EE006-MIDTERMS

3.1. Introduction to Electrical Metering and

Measurements

What is a meter?

A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display

an electrical quantity in a form readable by a human being.
Usually this ”readable form” is visual: motion of a pointer
on a scale, a series of lights arranged to form a ”bargraph,”
or some sort of display composed of numerical figures. In
the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters
designed to accurately measure the basic quantities of
voltage, current, and resistance. There are many other
types of meters as well, but this chapter primarily covers
the design and operation of the basic three. Most modern Figure 1. Antique string galvanometer
meters are ”digital” in design, meaning that their readable The term "galvanometer" usually refers to any design of
display is in the form of numerical digits. Older designs of electromagnetic meter movement built for exceptional
meters are mechanical in nature, using some kind of sensitivity, and not necessarily a crude device such as that
pointer device to show quantity of measurement. In either shown in the photograph. Practical electromagnetic meter
case, the principles applied in adapting a display unit to movements can be made now where a pivoting wire coil is
the measurement of (relatively) large quantities of voltage, suspended in a strong magnetic field, shielded from the
current, or resistance are the same. The display majority of outside influences. Such an instrument design
mechanism of a meter is often referred to as a movement, is generally known as a permanent-magnet, moving coil, or
borrowing from its mechanical nature to move a pointer PMMC movement.
along a scale so that a measured value may be read. 

Most mechanical movements are based on the principle of

electromagnetism: that electric current through a
conductor produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the
axis of electron flow. The greater the electric current, the
stronger the magnetic field produced. If the magnetic field
formed by the conductor is allowed to interact with
another magnetic field, a physical force will be generated
between the two sources of fields. If one of these sources
is free to move with respect to the other, it will do so as
current is conducted through the wire, the motion (usually
against the resistance of a spring) being proportional to
strength of current.

The first meter movements built were known as

galvanometers, and were usually designed with maximum
sensitivity in mind. A very simple galvanometer may be Figure 2. A permanent-magnet, moving coil, or
made from a magnetized needle (such as the needle from PMMC movement.
a magnetic compass) suspended from a string, and
The meter movement will have a pair of metal connection
positioned within a coil of wire. Current through the wire
terminals on the back for current to enter and exit. Most
coil will produce a magnetic field which will deflect the
meter movements are polarity-sensitive, one direction of
needle from pointing in the direction of earth’s magnetic
current driving the needle to the right and the other
field. An antique string galvanometer is shown in Figure 1.
driving it to the left. Some meter movements have a
needle that is spring-centered in the middle of the scale
sweep instead of to the left, thus enabling measurements
of either polarity.

Common polarity-sensitive movements include the

D’Arsonval and Weston designs, both PMMC-type
instruments. Current in one direction through the wire will
produce a clockwise torque on the needle mechanism,
while current in the other direction will produce a counter-
clockwise torque.

Some meter movements are polarity-insensitive, relying

on the attraction of an unmagnetized, movable iron vane
toward a stationary, current-carrying wire to deflect the
Figure 2. Symbol for voltmeter.
needle. Such meters are ideally suited for the
measurement of alternating current (AC). A polarity-
sensitive movement would just vibrate back and forth
uselessly if connected to a source of AC. A voltmeter is an instrument that measures the
difference in electrical potential between two
Full-Scale Indication points in an electric circuit. An analog voltmeter
moves a pointer across a scale in proportion to
Whatever the type of meter or size of meter movement,
the circuit’s voltage; a digital voltmeter provides
there will be a rated value of voltage or current necessary
a numerical display. Any measurement that can
to give full-scale indication. In electromagnetic
be converted to voltage can be displayed on a
movements, this will be the “full-scale deflection current”
meter that is properly calibrated; such
necessary to rotate the needle so that it points to the
measurements include pressure, temperature,
exact end of the indicating scale. In electrostatic
and flow. On the other hand, an ammeter
movements, the full-scale rating will be expressed as the
measures the electric current in a circuit. The
value of voltage resulting in the maximum deflection of the
name is derived from the name for the SI unit for
needle actuated by the plates, or the value of voltage in a
electric current, amperes (A).
cathode-ray tube which deflects the electron beam to the
edge of the indicating screen. In digital “movements,” it is
the amount of voltage resulting in a “full-count” indication
on the numerical display: when the digits cannot display a
larger quantity.

