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Creating a conducive learning environment for effective integration of ICT:

Classroom management issues

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Jl. of Interactive Learning Research (2003) 14(4), 405-423

Creating a Conducive Learning Environment

for the Effective Integration of ICT:
Classroom Management Issues

LIM CHER PING, YIONG HWEE TEO, PHILIP WONG,

MYINT SWE KHINE, CHING SING CHAI, SHANTI DIVAHARAN
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
cplim@nie.edu.sg

This article reports and discusses the findings of the collec-

tive case study of two primary schools in Singapore. It is part
of a larger funded research project that examines and analy-
ses where and how information and communication tech-
nologies (ICT) are integrated in Singapore schools to develop
pupils’ higher order thinking skills. The focus of this article is
on classroom management issues that create a conducive
environment to facilitate the effective integration of ICT in
the schools. In such an environment, pupils are more likely to
be task-oriented and reflective, and hence, more likely to
engage in higher order thinking. Using activity theory as a
framework, the following classroom management issues are
discussed: availability of ICT resources, establishment of
rules and procedures, support of ICT-based activities by non-
ICT and ICT tools, and division of labour among participants.

The primary motivation for integrating ICT in education is that it supports

pupils in their own constructive thinking, allows them to transcend their
cognitive limitations, and engages them in cognitive operations they may
not have been capable of otherwise (Salomon, 1993). Many large-scale stud-
ies have documented the positive learning outcomes of using ICT in schools
(Sivin-Kachala, 1998; Wenglinsky, 1998; Mann, Shakeshaft, Becker, & Kot-
tkamp, 1999). These studies claimed that ICT develops a culture of thinking;
one that “engages students with challenging yet personally meaningful prob-
lems, draws on students’ conceptual and cultural world of experiences, and
promotes active and independent learning among students” (Fisher, Dwyer,
& Yocam, 1996, p.10). However, the focus of these studies is on how ICT
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406 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

facilitates the development of higher order thinking skills in a conducive

learning environment, where classroom management issues are assumed to
have been addressed.
In reality, conducive learning environments do not just happen, they are
the result of effective classroom management that establish and maintain
work systems for pupils to engage in their learning. A conducive learning
environment is one that is task-oriented and predictable, where pupils know
what is expected of them and how to succeed (Sanford, Emmer, & Clements,
1983). Pupils in these classrooms are consistently engaged in the learning
tasks that their teachers have set for them and very few pupil behaviours
interfere with those tasks (Emmer & Evertson, 1981; Doyle, 1990; Munn,
Johnstone, & Chalmers, 1990). Research studies have shown a positive cor-
relation between engaged time, appropriate academic activities, and high
academic achievement, and the need to structure classrooms to promote on-
task behaviours (Brophy, 1979; Good, 1982; Brophy & Good, 1986). There-
fore, a conducive learning environment is a necessary condition for the
effective integration of ICT to engage pupils in higher order thinking.
Based on a collective case study of two primary schools in Singapore,
this article discusses classroom management issues that create a conducive
learning environment to support the effective integration of ICT in schools.
The collective case study is part of a larger Ministry of Education (Singa-
pore) funded research project that examines and analyses where and how
ICT is integrated in Singapore schools to develop pupils’ higher order think-
ing skills. Using activity theory as a framework, the classroom management
issues are discussed in each of the following categories: availability of ICT
tools (hardware and software), establishment of rules and procedures, sup-
port of ICT-based activities by non-ICT and ICT tools, and division of
labour among participants (teachers, pupils, and technical assistants) in the
learning environment.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Kounin (1970, p.63) defined effective classroom management as “producing
a high rate of work involvement and a low rate of deviancy in academic set-
tings.” It includes “the provisions and procedures necessary to establish and
maintain an environment in which instruction and learning can occur and the
preparation of the classroom as an effective learning environment” (Fraser,
1983, p.68). A well-managed classroom is then one in which pupils are con-
sistently engaged in the learning tasks with few pupil off-task behaviours.
The literature reviewed in this section discusses the classroom management
issues that create a conducive environment for the effective integration of
ICT in schools.
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 407

Availability of ICT Tools

Pelgrum (2001), in a worldwide survey among schools from 26 countries,
found that the most frequently mentioned problem of integrating ICT in edu-
cation was the insufficient number of computers. This was echoed by
Williams, Coles, Wilson, Richardson, and Tuson (2000) who found that a
limited availability of ICT led to problems of classroom management and
organization of resources. Cheung (1997) observed that pupils tended to lose
concentration when the group working on a computer was too big. Given the
large number of members in the group and the limited amount of time a
teacher has for each lesson, there was not enough opportunity for each pupil
to have a turn at the computer.
Beside the issue of an insufficient number of computers, Pelgrum (2001)
found that insufficient peripherals and learning software were in the top ten
list of problems related to ICT integration in schools. When peripherals such
as earphones and microphones, and copies of learning software were insuf-
ficient, teachers experienced great difficulty in planning and conducting
lessons even if there were enough computers (Cheung, 1997).

