Annealed 245 36 77 11 45 52 HRF
Hard 392 57 350 51 5 64 HRB
Red brass, 85% C23000 85Cu-15Zn Annealed 280 41 91 13 47 64 HRF
Hard 434 63 406 59 5 73 HRB
Cartridge brass, 70% C26000 70Cu-30Zn Annealed 357 52 133 19 55 72 HRF
Hard 532 77 441 64 8 82 HRB
Muntz metal C28000 60Cu-40Zn Annealed 378 55 119 17 45 80 HRF
Half-hard 490 71 350 51 15 75 HRB
High-lead brass C35300 62Cu-36Zn-2Pb Annealed 350 51 119 17 52 68 HRF
Hard 420 61 318 46 7 80 HRB
Bronze
Phosphor bronze, 5% C51000 95Cu-5Sn Annealed 350 51 175 25 55 40 HRB
Hard 588 85 581 84 9 90 HRB
Phosphor bronze, 10% C52400 90Cu-10Sn Annealed 483 70 250 36 63 62 HRB
Hard 707 103 658 95 16 96 HRB
Aluminum bronze C60800 95Cu-5Al Annealed 420 61 175 25 66 49 HRB
Cold rolled 700 102 441 64 8 94 HRB
Aluminum bronze C63000 81.5Cu-9.5Al-5Ni-2.5Fe-1Mn Extruded 690 100 414 60 15 96 HRB
Half-hard 814 118 517 75 15 98 HRB
High-silicon bronze C65500 96Cu-3Si-1Mn Annealed 441 64 210 31 55 66 HRB
Hard 658 95 406 59 8 95 HRB
Copper-nickel
Cupronickel, 30% C71500 70Cu-30Ni Annealed 385 56 126 18 36 40 HRB
Cold rolled 588 85 553 80 3 86 HRB
Nickel silver
Nickel silver C75700 65Cu-23Zn-12Ni Annealed 427 62 196 28 35 55 HRB
Hard 595 86 525 76 4 89 HRB

energy, planar slip is the dominant dislocation

mechanism, with associated higher work harden- Precipitation Hardening
ing. Beyond approximately 40% cold work in
Annealing temperature, °F these richer alloys, stacking faults, shear band- As previously noted, some alloys can be
30 390 750 1110 1470 1830 ing, and deformation twinning become important hardened during low-to-intermediate-temperature
700 105 deformation mechanisms that, beyond 90% cold treatments (after solution treatment and quench-
Brazing and
glass-metal work, lead to the brass or alloy type of crystallo- ing). These alloys include precipitation-hardening,
600 sealing 90 graphic deformation texture and accompanying spinodal-hardening, and order-hardening alloys.
anisotropy of properties. For purposes of comparison, Table 6 lists exam-
ODS copper
(C15760)
Dispersion strengthening is used in copper ples of the various types of low-temperature-
500 75 alloys for hardening, controlling grain size, and hardening alloys, as well as typical heat treat-
providing softening resistance, as exemplified by ments and attainable property levels for these
Yield strength, MPa

Yield strength, ksi

ODS copper iron particles in copper-iron alloys, C19200 or alloys.

400 (C15715) 60
C19400, and in aluminum bronzes, C61300 or Age-hardening mechanisms apply to a few
C63380. Cobalt silicide particles in alloy C63800 but important copper systems that offer a
300 45 (Cu-2.8Al-1.8Si-0.4Co), for example, provide fine decreasing solubility for hardening phases.
grain control and dispersion hardening to give this The beryllium-copper system offers a series of
Cu-Zr alloy high strength with reasonably good formabil- wrought and cast age-hardening alloys, UNS
200 30
(C15000) ity. Alloy C63800 offers an annealed tensile C17000 to C17530 and C82000 to C82800.
OF
copper strength of 570 MPa (82 ksi) and rolled temper ten- The wrought alloys contain 0.2 to 2.0% Be
100 (C10200) 15 sile strengths of 660 to 900 MPa (96 to 130 ksi). and 0.3 to 2.7% Co (or up to 2.2% Ni). They
Alloys offering exceptionally good thermal stabil- are solution heat treated in the range 760 to
ity have been developed using powder metallurgy 955  C (1400 to 1750  F) and age hardened to
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 techniques to incorporate dispersions of fine produce the beryllium-rich coherent precipi-
Annealing temperature, °C Al2O3 particles (3 to 12 nm in size) in a basically tates when aged in the range 260 to 565  C
copper matrix, which is finish processed to rod, (500 to 1050  F), the specific temperature being
Fig. 1 Softening behavior of oxide-dispersion-strengthened wire, or strip products. This family of alloys, chosen for the particular alloy and desired prop-
(ODS) coppers compared to oxygen-free (OF) C15715 to C15760, can resist softening up to and erty combination (Fig. 4). The precipitation
copper and copper-zirconium alloy above 800  C (1470  F). sequence during aging consists of the formation

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 316 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

of solute-rich Guinier-Preston zones, followed
in sequence by coherent platelets of the meta-
stable intermediate phases g0 and g00 . Overaging
is marked by the appearance of the B2 ordered
equilibrium g-BeCu phase as particles within
grains and along grain boundaries, large enough
to be seen in the light microscope. The cobalt
and nickel additions form dispersoids of equi-
librium (Cu, Co, or Ni)Be that restrict grain
growth during solution annealing in the two-
phase field at elevated temperatures (Fig. 4b).
A cold working step following solution anneal-
ing often is used to increase the age-hardening
response. Alloy C17200 (Cu-1.8Be-0.4Co), for
example, can be processed to reach high
strength: that is, tensile strengths after solution
treatment (470 MPa, or 68 ksi), after cold roll-
ing to the hard temper (755 MPa, or 110 ksi),
and after aging (1415 MPa, or 205 ksi). While
they are commercially available in the heat
treatable condition, the beryllium-copper alloys
commonly are provided in the mill-hardened
temper with the optimal strength/ductility/con-
ductivity combination suitable for the
application.
Other age-hardening copper alloys include
the chromium-coppers, which contain 0.4 to
1.2% Cr (C18100, C18200, and C18400); these
alloys produce arrays of pure chromium precipi-
tates and dispersoid particles when aged. The
Cu-Ni-Si alloys, C64700 and C70250, age
harden by precipitating the Ni2Si intermetallic
phase (Fig. 5). Compositions in the Cu-Ni-Sn
system, C71900 and C72700, are hardenable by
spinodal decomposition, a mechanism that pro-
vides high strength and good ductility through
the homogeneous formation of a periodic array
of coherent, fcc solid-solution phases. Each of
these alloys, including the beryllium-coppers,
can be thermomechanically processed to provide
unique combinations of strength, formability,
electrical conductivity, softening resistance,
and stress-relaxation resistance.
Most copper alloys of the precipitation-
hardening type find use in electrical and heat-
conduction applications. Therefore, the heat
treatment must be designed to develop the nec-
essary mechanical strength and electrical con-
ductivity. The resulting hardness and strength
depend on the effectiveness of the solution
quench and the control of the precipitation
(aging) treatment. It should be noted that the
terms age hardening and aging are used in heat
treating practice as substitutes for the terms
precipitation hardening or spinodal hardening.
Copper alloys harden by elevated-temperature
treatment rather than ambient-temperature