3.2. Voltmeters and Ammeters

Voltmeters and ammeters measure the voltage and

current, respectively, of a circuit. Some meters in
automobile dashboards, digital cameras, cell phones, and Figure
tuner-amplifiers are voltmeters or ammeters. 3.
Digital
How are ammeters and voltmeters represented in a and
circuit? Analog Voltmeter
 Ammeters are typically represented by a circle Figure 4. Digital and Analog Ammeter
with a letter A inside (Figure 1).

How to use ammeters and voltmeters?

Ammeters measure the current through

Figure 1. Symbol for ammeter.
 Voltmeters are typically represented by a circle
with a letter V inside (Figure 2).
components. To measure the current going
through a component, the ammeter is
connected in series with the components we
want to investigate. Resistors in series
experience the same current (Figure 5). Typically,
ammeters have negligible resistance, so they do
not affect the circuit.
 For example, if we want to find the current
through R 1 in the circuit below, the ammeter is
placed in series with R 1.
Figure 5.  Ammeter placed on a circuit
In Figure 5, Ammeter A 1 in series with R 1 so it
measures the current through R 1. Ammeter A 2 in series
with R 2 so it measures the current through R 2.
Ammeter A 3 in series with the battery so it measures the
current through it.
Voltmeters measure the electric potential drop
across components. The voltmeter is placed in parallel
with the component of interest because components in
parallel experience the same potential difference.
In Figure 6, if we want to measure the electric
potential drop across resistor R 2, the voltmeter should be
arranged in parallel with the resistor (R 2).
Figure 6. A voltmeter placed on a circuit
Voltmeter V in parallel measures potential drop
across resistor R 2 in the circuit.
3.3. Ohmmeters
Though mechanical ohmmeter (resistance
meter) designs are rarely used today, having largely been
superseded by digital instruments, their operation is
nonetheless intriguing and worthy of study. The purpose
of an ohmmeter, of course, is to measure the resistance
placed between its leads. This resistance reading is
indicated through a mechanical meter movement which
operates on electric current. The ohmmeter must then
have an internal source of voltage to create the necessary
current to operate the movement, and also have
appropriate ranging resistors to allow just the right
amount of current through the movement at any given
resistance.
Figure 1.  Analog Ohmmeter
When there is infinite resistance (no continuity
between test leads), there is zero current through the
meter movement, and the needle points toward the far
left of the scale. In this regard, the ohmmeter indication is
”backwards” because maximum indication (infinity) is on
the left of the scale, while voltage and current meters have
zero at the left of their scales. If the test leads of this
ohmmeter are directly shorted together (measuring zero ),
the meter movement will have a maximum amount of
current through it, limited only by the battery voltage and
the movement’s internal resistance.
Ohmmeter Working Principle
The working principle of ohmmeter is, it comprises of a
needle and two test leads. The needle deflection can be
controlled with the battery current. Initially, the two test
leads of the meter can be shorted together to calculate the
resistance of an electrical circuit. Once the two leads of the
meter are shorted, then the meter can be changed for
appropriate action in a fixed range. The needle comes back
to the highest point on the meter scale, and the current in
the meter will be highest. An ohmmeter circuit diagram is
shown below.
Figure 2. Basic Ohmmeter Circuit Diagram
Once the testing of the circuit is done then the
test leads of the meter must be detached. Once the two
test leads of the meter are connected to the circuit then
the battery gets discharged. When the test leads get
shorted then the rheostat will be adjusted. The meter
needle can be reached to the lowest position that is zero,
and then there will be zero resistance among the two test
leads.
Types of Ohmmeter
The classification of this meter can be done based on the
application in three types namely series type ohmmeter,
shunt type ohmmeter, and multi-range type ohmmeter.
1. Series Type Ohmmeter
In series type ohmmeter, the component which we want
to measure can be connected with the meter in series. The
resistance value can be calculated through the shunt
resistor R2 using D’Arsonval movement which is connected
parallel. The R2 resistance can be connected in series with
the battery as well as R1 resistance. The measuring
component is connected in series by the two terminals A
as well as B.
Figure 3. Series Type Ohmmeter
Whenever the measuring component value is zero then
there will be a huge flow of current through the meter. In
this situation, the shunt resistance can be corrected until
the meter specifies the full-load current. For this current,
the needle turns aside in the direction of 0 ohms.
Whenever the measuring component is detached from the
circuit then the circuit resistance turns into the unlimited
& flow of current in the circuit. The needle of the meter
deflects towards the infinity. The meter illustrates the
infinite resistance when there is no flow of current & the
zero resistance once the huge flow of current through it.
Whenever the measuring component is connected in