Supporting Activities for ICT Tools

Using ICT in the classroom involves organising supporting activities for the
ICT tool. Potter (2000, p.125) recommended the principle of discussing with
pupils “the difficulties that they have to overcome in familiarising them-
selves with the onscreen layout of the particular piece of software.” Potter
(2000) suggested that teachers could print out screens to help the pupils
become familiar with the new layouts they would be encountering. Indeed,
one cannot simply assume that pupils are comfortable with any ICT software
or hardware that they handle. It is thus the responsibility of the teachers to
conduct ICT-based activities in such a way that every pupil understands and
follows whatever is going on in the lesson.

Establishment of Rules and Procedures

In any learning environment, ICT-based or non-ICT-based ones, some
degree of order and regularity is essential if pupils are to work productively
and consistently toward instructional objectives (Doyle, 1990; Gettinger
1988). A classroom without any guidelines for appropriate behaviours is
very likely to be chaotic and unproductive. Potter (2000) suggested that a
bank of regular sayings, which emphasised good practices, be put on the
notice board of the computer room for all pupils to see. These are the rules
and procedures that state the expected pupil behaviour to create an effective
and harmonious learning environment in ICT-based lessons. Evertson,
Emmer, Clements, and Worsham (1997, p.20) suggested five different cate-
gories of rules and procedures for the classroom: (a) procedures for room
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408 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

use, (b) procedures for teacher-led instruction, (c) Procedures for moving in
and out of the room, (d) Procedures for group work, and (e) general proce-
dures, such as distribution of materials and fire drills.
These rules and procedures are to be integrated into a workable system
by teachers and should be deliberately taught to the pupils. By making the
rules and procedures “concrete, explicit, and functional,” order in the learn-
ing environment and pupils’ work accomplishment are achieved (Doyle,
1986, p.410). Although many of these rules and procedures are established
in “regular” classrooms, they can still be applied in ICT-based learning envi-
ronments (Wong, 2000).

Technical Support for Teachers

In addition to the previously mentioned issues and strategies, teachers also
need certain support to effectively integrate ICT in their lessons. According to
Wong (2000), the most common problem a teacher faces when conducting an
ICT-lesson is pupils encountering technical problems. It is therefore crucial to
provide teachers with technical support, especially help in trouble-shooting
ICT-related problems (Parks & Pisapia, 1994). The teachers can then concen-
trate on conducting the actual lessons. Technical support can come from a
variety of sources, such as a computer technician employed by the school, and
from the pupils themselves. The latter can be trained to assist other students in
solving simple technical problems (Marcovitz, Hamza, & Farrow, 2000).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

To study the classroom management issues that create a conducive environ-
ment for the effective integration of ICT in schools, the conceptual frame-
work of activity theory is adopted to provide a well-developed and consis-
tent design for the study. It focuses on the whole configuration of classroom
management related activities during ICT-based lessons.

Overview of Activity Theory

Over the last decade, activity theory has been adopted and developed as a
framework for researching ICT in education settings (Holland & Reeves,
1994; Verenikina & Gould, 1997; Engeström, 1999). Activity theory draws
on the Vygotskian cultural-historical theory of learning, with activity as
probably the most important concept. Activity is driven by a collective
object (goal) and motive, but it is realised in goal-oriented individual and
group actions. The centrality of activity to psychology is reflected in Leon-
t’ev’s (1981, p.46-47) assertion:
Human psychology is concerned with the activity of concrete individuals,
which takes place whether in a collective – that is, jointly with other people
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 409

– or in a situation in which the subject deals directly with the surrounding

world of objects – e.g. at the potter’s wheel or the writer’s desk…if we
removed human activity from the system of social relationships and social
life, it would not exist…the human individual’s activity is a system in the
system of social relations. It does not exist without these relations.

Therefore, activities are systems in the system of social relations. A

human individual never acts directly on, or reacts directly to, the environ-
ment. Cultural means, tools, and signs mediate the relationship between
human participants and the objects of the environment. In this sense, the
study of ICT in schools is no longer restricted to the interaction between the
computer and the participants, but rather how ICT is embodied within a
socially constituted learning environment (Crook, 1991).

Activity System as Unit of Analysis

Cultural-historical activity theory takes a collective object-oriented activity
system as its prime unit of analysis (Cole & Engeström, 1993; Engeström,
Miettinen, & Punamäki, 1998). The unit of analysis allows one to observe
the actual learning processes in context, where the context is the activity sys-
tem. It integrates the subject (individual participant), the object, the tools,
and the dynamic nature of human activities. Cole and Engeström (1993) rep-
resented the idea of activity systems with an expanded version of the classi-
cal mediational triangle (Figure 1).