Fig. 2 Tensile strength of single-phase copper alloys as affected by percentage reduction in thickness by rolling Fig. 3 Effect of cold rolling on the strength, hardness,
and ductility of annealed copper alloy C26000
(temper). Curves of lesser slope indicate a low rate of work hardening and a higher capacity for redrawing.
when cold rolled in varying amounts up to 62% reduction
ETP, electrolytic tough pitch
in thickness

Table 6 Typical heat treatments and resulting properties for several low-temperature-hardening alloys
Aging treatment
Solution treating temperature(a) Temperature
   
Alloy C F C F Time, h Hardness Electrical conductivity(b), %IACS

Precipitation hardening
C15000 980 1795 500–550 930–1025 3 30 HRB 87–95
C17000, C17200, C17300 760–800 1400–1475 300–350 575–660 1–3 35–44 HRC 22
C17500, C17600 900–950 1650–1740 455–490 850–915 1–4 95–98 HRB 48
C18000(c), C81540 900–930 1650–1705 425–540 800–1000 2–3 92–96 HRB 42–48
C18200, C18400, C18500, C81500 980–1000 1795–1830 425–500 800–930 2–4 68 HRB 80
C94700 775–800 1425–1475 305–325 580–620 5 180 HB 15
C99400 885 1625 482 900 1 170 HB 17
Spinodal hardening
C71900 900–950 1650–1740 425–760 800–1400 1–2 86 HRC 4–4
C72800 815–845 1500–1550 350–360 660–680 4 32 HRC ...

(a) Solution treating is followed by water quenching. (b) IACS, International Annealed Copper Standard. (c) Alloy C18000 (81540) must be double aged, typically 3 h at 540  C (1000  F) followed by 3 h at 425  C (800  F)
(U.S. Patent 4,191,601), to develop the higher levels of electrical conductivity and hardness.

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Fig. 4 Phase diagrams for beryllium-copper alloys. (a) Binary composition for high-strength alloys such as C17200. (b) Pseudobinary composition for C17510, a high-conductivity
alloy containing Cu-1.8Ni-0.4Be
Fig. 5 Micrograph showing the dispersion of Ni2Si pre-
cipitates in the quenched and aged condition of
copper alloy C64700, Cu-2Ni-0.7Si. Original magnifica-
tion: 500
(natural) aging, as in the case of some alumi-
num alloys. As dissolved atoms proceed
through the coagulation, coherency, and precip-
itation cycle in the quenched alloy lattice, hard-
ness increases, reaches a peak, and then
decreases with time. Electrical conductivity
increases continuously with time until some
maximum is reached, normally in the fully pre-
cipitated condition. The optimum condition
generally preferred results from a precipitation
treatment of temperature and duration just
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Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 317
beyond those that correspond to the hardness
aging peak. Cold working prior to precipitation
aging tends to improve heat treated hardness. In
the case of lower-strength wrought alloys such
as C18200 (copper-chromium) and C15000
(copper-zirconium), some heat treated hardness
may be sacrificed to attain increased conductiv-
ity, with final hardness and strength being
enhanced by cold working. Two precipitation
treatments are necessary to develop maximum
electrical conductivity and hardness in alloy
C18000 (Cu-Ni-Si-Cr) because of two distinct
precipitation mechanisms.
Certain guidelines can be used to diagnose
problems encountered in producing desired
properties in precipitation-hardening alloys:
Problem Diagnosis
Low hardness Solution temperature too low; solution
quench delayed or cooling rate too
low; aging temperature too low
and/or time too short (underaging)
or temperature too high and/or time
too long (overaging)
Low hardness; low Inadequate solution treatment and/or
conductivity underaging
Low hardness; high Inadequate solution treatment and/or
conductivity overaging
High hardness; low Underaging; contaminated material
conductivity
When precipitation hardening is performed at
the mill, further treatment following the
fabrication of parts is not required. However, it
may be desirable to stress relieve parts to remove
stresses induced during fabrication, particularly
for highly formed cantilever-type springs and
intricate, machined shapes that require maxi-
mum resistance to relaxation at moderately ele-
vated temperatures.
Spinodal-Hardening Alloys
Alloys that harden by spinodal decomposition
are hardened by a treatment similar to that used
for precipitation-hardening alloys. The soft, duc-
tile spinodal structure is generated by a high-
temperature solution treatment followed by
quenching. The material can be cold worked or
formed in this condition. A lower-temperature
spinodal-decomposition treatment, commonly
referred to as aging, then is used to increase the
hardness and strength of the alloy. Spinodal-
hardening alloys are basically copper-nickel
alloys with chromium or tin additions. The hard-
ening mechanism is related to a miscibility gap in
the solid solution and does not result in precipita-
tion. The spinodal-hardening mechanism does
result in the chemical segregation of the a crystal
matrix on a very fine (Ångström) scale and requires
the use of the electron microscope to discern the
metallographic effects. Because no crystallo-
graphic changes take place, spinodal-hardening
alloys retain excellent dimensional stability during
hardening.
 318 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