series with the circuit, and the resistance of that circuit is
higher, the meter needle will deflect in the direction of the
left. And if the resistance is little, then needle turn aside in
the direction of right.
2. Shunt Type Ohmmeter
The connection of shunt type ohmmeter can be done
whenever the calculating component is connected in
parallel with the battery. This type of circuit is used to
calculate the low-value resistance. The following circuit
can be built with the meter, the battery, and the
measuring component. The measuring component can be
connected across the terminals A & B.
Figure 4. Shunt Type Ohmmeter
When the resistance value of the component is
zero then the current in the meter will become zero.
Similarly, when the resistance of the component becomes
vast then the flow of current through the battery & the
needle illustrates the full-scale deflection in the direction
of the left. This type of meter has no current on the scale
in the direction of left as well as the infinity spot in their
right direction.
3. Multi-Range Ohmmeter
The multi-range ohmmeter range is very high,
and this meter includes an adjuster, and the range of a
meter can be selected by an adjuster based on the
requirement.
Figure 5. Multi-Range Type Ohmmeter
For instance, consider we utilize a meter to
calculate the resistance below 10 ohms. So initially, we
need to fix the resistance value to 10 ohms. The measuring
component is connected with the meter in parallel. The
resistance magnitude can be decided by the deflection of
the needle.
Applications of Ohmmeter
The uses of the ohmmeter include the following.
 This meter can be used to ensure the continuity
of the circuit which means if the sufficient flow
of current or huge flow of current through the
circuit then the circuit will be detached.
 These are broadly used in electronic labs in
engineering to test the electronic components.
 These are used for small ICs for debugging such
as PCBs & other stuff which requires to be
executed in sensitive devices.
This meter is used to measure the resistance as
well as the connection of the components in an electrical
circuit. It measures the resistance in ohms. The micro-
ohmmeter is used to calculate low-resistance; mega
ohmmeter is used to calculate the high-resistance. and this
meter can be used extremely convenient.
3.4. Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a
VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions
in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such
as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog
multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often
abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are
usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves
over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements
that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits,
but may display a bar of a length proportional to the
quantity being measured. A multimeter can be a hand-held
device useful for basic fault finding and field service work
or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high
degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot
electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor
controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring
systems.
Seeing as how a common meter movement can
be made to function as a voltmeter, ammeter, or
ohmmeter simply by connecting it to different external
resistor networks, it should make sense that a multi-
purpose meter (”multimeter”) could be designed in one
unit with the appropriate switch(es) and resistors. For
general purpose electronics work, the multimeter reigns
supreme as the instrument of choice. No other device is
able to do so much with so little an investment in parts
and elegant simplicity of operation. As with most things in
the world of electronics, the advent of solid-state
components like transistors has revolutionized the way
things are done, and multimeter design is no exception to
this rule. However, in keeping with this discussion’s
emphasis on analog (”old-fashioned”) meter technology,
I’ll show you a few pre-transistor meters.
Figure 1.  Analog Multimeter
The unit shown above is typical of a handheld
analog multimeter, with ranges for voltage, current, and
resistance measurement. Note the many scales on the face
of the meter movement for the different ranges and
functions that can be selected by the rotary switch. The
wires for connecting this instrument to a circuit (test
probes) are plugged into the two copper jacks (socket
holes) at the bottom-center of the meter face marked ”- , Note that when there are multiple values being
+”, black and red. measured on the same scale, you’ll need to pay
attention to which port the multitester is
connected to. Match the port up with the value
The parts of a multitester are: being measured.

Adjustment Screw
 A Scale
Also known as the dial or infinity knob. This
 A Needle or Pointer
allows you to adjust the pointer to the zero
 An Adjustment Screw position of the scale – usually with the help of a
flat head screwdriver (check out our best
 A Zero Ohm Selector electricians screwdriver sets if you’re looking for
a good set).
 A Range Selector Knob
Fun fact: the name ‘infinity knob’ comes from
 Ports
the fact that at 0 voltage, you have ‘infinite
 Test Probes resistance’ (as per Ohm’s law).