Order-Hardening Alloys
Certain alloys, generally those that are nearly
saturated with an alloying element dissolved in
the a phase, undergo an ordering reaction when
highly cold-worked material is annealed at a rela-
tively low temperature. Alloys C61500, C63800,
C68800, and C69000 are examples of copper
alloys that exhibit this behavior. Strengthening
is attributed to the short-range ordering of the
dissolved atoms within the copper matrix, an
ordering which greatly impedes the motion of dis-
locations through the crystals.
The low-temperature order-annealing treat-
ment also acts as a stress-relieving treatment,
which raises yield strength by reducing stress con-
centrations in the lattice at the foci of dislocation
pileups. As a result, order-annealed alloys exhibit
improved stress-relaxation characteristics.
Order annealing is done for relatively short
times at relatively low temperatures, generally in
the range from 150 to 400  C (300 to 750  F).
Because of the low temperature, no special pro-
tective atmosphere is required. Order hardening
frequently is done after the final fabrication step
to take full advantage of the stress-relieving
aspect of the treatment, especially where resis-
tance to stress relaxation is desired.
Quench Hardening and Tempering
Quench hardening and tempering (also
referred to as quench and temper hardening) is
used primarily for aluminum bronze and nickel-
aluminum bronze alloys, and occasionally for
some cast manganese bronze alloys with zinc
equivalents of 37 to 41%. Aluminum bronzes
with 9 to 11.5% Al, as well as nickel-aluminum
bronzes with 8.5 to 11.5% Al, respond in a prac-
tical way to quench hardening by a martensitic-
type reaction. Generally, alloys higher in alumi-
num content are too susceptible to quench
cracking, whereas those with lower aluminum
contents do not contain enough high-temperature
b phase to respond to quench treatments.
during normal process working and annealing.
Rarely is it necessary to apply homogenization
to finished or semifinished mill products.
A characteristic of high cooling rates is the
uneven distribution of the alloy elements in the
interior of the dendritic microstructure. These
differences increase with higher cooling rates
and greater differences in composition between
melt and solid phase at the onset of crystalliza-
tion. This difference may be equalized in some
alloys by long-time homogenization as a result
of diffusion processes taking place in the solid
phase.
The time and temperature required for the
homogenization process vary with the alloy,
the cast grain size, and the desired degree of
homogenization. Typical soak times vary from
3 to over 10 h. Temperatures normally are
above the upper annealing range, to within
50  C (90  F) of the solidus temperature.
Homogenization changes the mechanical
properties: Ultimate tensile strength, hardness,
and yield (proof) strength all slowly decrease,
whereas elongation at fracture and necking
increase by as much as twice the initial value.
Figure 6 shows a typical example of these
changes taking place at a homogenizing time of
4 h for alloy C52100, a wrought phosphor bronze
alloy containing nominally 92% Cu, 8% Sn, a
small amount of phosphorus, and trace amounts
of several other elements.
The normal precautions that apply to anneal-
ing should be used for the homogenization of
any particular alloy. The furnace atmosphere
should be selected for the control of both surface
and internal oxidation. Where there is apprecia-
ble danger of liquefying segregated phases, the
materials, particularly castings, should be well
supported and heated slowly through the final
100  C (180  F).
Typical applications of homogenization are:
 Alloy C71900 (Cu-Ni-Cr) billets: 1040 to
1065  C (1900 to 1950  F) for 4 to 9 h, to
prevent cracks, seams, and excessive wood
fiber structure in extrusions
 Alloy C52100 and C52400 (phosphor
bronzes, 8 and 10% Sn): 775  C (1425  F)
for 5 h, to reduce embrittlement in billets
and slabs that are to be cold rolled
 Alloy C96400 (cast 70Cu-30Ni): 1000  C
(1830  F) for 2 h under a protective atmo-
sphere and then cooled to 400  C (750  F),
followed by air cooling
For the precipitation-hardenable alloys,
homogenization may involve a prolonged solu-
tion treatment.
Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment intended to
soften and to increase the ductility and/or tough-
ness of metals and alloys. The process includes
heating, holding, and cooling, and a proper

Homogenizing
Homogenizing is a process in which pro-
longed high-temperature soaking is used to
reduce chemical or metallurgical segregation
commonly known as coring, which occurs as a
natural result of solidification in some alloys.
Homogenizing is applied to copper alloys to
improve the hot and cold ductility of cast billets
for mill processing, and occasionally is applied
to castings to meet specified hardness, ductility,
or toughness requirements.
Homogenization is required most frequently
for alloys having wide freezing ranges, such as
tin (phosphor) bronzes, copper-nickels, and sili-
con bronzes. Although coring occurs to some
extent in a brasses, a-aluminum bronzes, and
copper-beryllium alloys, these alloys survive pri-
mary mill processing and become homogenized Fig. 6 Effect of annealing temperature on the mechanical properties of an alloy C52100 slab. Annealing time: 4 h

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 Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 319

process description should include heating rate, Table 7 Annealing temperatures for widely used cold-worked copper and copper alloys
temperature, time at temperature, atmosphere,
Annealing temperature
and cooling rate, because each may affect results.  
Alloy Common name C F
Annealing is applied to wrought products, dur-
ing and after mill processing, and to castings. Wrought coppers
The annealing of cold-worked metal involves C10100–C10300 Oxygen-free copper 375–650 700–1200
heating to a temperature that produces recrystal- C10400–C10700 Oxygen-free silver-bearing copper 475–750 900–1400
C10800 Oxygen-free low-phosphorus copper 375–650 700–1200
lization and, if desirable, by heating beyond the C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch copper 250–650 500–1200
recrystallization temperature to initiate grain C11100 Electrolytic tough pitch, anneal-resistant copper 475–750 900–1400
growth. Temperatures commonly used for C11300, C11400, C11500, C11600 Silver-bearing tough pitch copper 400–475 750–900
annealing cold-worked coppers and copper C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, 375–650 700–1200
low residual phosphorus
alloys are given in Table 7. C12200 Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, 375–650 700–1200
Annealing is applied to castings of some high residual phosphorus
duplex alloys, such as manganese bronzes and C12500, C12700, C13000 Fire-refined, tough pitch copper with silver 400–650 750–1200
aluminum bronzes, to correct the effects of mold C14500 Phosphorus-deoxidized, tellurium-bearing 425–650 800–1200
copper
cooling. The extremely slow cooling of sand and C14700 Sulfur copper 425–650 800–1200
plaster castings, or the rapid cooling of perma- C15500 ... 475–525 900–1000
nent mold or die castings, can produce micro- Wrought copper alloys
structures resulting in high hardness and/or low
C16200 Cadmium copper 425–750 800–1400
ductility and occasionally inferior corrosion C17000, C17200, C17500, C17510 Beryllium copper 775–925(a) 1425–1700(a)
resistance. Typical annealing treatments for cast- C19200 ... 700–800 1300–1500
ings are in the range of 580 to 700  C (1075 to C19400 ... 375–650 700–1200
...
1300  F) for 1 h at temperature. For aluminum C19500 375–600 750–1100
C21000 Gilding metal 425–800 800–1450
bronzes, rapid cooling by water quenching or C22000 Commercial bronze 425–800 800–1450
high-velocity air is advisable. C22600 Jewelry bronze 425–750 800–1400
Annealing is primarily a function of metal tem- C23000 Red brass 425–725 800–1350
perature and time at temperature. Except for mul- C24000 Low brass 425–700 800–1300
C26000 Cartridge brass 425–750 800–1400
tiphase alloys, including certain precipitation- C26800, C27000, C27400 Yellow brass 425–700 800–1300
hardening alloys, and alloys susceptible to fire C28000 Muntz metal 425–600 800–1100
cracking, rates of heating and cooling are rela- C31400, C31600 Leaded commercial bronzes 425–650 800–1200
tively unimportant. On the other hand, the source C33000, C33500 Low-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
C33200, C34200, C35300 High-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
and application of heat, furnace design, furnace C34000, C35000 Medium-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
atmosphere, and shape of the workpiece are C35600 Extra-high-leaded brass 425–650 800–1200
important because they affect finish, cost of C36000 Free-cutting brass 425–600 800–1100
annealing, and uniformity of results obtained. C36500, C36600, C36700, C36800 Leaded Muntz metal 425–600 800–1100
C37000 Free-cutting Muntz metal 425–650 800–1200
The multiplicity of influential variables (such C37700 Forging brass 425–600 800–1100
as temperature, time, and furnace load) make it C38500 Architectural bronze 425–600 800–1100
difficult to tabulate a definite annealing schedule C41100 ... 425–600 800–1100
C41300 ... 425–750 800–1400
that will result in completely recrystallized metal ...
C42500 475–750 900–1400
of a specific grain size. The effects of annealing C44300, C44400, C44500 Inhibited admiralty brasses 425–600 800–1100
temperature on the tensile strength, elongation, C46200, C46400–C46700 Naval brass 425–600 800–1100
and grain size of hard-drawn (63%) C27000 (yel- C48200, C48500 Leaded naval brass 425–600 800–1100
low brass) wire annealed for 1 h and the effect of C50500 Phosphor bronze 475–650 900–1200
C51000, C52100, C52400 Phosphor bronze 475–675 900–1250
annealing time on the grain size of C27000 strip C53200, C53400, C54400 Free-cutting phosphor bronze 475–675 900–1250
are shown in Fig. 7. C60600, C60800 Aluminum bronze 550–650 1000–1200
The annealing response of alloy C26000 (car- C61000 Aluminum bronze 615–900 1125–1650
tridge brass) strip after a reduction of 40.6% by C61300, C61400 Aluminum bronze 750–875 1400–1600
C61800, C62300–C62500 Aluminum bronze 600–650(b) 1100–1200(b)
cold rolling is shown in Fig. 8. Time at tempera- C61900 ... 550–800 1000–1450
ture was 1 h. The actual increases in hardness and C63000 Aluminum bronze 600–700(c) 1100–1300(c)
tensile properties shown at temperatures below C63200 Aluminum bronze 625–700(c) 1150–1300(c)
the recrystallization range are typical of alloys C64200 Aluminum bronze 600–700 1100–1300
C63800 ... 400–600 750–1100
such as brasses, nickel silvers, phosphor bronzes, C65100 Low-silicon bronze 475–675 900–1250
and a-aluminum bronzes. Depending on the indi- C65500 High-silicon bronze 475–700 900–1300
vidual alloy, these increases are attributable to C66700 Manganese brass 500–700 930–1300
phenomena of the strain-aging and/or lattice- C67000, C67400, C67500 Manganese bronze 425–600 800–1100
C68700 Aluminum brass 425–600 800–1100
ordering type. C68800 ... 400–600 750–1100
Methods of rapid recrystallization have gained C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% 600–825 1100–1500
importance in heat treatment technology. Soften- C71000, C71500 Copper-nickel, 20%; 650–825 1200–1500
ing time can be significantly reduced, compared copper-nickel, 30%
C72500 ... 675–800 1250–1475
to conventional annealing processes, by C74500, C75200 Nickel silver 600–750 1100–1400
increased heating rates using higher tempera- C75400, C75700, C77000 Nickel silver 600–815 1100–1500
tures. However, these heat treat parameters may C78200 Leaded nickel silver 500–620 930–1150
affect the mechanical properties of the materials. Cast copper alloys
An increased amount of cold work prior to C95300–C95800 Aluminum bronze castings 620–670 1150–1225
annealing lowers the recrystallization tempera-
(a) Solution treating temperature. (b) Cool rapidly (cooling method important in determining result of annealing). (c) Air cool (cooling method
ture. The lower the degree of prior deformation, important in determining result of annealing)
the larger the grain size after annealing. For a

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 320 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

fixed temperature and duration of annealing, the

larger the original grain size before working,
the larger the grain size after recrystallization.
In commercial mill practice, copper alloys
usually are annealed at successively lower tem-
peratures as the material approaches the final
anneal, with intermediate cold reductions of at
least 35% and as high as 50 to 60% in single
or multiple passes wherever practicable. The
higher initial temperatures accelerate homoge-
nization, and the resulting large grains permit
a more economical reduction during the early
working operation.
During subsequent anneals, the grain size
should be decreased gradually to approximate
the final grain size required. This point usually
is reached one or two anneals before the final
anneal. With such a sequence and with suffi-
ciently severe intermediate reductions, it is pos-
sible to produce a uniform final grain size
within a lot and from lot to lot.
The grain size and mechanical properties
required for further cold working vary consider-
ably with the alloy and with the amount and
kind of further cold work to be done. The goal
of annealing for cold working is to obtain the
optimum combination of ductility and strength.
However, when press-drawn parts are to be fin-
ished by polishing and buffing, the grain size
should be as fine as practicable to keep the sur-
face texture smooth and thus to avoid the need
for excessive buffing and the attendant costs.
The anneal must be governed by definite speci-
fications and coordinated with cold working
operations to yield the desired finished
properties.
Fig. 7 Effects of annealing temperature and time on characteristics of C27000 wire and strip. Effects of annealing
Because the annealing of closed strip in tightly
temperature (annealing time, 1 h) on (a) tensile strength, (b) grain size, and (c) elongation of C27000 wire
hard drawn 63%. (d) Effect of annealing time on grain size of C27000 strip 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) thick wound coils of large weight causes uneven heat-
ing in the individual layers corresponding to the
direction of heat flow, uneven deep-drawing
properties and variations in size may result.
These difficulties led to the development of
the continuous-strip furnace (Fig. 9a) through
which the material to be annealed passes in a
single strip. The annealing temperature for the
entire length is dependent only on the furnace
temperature and the speed of travel of the strip
through the furnace.
The very large surface area with respect to
weight permits extremely rapid heating of the
metal strip in comparison to previous annealing
methods. The annealing time can be measured