Zero-Ohm Adjustment Knob

The zero-ohm adjustment knob is used to

calibrate the multitester when you want to
measure the resistance of an object.

To make sure the multitester is calibrated

correctly:

 Turn on the multitester

 Connect the metal tips of the two probes.

 Use the zero-ohm adjustment knob to adjust the

Figure 2. Modern-day Analog multimeter
Scale
This is how you read the value being measured.
For an analog multitester, this is a series of
markings in a semicircle.
needle to point to ‘0 ohms’ on the scale
And that’s it! Since you’re not putting anything
between the two metal tips, you would expect
the multitester to read a resistance value of zero.
If that’s not the case – then you need to use the
zero-ohm adjustment knob to calibrate the
multitester to… zero ohms!
Figure 3. Zero-ohm adjustment knob calibration

In the example above, voltage, current, and

resistance can be displayed. Which value you are
measuring depends on what port you plugged
into on your analog multitester.

Needle Pointer

This is the needle-shaped rod that moves over

the scale of a meter.

The needle pointer is mechanically connected to

the moving coil. The value the pointer hovers
over indicates the value being measured by the
multitester. Range Selector Knob
 Also known as a selector switch. This allows you
to adjust the settings of the multitester (range
selector knobs are also present on the best
insulation resistance testers).
Using this you can change what the multitester is
measuring (e.g. voltage, current, or resistance),
as well as the range of the measurement(e.g.
volts or millivolts).
The range selector knob can be auto ranging,
or manual ranging.
Figure 4. Ranging
Auto ranging is much easier to work with. You
simply adjust the dial to the symbol
corresponding the the electrical parameter you
want to measure. You connect the test probes
and like magic – you have your measurement.
Manual ranging on the other hand is a little bit
trickier. With manual ranging, you need adjust
the dial so that the value its set to is higher than
the maximum value you expect from your circuit.
Let’s run through an example. In the image
above, the multitester measures current using a
manual range setting. The setting values are:
 400 µA
 4 mA
 40 mA
 400 mA
 10 A
So lets say I have a circuit where I expect the
maximum current to be 300 mA. I now need to
select the manual setting which is higher than
my expected maximum current. Hence I should
adjust the range selector switch to the 400 mA
setting.
In another circuit where I expect a maximum
current of 6 A, I would adjust the selector switch
to the 10 A setting. Here the 400 mA setting
would be too low, as 400 mA < 6 A
(remembering that 6 A = 6000 mA).
Ports
The holes at the front of the multitester are
known as ports. You need you plug your test
probes into the appropriate ports to allow the
multitester to measure the parameter that
you’re interested in.
Test Probes
A test probe (or test lead) is an instrument used
to connect a multitester to a Device Under Test
(DUT).
Test probes are flexible, insulated wires. They
are able to establish an electrical connection
between a multitester and the DUT without
exposing electrical workers to live conductive
parts.
Red test probes connect to the positive terminal,
and black test probes connect to the negative
terminal.
The best multimeter test leads are well
insulated, strong, and low cost – while bad test
probes can be expensive and fragile.
For a simple handheld multitester, the strong
low-cost test leads are usually sufficient.
 Types of Probes
The types of probes include:
 Banana plug to Simple Test
Probes
 Banana plug to Alligator Clips
 Banana plug to IC Hook
 Banana plug to Tweezers
 Figure 5. Digital Multimeter

Lastly, here is a picture of a digital multimeter.