Wound coils of
sheet or strip

Annealing
furnace

Unwound sheet
or strip
(a) (b)

Fig. 8 Annealing data for alloy C26000. Finish rolling reduction: 40.6% Fig. 9 Types of annealing. (a) Continuous. (b) Batch

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accurately in seconds by controlling the speed
of travel.
Annealing to Specific Properties
Although specific properties are most fre-
quently produced by the controlled cold work-
ing of annealed material, there are occasions
in which annealing to temper is necessary or
advantageous. In the hot rolling of copper alloy
plate—particularly plate of large pattern—the
finishing temperature may not be consistent or
controllable, and varying degrees of work hard-
ening may occur. Also, small quantities and/or
odd sizes of required drawn or roll-tempered
materials may not be readily available, while
appropriate stocks of harder material may be.
Thin-gage strip (0.25 mm, or 0.010 in., thick)
for radiator fabrication produced by annealing
to temper is more closely controlled and more
suitable for fabrication than strip in cold-
worked tempers. In each case, an anneal is used
to alter hardness and tensile properties to levels
between those of the hard and fully annealed
tempers, with reasonably predictable results.
For most copper alloys, the rapid drops in ten-
sile properties and hardness that occur with an
increase in temperature in the annealing range
necessitate the very close control of the anneal-
ing process to produce the desired results. Tem-
peratures used are those in the lower annealing
range, with special precautions taken to avoid
any overheating. The resultant microstructures
may indicate incomplete recrystallization for
the harder tempers and grain sizes generally
up to 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) for softer tempers.
Tensile strengths and hardness levels similar
to those of 1/ 8, ¼, and ½ hard cold-worked tem-
pers can be produced by annealing hard-worked
brasses, nickel silvers, and phosphor bronzes.
While the yield strength for a given final hard-
ness tends to be lower for alloys annealed to
temper than for those cold worked to temper,
the fatigue resistance of some phosphor bronze
spring materials in annealed ½ hard tempers
appears to be superior to that of cold-worked
material. Table 8 gives typical properties of
annealed-to-temper mill materials. The success-
ful use of annealing to provide specific tempers
in mill products requires well-regulated work-
ing and annealing schedules designed to pro-
duce homogeneous material with controlled
grain size, such that the final anneal can pro-
duce a uniform result throughout a given lot.
Table 8 Typical properties of copper alloys annealed to temper
Alloy Common name
C26000 Cartridge brass
C51100, C53200, C53400, Phosphor bronze
C54400
C75200 Nickel silver
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Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 321
General Precautions
For best results in annealing copper and cop-
per alloys, the precautions discussed subse-
quently should be observed.
Sampling and Testing. Test specimens must
represent the extreme conditions of the furnace
load. For copper alloys that do not contain
grain-growth inhibitors, the best and most accu-
rate test for the extent of annealing is the size of
the average grain. Grain size usually is the
basis for acceptance or rejection of the material.
This¢determination requires special equipment
not always available in the plants of consumers
or fabricators. For convenience in testing,
Rockwell-type hardness testers are used to
approximate the grain size; ASTM International
specifications correlate Rockwell hardness with
grain size values for many copper alloys.
Effect of Pretreatment. Because the amount
of cold working and the anneal prior to cold
working greatly affect the results of annealing
after cold working, any schedule that is set up
must take this pretreatment into account. Once
a schedule has been established, both the anneal
and the pretreatment must be adhered to for
consistent results.
Effect of Time. In most furnaces, there is an
appreciable difference between the temperature
of the metal and that of the furnace. Conse-
quently, time in the furnace greatly affects the
final temperature of the metal. For a fixed
anneal and furnace temperature, time must vary
with the type of work load.
Oxidation should be held to a minimum to
reduce the loss of metal and the cost of pick-
ling, and to improve surface finish. In some
instances, specially prepared atmospheres are
used to produce a bright-annealed material.
Usually the control of furnace atmosphere also
results in better furnace economy.
Effect of Lubricants. Lubricants on metal to
be annealed may cause staining that is difficult
to remove. Regardless of the type of furnace or
the article to be annealed, it is advisable to elimi-
nate as much of the lubricant as possible before
the metal is heated by degreasing or washing.
Hydrogen Embrittlement. When copper that
contains oxygen (tough pitch copper) is to be
annealed, the hydrogen in the furnace atmo-
sphere must be kept to a minimum. This reduces
the embrittlement caused by the combination of
the hydrogen in the atmosphere with the oxygen
in the copper, forming water vapor under pres-
sure and resulting in minute porosity in the
Annealed temper
Standard Former
Tensile strength
Approximate hardness,
designation designation MPa ksi HR30T
O81 ¼ hard 340–405 49–59 43–51
O82 ½ hard 395–460 57–67 56–66
O82 ½ hard 380–485 55–70 57–73
O81 ¼ hard 400–495 58–72 49–67
O82 ½ hard 455–550 66–80 62–72
metal. For temperatures lower than approxi-
mately 480  C (900  F), the hydrogen content
of the atmosphere preferably should not exceed
1%, and as the temperature is increased, the
hydrogen content should approach 0.
Impurities. Occasionally, it is difficult to
obtain proper grain growth by annealing under
standard conditions that previously have resulted
in the desired grain size. This difficulty some-
times may be traced to impurities in the alloy.
Loading. It usually is inadvisable to anneal a
variety of different sizes or types of material in
the same charge because of the different rates of
heating and the resulting final metal temperatures.
Fire cracking occurs when some alloys that
contain residual stresses are heated too rapidly.
Leaded alloys are particularly susceptible to fire
cracking. The remedy is to heat slowly until the
stresses are relieved. Special types of cold
deformation, such as springing (flexing or reel-
ing through a straightener), aid considerably in
preventing fire cracking by inducing counter-
vailing mechanical stresses.
Thermal shock or fatigue takes place when
rapid and extreme changes in temperatures
occur. Stresses that result in thermal shock are
influenced by thermal expansion, thermal con-
ductivity, strength, toughness, the rate of temper-
ature change, and the condition of the material.
Brasses containing lead, lead and tin, or lead
and certain impurities including bismuth or tellu-
rium may be hot short. If they are repeatedly sub-
jected to extreme temperature changes, they may
be subject to thermal shock, especially if highly
stressed in tension on the surface.
Cooling. Alpha brasses containing less than
70% Cu may contain some b phase that is formed
during casting or during heat treatment above
600  C (1110  F), especially if the metal section
is massive. Quenching rapidly will entrap the
b phase in the brass. Slow cooling will permit
the time and temperature to convert the b to the
a phase.
Sulfur Stains. Excessive sulfur in the fuel or
lubricant will cause discoloration of the metal;
red stains appear on yellow brass, and black
or reddish-brown stains on copper-rich alloys.
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is a process intended to
relieve internal stress in materials or parts with-
out appreciably affecting their properties.
Stress-relieving heat treatments are applied to
wrought or cast copper and copper alloys as
one means of accomplishing this objective.
During the processing or fabrication of copper
or copper alloys by cold working, strength and
hardness increase as a result of plastic strain.
Because plastic strain is accompanied by elastic
strain, residual stresses remain in the resultant
product. If allowed to remain in sufficient magni-
tude, residual surface tensile stresses can result in
stress-corrosion cracking of material in storage
or service, unpredictable distortion of material
during cutting or machining, and hot cracking
 322 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys

of materials during processing, brazing, or weld-
ing. In brasses that contain more than 15% Zn,
stress-corrosion cracking, or season cracking,
can occur if sufficient amounts of residual tensile
stress and trace amounts of atmospheric ammo-
nia are present. Other copper alloys, such as
cold-worked aluminum bronzes and silicon
bronzes, also may suffer stress-corrosion crack-
ing under more severe environments.
Although mill practice for stress relief fre-
quently involves mechanical means such as
flexing, cross-roll straightening, or shot peen-
ing, stress-relief heat treatments are employed
for some tubular products and odd shapes.
Thermal stress relief also is used for formed
parts and fabrications made by material users.
It is important to recognize that thermal stress
relief reduces residual stress by eliminating part
of the residual elastic strain, whereas mechani-
cal stress relief merely redistributes residual
stress into a less detrimental pattern.
Stress-relief heat treatments are carried out at
temperatures below those normally used for
annealing. Typical process stress-relieving tem-
peratures for selected coppers and copper alloys
are given in Table 9 (wrought products) and
Table 10 (cast products). Temperatures for the
treatment of cold-formed or welded structures
generally are 50 to 110  C (90 to 200  F) higher
than the temperatures in Table 9. In the case of
the weld repair of ship propellers, for example,
care must be exercised to prevent the buildup of
excessive residual stresses in the weld zone,
because such stresses may lead to accelerated
corrosion attack. Current propeller repair speci-
fications require postweld treatment for the alu-
minum and manganese bronze weldments. Heat
treatment of aluminum bronze at 565 to 650  C
(1050 to 1200  F) imparts the best overall cor-
rosion resistance to the heat-affected zone.
Manganese bronze weldments are not suscepti-
ble to stress-corrosion cracking when subjected
to yield stress loading in flowing seawater. Heat
treatment in the range of 200 to 540  C (400 to
1000  F) does not significantly change the ten-
sile, corrosion-fatigue, or general corrosion
properties of manganese bronze.
From a practical standpoint, higher-temperature/
shorter-time treatments are preferable. However,
to guarantee the preservation of mechanical
properties, lower temperatures and longer times
are sometimes necessary. The optimum cycle
produces adequate stress relief without adversely
affecting properties. As shown in Fig. 7, some
alloys may undergo slight increases in property
values during stress-relief heat treatment.
To detect the presence of significant residual
stress and to evaluate the effectiveness of
stress-relieving treatments, samples of material
may be tested with mercurous nitrate solutions,
as described in ASTM B154. This test method
is an accelerated test for detecting the presence
of residual (internal) stresses, which may result
in failure of individual parts in storage or in ser-
vice due to stress-corrosion cracking. It is not
intended for testing assemblies of fabricated
parts from mill products. Because of the
hazards of mercurous salts, tests in high con-
centrations of moist ammonia also have been
used. Warping of rod or tube during longitudi-
nal saw slitting also has been used as a crude
field test for residual stress.
Heat Treating Equipment
Although basic furnace design is similar for all
copper alloys, consideration must be given to the
annealing temperature range and method of cool-
ing. Solid-solution alloys that do not precipitation
harden usually are annealed at temperatures
below 760  C (1400  F) and may be cooled at
any convenient rate. Precipitation- or spinodal-
hardenable alloys are solution treated at tempera-
tures up to 1040  C (1900  F) and require rapid
quenching to ambient temperatures.

Table 9 Typical stress-relieving temperatures for wrought coppers and copper alloys
Stress-relief temperature for:
Sheet and strip Rod and wire Tube(d)
Copper or copper alloy number Name Flat products(a),  C ( F) Parts,  C ( F) Rod(b),  C ( F) Wire(c),  C ( F) Parts,  C ( F) Tube(e),  C ( F) Parts,  C ( F)