Note that the familiar meter movement has been replaced
by a blank, gray-colored display screen. When powered,
numerical digits appear in that screen area, depicting the
amount of voltage, current, or resistance being measured.
This particular brand and model of digital meter has a
rotary selector switch and four jacks into which test leads
can be plugged. Two leads – one red and one black – are
shown plugged into the meter A close examination of this
meter will reveal one ”common” jack for the black test
lead and three others for the red test lead. The jack into
which the red lead is shown inserted is labeled for voltage
and resistance measurement, while the other two jacks
are labeled for current (A, mA, and μA) measurement. This
is a wise design feature of the multimeter, requiring the
user to move a test lead plug from one jack to another in
order to switch from the voltage measurement to the
current measurement function. It would be hazardous to
have the meter set in current measurement mode while
connected across a significant source of voltage because of
the low input resistance, and making it necessary to move
a test lead plug rather than just flip the selector switch to a
different position helps ensure that the meter doesn’t get
set to measure current unintentionally. Note that the
selector switch still has different positions for voltage and
current measurement, so in order for the user to switch
between these two modes of measurement they must
switch the position of the red test lead and move the
selector switch to a different position. Also note that
neither the selector switch nor the jacks are labeled with
measurement ranges. In other words, there are no ”100
volt” or ”10 volt” or ”1 volt” ranges (or any equivalent
range steps) on this meter. Rather, this meter is
”autoranging,” meaning that it automatically picks the
appropriate range for the quantity being measured.
Autoranging is a feature only found on digital meters, but
not all digital meters. No two models of multimeters are
designed to operate exactly the same, even if they’re
manufactured by the same company. In order to fully
understand the operation of any multimeter, the owner’s
manual must be consulted.
Figure 6. Barnett Multimeter
Note that there are three types of scales on this
meter face: a green scale for resistance at the top, a set of
black scales for DC voltage and current in the middle, and
a set of blue scales for AC voltage and current at the
bottom. Both the DC and AC scales have three sub-scales,
one ranging 0 to 2.5, one ranging 0 to 5, and one ranging 0
to 10. The meter operator must choose whichever scale
best matches the range switch and plug settings in order to
properly interpret the meter’s indication. This particular
multimeter has several basic voltage measurement ranges:
2.5 volts, 10 volts, 50 volts, 250 volts, 500 volts, and 1000
volts. With the use of the voltage range extender unit at
the top of the multimeter, voltages up to 5000 volts can be
measured. Suppose the meter operator chose to switch
the meter into the ”volt” function and plug the red test
lead into the 10 volt jack. To interpret the needle’s
position, he or she would have to read the scale ending
with the number ”10”. If they moved the red test plug into
the 250 volt jack, however, they would read the meter
indication on the scale ending with ”2.5”, multiplying the
direct indication by a factor of 100 in order to find what
the measured voltage was. If current is measured with this
meter, another jack is chosen for the red plug to be
inserted into and the range is selected via a rotary switch.
This close-up photograph shows the switch set to the 2.5
mA position:

With all three fundamental functions available, this

multimeter may also be known as a volt-ohm-
milliammeter. Obtaining a reading from an analog
multimeter when there is a multitude of ranges and only
one meter movement may seem daunting to the new
technician. On an analog multimeter, the meter movement
is marked with several scales, each one useful for at least
one range setting. Here is a close-up photograph of the
scale from the Barnett multimeter:
 Figure 7. Rotary Switch
Note how all current ranges are power-of-ten multiples
of the three scale ranges shown on the meter face: 2.5, 5,
and 10. In some range settings, such as the 2.5 mA for
example, the meter indication may be read directly on the
0 to 2.5 scale. For other range settings (250 μA, 50 mA, 100
mA, and 500 mA), the meter indication must be read off
the appropriate scale and then multiplied by either 10 or
100 to obtain the real figure. The highest current range
available on this meter is obtained with the rotary switch
in the 2.5/10 amp position. The distinction between 2.5
amps and 10 amps is made by the red test plug position: a
special ”10 amp” jack next to the regular current-
measuring jack provides an alternative plug setting to
select the higher range. Resistance in ohms, of course, is
read by a nonlinear scale at the top of the meter face. It is
”backward,” just like all battery-operated analog
ohmmeters, with zero at the right-hand side of the face
and infinity at the left-hand side. There is only one jack
provided on this particular multimeter for ”ohms,” so
different resistance-measuring ranges must be selected by
the rotary switch. Notice on the switch how five different
”multiplier” settings are provided for measuring
resistance: Rx1, Rx10, Rx100, Rx1000, and Rx10000. Just as
you might suspect, the meter indication is given by
multiplying whatever needle position is shown on the
meter face by the power-of-ten multiplying factor set by
the rotary switch.
3.5. Cable Insulation Resistance Testers
Insulation starts to age as soon as it's made. As it ages, its
insulating performance deteriorates. Any harsh installation
environments, especially those with temperature
extremes and/or chemical contamination, accelerates this
process. This deterioration can result in dangerous
conditions in power reliability and personnel safety. As
such, it's important to identify this deterioration quickly so
that corrective steps can be taken. One of the simplest
tests and its required test instrument are not universally
understood. To help eliminate this lack of understanding,
let's discuss in detail Insulation Resistance (IR) testing and
the megohmmeter.
What is "good" insulation?
You have seen that good insulation has high resistance;
poor insulation, relatively low resistance. The actual
resistance values can be higher or lower, depending upon
such factors as the temperature or moisture content of the
insulation (resistance decreases in temperature or
moisture). With a little record-keeping and common sense,
however, you can get a good picture of the insulation
condition from values that are only relative. The Megger
insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives
you a direct reading of insulation resistance in ohms or
megohms. For good insulation, the resistance usually reads
in the megohm range. The Megger insulation tester is
essentially a high-range resistance meter
(ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-current generator. This
meter is of special construction with both current and
voltage coils, enabling true ohms to be read directly,
independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is
nondestructive; that is, it does not cause deterioration of
the insulation.
Figure 1. Typical Megger test instrument hook-
up to measure insulation resistance.
The generator can be hand-cranked or line-
operated to develop a high DC voltage which
causes a small current through and over surfaces
of the insulation being tested (Figure 1). This
current (usually at an applied voltage of 500
volts or more) is measured by the ohmmeter,
which has an indicating scale. Figure 4shows a
typical scale, which reads increasing resistance
values from left up to infinity, or a resistance too
high to be measured.

Essentially, “good” means a relatively high resistance to

current. Used to describe an insulation material, “good”
would also mean “the ability to keep a high resistance.”
So, a suitable way of measuring resistance can tell you
how “good” the insulation is. Also, if you take
measurements at regular periods, you can check trends
toward its deterioration.
 Figure 2. Typical scale on the Megger insulation
tester.
Insulation resistance readings should be
considered relative. They can be quite different
for one motor or machine tested three days in a
row, yet not mean bad insulation. What really
matters is the trend in readings over a time
period, showing lessening resistance and
warning of coming problems. Periodic testing is,
therefore, your best approach to preventive
maintenance of electrical equipment.
You should make these periodic tests in the
same way each time. That is, with the same test
connections and with the same test voltage
applied for the same length of time. Also you
should make tests at about the same
temperature, or correct them to the same
temperature. A record of the relative humidity
near the equipment at the time of the test is also
helpful in evaluating the reading and trend. Later
sections cover temperature
correction and humidity effects.
In summary, here are some general observations
about how you can interpret periodic insulation
resistance tests, and what you should do with
the result:
Remember that the measured resistance (of the
insulation) will be determined by the voltage applied and
the resultant current (R = E/I). There are a number of
things that affect current, including temperature of the
insulation and humidity. Right now, let’s just consider the
nature of current through insulation and the effect of how
long voltage is applied. Current through and along
insulation is made up partly of a relatively steady current
in leakage paths over the insulation surface. Electricity also
flows through the volume of the insulation. Actually,  our
total current comprises three components:
1. Capacitance Charging Current
2. Absorption Current
3. Conduction or Leakage Current
Current that starts out high and drops after the
insulation has been charged to full voltage (much
like water flow in a garden hose when you first
turn on the plug).
3.6. Energy Meters
Watt hour meter or energy meter is an instrument which
measures amount of electrical energy used by the
consumers. Utilities install these instruments at every place
like homes, industries, organizations to charge the
electricity consumption by loads such as lights, fans and
other appliances. Most interesting type are  used as prepaid
electricity meters.
Basic unit of power is watts. One thousand watts is one
kilowatt. If we use one kilowatt in one hour, it is considered
as one unit of energy consumed. These meters measure the
instantaneous voltage and currents, calculate its product
and gives instantaneous power. This power is integrated
over a period which gives the energy utilized over that time
period.
Figure.1 Types of Energy Meters
These may be single or three phase meters depending on
the supply utilized by domestic or commercial installations.
For small service measurements like domestic customers,
these can be directly connected between line and load.
But for larger loads, step down current transformers must
be placed to isolate energy meters from higher currents.
Energy meter or watt hour meter is classified in
accordance with several factors such as:
 Type of display like analog or digital electric
meter.
 Type of metering point like grid, secondary
transmission, primary and local distribution.
 End applications like domestic, commercial and
industrial.
 Technical like three phases, single phase, HT, LT
and accuracy class meters.
3 Basic types of Energy meters
1.) Electromechanical induction type Energy
meter
Figure. 2 Induction Type Energy Meter
It is the popularly known and most common type
of age old watt hour meter. It consists of rotating
aluminum disc mounted on a spindle between
two electromagnets. Speed of rotation of disc is
proportional to the power and this power is
integrated by the use of counter mechanism and
gear trains. It comprises of two silicon steel
laminated electromagnets i.e., series and shunt
magnets.
Series magnet carries a coil which is of few turns
of thick wire connected in series with line
whereas shunt magnet carries coil with many
turns of thin wire connected across the supply.
Breaking magnet is a permanent magnet which
applies the force opposite to normal disc