Coppers
C11000 Electrolytic tough pitch 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) 180 (355) ... ...
C12000 Phosphorus deoxidized DLP ... ... ... ... ... 220 (430) 200 (390)
C12200 Phosphorus deoxidized DHP ... ... ... ... ... 240 (465) 220 (430)
C14200 Phosphorus deoxidized DPA ... ... ... ... ... 260 (500) 240 (465)
Copper alloys
C21000 Gilding, 95% 275 (525) 275 (525) ... ... ... ... ...
C22000, C22600 Commercial bronze and jewelry 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) ... ...
bronze
C23000 Red brass, low brass 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) 330 (625) 275 (525)
C26000 Cartridge brass 260 (500) 260 (500) 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) 320 (610) 260 (500)
C27000 Yellow brass, 65% 260 (500) 260 (500) 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) 290 (555) 260 (500)
C31400 Leaded commercial bronze ... ... 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) ... ...
C33000, C33200 High- and low-leaded brasses ... ... ... ... ... 320 (610) 260 (500)
C33500 Low-leaded brasses ... ... 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) ... ...
C34000, C35000 Medium-leaded brasses 260 (500) 260 (500) ... ... ... ... ...
C35300, C35600, C36000, Leaded, free-cutting, and forging ... ... 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) ... ...
C37700 brasses
C43000 ... 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) ... ...
C43400 ... 275 (525) 275 (525) ... ... ... ... ...
C44300–C44500 Admiralty brasses ... ... ... ... ... 320 (610) 260 (500)
C46200, C46400–C46700 Naval brasses ... ... 290 (555) 250 (480) 260 (500) ... ...
C51000 Phosphor bronze A 275 (525) 275 (525) 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) ... ...
C52100 Phosphor bronze C ... ... 300 (570) 260 (500) 275 (525) ... ...
C54400 Phosphor bronze B-2 ... ... 300 (570) ... 275 (525) ... ...
C65100, C65500 Silicon bronzes ... ... 300 (570) 275 (525) 275 (525) ... ...
C68700 Aluminum brass, arsenical ... ... ... ... ... 330 (625) 290 (555)
C69700 ... ... ... 360 (680) 360 (680) 360 (680) ... ...
C70600 Copper-nickel, 10% 420 (790) 420 (790) ... ... ... 480 (895) 420 (790)
C71500 Copper-nickel, 30% 460 (860) 460 (860) ... ... ... 520 (970) 460 (860)
C73500 ... 380 (715) 380 (715) 400 (750) 350 (660) 380 (715) ... ...
C74500 Nickel silver, 65–10 ... ... 340 (645) 290 (555) 320 (610) ... ...
C75200 Nickel silver, 65–18 380 (715) 380 (715) ... ... ... ... ...
C75400 Nickel silver, 65–15 ... ... 400 (750) 350 (660) 380 (715) ... ...
C75700 Nickel silver, 65–12 ... ... 350 (660) 300 (570) 340 (645) ... ...
C77000 Nickel silver, 55–18 340 (645) 340 (645) ... ... ... ... ...
Note: Annealing time is 1 h, with the exception of tube. (a) Extra hard. (b) ½ hard. (c) Spring. (d) Annealing time for tube is 20 min. (e) Hard drawn

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Batch-type atmosphere furnaces (Fig. 9b)
may be heated electrically or by oil or gas. When
nonexplosive atmospheres are used, electrically
heated furnaces permit the atmosphere to be
introduced directly into the work chamber.
Furnaces that are heated by gas or oil and that
employ protective atmospheres sometimes have
a muffle to contain the atmosphere and protect
the work from the direct fire of the burners.
A properly constructed and safely operated
muffle that prevents the infiltration of air by
maintaining positive pressure is always required
when explosive atmospheres, such as hydrogen,
are used.
When protective atmospheres are used during
annealing, the work must be cooled in the atmo-
sphere almost to room temperature to prevent
surface scale or discoloration. Metal tempera-
tures above 65  C (150  F) in air may result in
light tarnishing. If some degree of surface oxida-
tion and discoloration can be tolerated, direct-
natural-gas-fired furnaces may be used. The pro-
ducts of combustion from the gas-air burners are
controlled to yield reducing combustion pro-
ducts similar in composition to manufactured
protective atmospheres. Parts annealed in reduc-
ing atmospheres developed by the control of the
furnace air-to-gas ratio require cleaning to
restore luster.
Continuous atmosphere furnaces (Fig. 9a
and 10) offer versatility for solution heat treat-
ing a wide variety of products. Usually, the fur-
nace consists of a vestibule that provides a seal
for the atmosphere and in some instances pre-
heats the work, a heating chamber of sufficient
Table 10 Typical stress-relieving
temperatures for cast copper alloys
Temperature
 