rotation to move that disc at balanced position
and to stop the disc while power is off
Figure. 3 Working of induction type energy
meter
Series magnet produces the flux which is
proportional to the current flowing and shunt
magnet produces the flux proportional to the
voltage. These two fluxes lag by 90 degrees due
to inductive nature. The interaction of these two
fields produces eddy current in the disk, exerting
a force, which is proportional to product of
instantaneous voltage, current and phase angle
between them Vertical spindle or shaft of the
aluminum disc is connected to gear arrangement
which records a number, proportional to the
number of revolutions of the disc. This gear
arrangement sets the number in a series of dials
and indicates energy consumed over a time. This
type of meter is simple in construction and
accuracy is somewhat less due to creeping and
other external fields. A major problem with
these types of meters is their easy prone to
tampering, leading to a requirement of an
electrical energy monitoring system. These are
very commonly used in domestic and industrial
applications.
2.) Electronic Energy meters
These are of accurate, high procession and
reliable types of measuring instruments as
 compared to conventional mechanical meters. It
consumes less power and starts measuring
instantaneously when connected to load. These
meters might be analog or digital. In analog
meters, power is converted to proportional
frequency or pulse rate and it is integrated by
counters placed inside it. In digital electric meter
power is directly measured by high end
processor. The power is integrated by logic
circuits to get the energy and also for testing and
calibration purpose. It is then converted to
frequency or pulse rate
 Analog Electronic Energy Meters  stores all these values in a non volatile memory EEPROM.
In analog type meters, voltage and current
values of each phase are obtained by voltage
divider and current transformers respectively
which are directly connected to the load as
shown in figure.
Figure.4 Analog Electronic Meters
Analog to digital converter converts these analog
values to digitized samples and it is then
converted to corresponding frequency signals by
frequency converter. These frequency pulses
then drive a counter mechanism where these
samples are integrated over a time to produce
the electricity consumption.
 Digital Electronic Energy Meters 
Digital signal processor or high performance
microprocessors are used in digital electric
meters. Similar to the analog meters, voltage
and current transducers are connected to a high
resolution ADC. Once it converts analog signals
to digital samples, voltage and current samples
are multiplied and integrated by digital circuits
to measure the energy consumed.
Figure. 5 Digital Electronic Energy Meters
Microprocessor also calculates phase angle between
voltage and current, so that it also measures and indicates
reactive power. It is programmed in such a way that it
calculates energy according to the tariff and other
parameters like power factor, maximum demand, etc and
It contains real time clock (RTC) for calculating time for
power integration, maximum demand calculations and
also date and time stamps for particular parameters.
Furthermore it interacts with liquid crystal display (LCD),
communication devices and other meter outputs. Battery
is provided for RTC and other significant peripherals for
backup power.
3.) Smart Energy Meters
It is an advanced metering technology involving placing
intelligent meters to read, process and feedback the data
to customers. It measures energy consumption, remotely
switches the supply to customers and remotely controls
the maximum electricity consumption. Smart metering
system uses the advanced metering infrastructure system
technology for better performance.
Figure 6. Structure of smart metering
These are capable of communicating in both directions.
They can transmit the data to the utilities like energy
consumption, parameter values, alarms, etc and also can
receive information from utilities such as automatic meter
reading system, reconnect/disconnect instructions,
upgrading of meter software’s and other important
messages. These meters reduce the need to visit while
taking or reading monthly bill. Modems are used in these
smart meters to facilitate communication systems such as
telephone, wireless, fiber cable, power line
communications. Another advantage of smart metering is
complete avoidance of tampering of energy meter where
there is scope of using power in an illegal way.