Copper alloy number C F
C81300–C82200 260
C82400–C82800 200
C83300–C84800 260
C95200–C95800 315
C96600–C97800 260
C99300 510
Note: Time is 1 h per 25 mm (1 in.) of section thickness except for
copper alloy C99300, for which it is 4 h per 25 mm (1 in.).
Atmosphere
Coveyor belt
Seal
Fig. 10 Continuous conveyor furnace for heat treating copper alloys in a controlled atmosphere
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Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys / 323
length to ensure complete solution treating,
and a cooling or quenching chamber that also
serves as an atmosphere seal.
Because the work usually is conveyed at a fixed
rate through the furnace, moderate temperature
gradients are less harmful than in batch furnaces.
When long heating chambers are required, the
furnace may be divided into more than one
temperature-controlled heating zone. It is practi-
cal to develop a high temperature in the entrance
zone to facilitate the heating of the work to the
desired temperature. The cooling chamber may
be either a long tunnel through which cool, protec-
tive atmosphere is circulated or a water-quench
zone supplied with a protective atmosphere.
Products such as stampings, machined shapes,
castings, and small assemblies are conveyed
through the furnace on an endless belt or con-
veyor chain. Long sections such as tubing, bar,
and flat products, or heavy sections that permit
stacking on trays, may be conveyed on a roller
hearth. In rolling-mill operations, the product is
uncoiled at the entrance of the furnace and pulled
through the furnace by terminal equipment at the
exit end; thus, there are no moving parts within
the furnace. For wire products, either annealing
is carried out in bell furnaces, with the wire reel
wound, or in-line resistance annealing is per-
formed upon exit of the product from the draw-
ing machine prior to reel winding.
Salt Baths. Molten neutral salts may be used
for the annealing, stress relieving, solution heat
treating, or aging of copper alloys. The compo-
sition of the salt mixture depends on the tem-
perature range required. For heating between
705 and 870  C (1300 and 1600  F), mixtures
of sodium chloride and potassium chloride
commonly are used. Various mixtures of bar-
ium chloride with sodium and potassium chlor-
ides are used for a wider temperature range
(595 to >1095  C, or 1100 to >2000  F). The
latter mixtures are compatible with each other
500 and commonly are used in multiple-furnace
390 operations when it is advantageous to preheat
500 the work in one mixture at a low temperature
600 and then transfer the work to a high-temperature
500
950 bath. The least common neutral salts are mix-
tures of calcium chloride, sodium chloride, and
barium chloride. They have an operating temper-
ature range of 540 to 870  C (1000 to 1600  F)
Atmosphere
Water Seal
Heating zone
Gas burners
Cooling zone
but usually are operated between 540 and
650  C (1100 and 1200  F).
The sodium chloride-carbonate mixtures (not
true neutral salts) are used between 595 and
925  C (1100 and 1700  F), primarily for
annealing. For operating temperatures below
540  C (1000  F), the only practical mixtures
are the nitrate-nitrite salts. Cyanide-base salts
have limited application for heating copper
alloys. Although copper is soluble in cyanide,
these salts can be used, with caution, when a
very bright finish is required.
None of the aforementioned salt mixtures can
be used for the solution treating of standard
beryllium-copper alloys because of intergranu-
lar attack, pitting, or discoloration.
Aging and stress-relieving operations
require furnace equipment that can be con-
trolled to within 3  C (5  F) throughout the
work zone. Unless cleaning after heating is per-
missible, it may be necessary to use controlled-
atmosphere or vacuum equipment.
Because of the necessity for close tempera-
ture control, forced-convection (recirculating-
air) and salt bath furnaces commonly are used
for aging and stress relieving. Forced-convection
furnaces may be of the box, bell, or pit type.
Each is equipped with a fan that recirculates
the constant-temperature atmosphere over the
work. When forced-convection furnaces are fired
by gas or oil and protective atmosphere or vac-
uum is used, the work must be contained in a
properly operating muffle chamber or retort to
seal off all products of combustion and to pre-
vent air infiltration. Temperature variations and
heating and cooling times are compared in the
following example.
Example 1: Comparison of Atmosphere
Furnaces and Salt Bath Treatment. A com-
parison was made of temperature variations in
a bell furnace and in a pit retort furnace during
the heat treating of small, flat springs made of
beryllium copper (Fig. 11). Both furnaces were
rated at 30 kW. The load in each furnace
weighed 90 kg (200 lb) and contained 55,000
to 60,000 springs. An exothermic gas, produced
by a generator using an air-to-gas ratio of
6.75:1 (capacity, 10 m3/h, or 350 ft3/h), was
used as the protective atmosphere. The compo-
sition of the atmosphere was 6.5% CO, 6%
CO2, 10% H2, balance N2, and the dewpoint
was 2  C (35  F) after refrigeration (18 to
21  C, or 65 to 70  F, as generated).
Salt baths can reduce total furnace time by
up to 30%, compared to that required with
atmosphere furnaces (Fig. 12). Salt baths are
particularly valuable when the age-hardening
time is of short duration and when the precise
control of time at the aging temperature is
required.
Commercially available nitrate-nitrite salt
mixtures (40 to 50% sodium nitrate, balance
sodium or potassium nitrite) that melt at 143  C
(290  F) are used for aging and stress relieving.
All material to be heated in salt should be prop-
erly cleaned and dried before being immersed
in the molten salt; any organic substance (such
 324 / Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys
Fig. 11 Temperature variations in two types of furnaces (Example 1). (a) Bell furnace. (b) Retort furnace
as oil or grease) will react violently with the
nitrate-nitrite salt.
Protective Atmospheres. The selection of
protective atmospheres for heat treating copper
and copper alloys is influenced by the tempera-
ture used in the heat treating process.
Heating above 705  C (1300  F). An exo-
thermic atmosphere is the least expensive protec-
tive atmosphere for the heat treatment of copper
alloys. The air-to-gas ratio is adjusted to produce
a combusted gas that contains 2 to 7% hydrogen
for use in muffle furnaces operating at 705 to
995  C (1300 to 1825  F). This atmosphere is
used successfully for solution treating alloys
such as beryllium-coppers, chromium-coppers,
zirconium-coppers, and copper-nickel-silicon
alloys.
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Aging time, min
Usually, combusted gases are dried with a sur-
face cooler, using tap water to keep the water-to-
hydrogen ratio reducing throughout the heating
and cooling cycle. It may be necessary to lower
the dewpoint further by refrigerating the gas. If
the furnace atmosphere is not sufficiently reduc-
ing, or if the muffle leaks air, a subscale, or inter-
nal oxidation of the hardening elements below
the surface of the metal, results. Subscale forma-
tion can occur rapidly above 845  C (1550  F) if
the atmosphere becomes oxidizing.
Dissociated ammonia is used primarily for
annealing and brazing operations. The gas is
very flammable and can explode if air enters
the furnace while at an elevated temperature
or if the furnace is improperly purged before
reaching the elevated temperature.
Thickness of strip, 0.001 in.
0 20 40 60 80
80
C17200
Solution annealed,
aged at 370 °C (700 °F)
60
Aged in air
40
20
Aged in salt
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Thickness of strip, mm
Fig. 12 Effect of metal thickness and heating medium
on aging time required to develop maximum
strength in C17200 strip
Dissociated ammonia can be partly or
completely burned with air to reduce cost and
flammability. The hydrogen content can be con-
trolled within a range of 1 to 24%, the balance
being nitrogen saturated with water vapor.
Water must be removed to maintain a reducing
atmosphere.
Hydrogen is highly reducing to copper oxide
at elevated temperatures and is recommended
for elevated-temperature bright annealing and
brazing.
Commercial hydrogen contains approxi-
mately 0.2% oxygen, which, if not removed,
may cause internal oxidation of the reactive
alloying elements in the copper.
When mixed with air, hydrogen is explosive
at elevated temperature. Therefore, the furnace
must be purged before being heated to high
temperature, and air must not enter the furnace.
Heating below 705  C (1300  F). Combusted
gas (lean exothermic atmosphere) is the most
widely used protective atmosphere for the
anneal of copper and copper alloys. Because
of its low sulfur content, natural gas is the pre-
ferred fuel for the production of combusted gas.
The air-to-gas ratio is adjusted to produce a
hydrogen content of 0.5 to 1%. Combusted
gas is dried before entering the furnace to pre-
vent discoloration and staining of the metal by
water vapor during the cooling cycle.
Steam is the most economical atmosphere for
protecting copper alloys during annealing.
Although the annealed metal is not as bright
as when heated in a combusted fuel-gas atmo-
sphere, it is satisfactory for some applications.
For products such as tightly wound coils of
strip, steam can be used during the heating
cycle, and combusted fuel gas can be used dur-
ing cooling.
Inert gases, dissociated ammonia burned with
air, and vacuum are more expensive and are not
in common use for the annealing of copper
alloys. A major disadvantage of vacuum is that
heating and cooling are slow because heat is
transferred by radiation only.