Mediating Tools

Subject Object Outcome

Division
Rules of Labor
Community Adapted from Cole and Engeström, 1993, p.8

Figure 1. The mediational structure of an activity system

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410 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

The classical mediational triangle draws on Vygotsky’s (1978) higher and

elementary functioning: “unmediated” (elementary) functioning occurs
along the base of the triangle, and “mediated” (higher) functioning is the
interaction between the subject and object (task) mediated by tools at the
vertex of the triangle. However, this basic mediational triangle fails to
account for the collective and dynamic nature of activities. The expanded
version situates the subject in a community comprising of multiple individ-
uals and groups who share the same general object. There is division of
labour in the community where the distribution of tasks, powers, and respon-
sibilities are continuously negotiated among its participants. And there are
rules that mediate the relations between the subject and its community to
“specify and regulate the expected correct procedures and acceptable inter-
actions among the participants” (Cole & Engeström 1993, p.7).
Adopting activity system as the unit of analysis for this study, the subject
is the teacher in the ICT-based lesson and the object is the effective man-
agement of the ICT-based lesson. The outcome will then be a conducive
learning environment that provides the necessary condition for the effective
integration of ICT. The teacher is one of the participants of the community
in the ICT-based lesson where the community consists of the teachers,
pupils, and technology assistants (TA). In this community, there is division
of labour among its participants to mediate the creation of the conducive
learning environment. Rules and tools in the ICT-based lessons also help to
mediate between the teacher and the effective management of the lesson.

The Collective Case Study

To provide an in-depth examination of the classroom management issues
that create a conducive environment for the effective integration of ICT in
schools, a collective case study approach is adopted. The collective case
study is the study of the particularities and complexities of cases obtained by
extensive descriptions and analysis of those cases taken as a whole and in
their context (Stake, 1995). The “cases” for the study in this article are two
primary schools in Singapore, East Primary, and North Primary School. The
two schools are selected based on their high degree of ICT integration
reported in a questionnaire survey of all Singapore schools.
The questionnaire survey consists of five different categories: School
ICT culture, pupil use, teacher use, management of ICT resources, and staff
development. Responses to the questionnaire are made on a five-point scale,
where point 1 of the scale is associated with no or little integration of IT,
point 3 is associated with moderate integration of IT, and point 5 is associ-
ated with high integration of IT.
To ensure accuracy of the conclusions drawn, data from the observations
of ICT-based lessons, face-to-face interviews with teachers, and focus group
discussions with pupils were used in the multiple strategies process. Multi-
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 411

ple strategies involve gathering accounts of different realities that have been
constructed by various groups and individuals in the school; and hence,
enhance reliability and validity of the study.

Observations of ICT Lessons

Observation facilitates the collection of rich data in natural settings. Richer
data means a better description and understanding of what goes on in a par-
ticular context and improves the provision of clues and pointers to other lay-
ers of reality (Silverman, 1994). It also helps to generate and refine ques-
tions during the informal and formal interviews with both pupils and teach-
ers regarding an observed behaviour or action. A semi-structured observa-
tion was adopted to allow for a more open exploration of the learning envi-
ronment. During observations of the ICT-based lessons, a record of events
was kept based on the observation checklist that included layout of the
room, lesson objectives, lesson sequence, types of ICT and non-ICT tools
used, rules, and roles of the participants. The checklist for the observations
was inextricably tied to the activity theoretical framework.
Fifteen ICT-based lessons were observed in each school. The ICT-based
lessons were in different subject areas: Mathematics, Science, English, Moth-
er-tongue language (Chinese, Malay and Tamil), Art, Music, and Social Stud-
ies. Most of the lessons observed were conducted in the computer rooms,
mediated by ICT tools that included CD-ROMs, Internet, and open tools
(word processor and presentation application). Only three of the lessons were
conducted in the classroom with a data projector and a computer.

Face-to-Face Interviews with Teachers

Although observation allowed collection of data through the researchers’ direct
contact with the learning environment, it was not always possible to have inti-
mate, repeated, and prolonged involvement in the life and community of the
participants. Moreover, it was necessary to take into account of the way the
teachers interpreted and understood their worlds. It allowed for the explanation
of certain behaviours or actions of the teachers that had been observed.
Three teachers were interviewed in each school after the observation of
their ICT-based lessons. The 45 minutes interviews were tape-recorded. An
unstructured interview format was adopted to encourage meaning making by
narrative recounting. A list of topics that the researchers wanted the teachers
to talk about was generated for the interview: objectives of ICT-based lessons,
reasons for using ICT and non-ICT tools, roles of the participants, rules and
procedures for the ICT-based lessons, professional background of teacher.

Focus Group Discussions with Pupils

Focus groups are group interviews that rely, not on a question-and-answer
format of interview but on the interaction within the group. This reliance on
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412 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

interaction between the participating pupils elicits more of the pupils’ point
of view by allowing a struggle of understanding of how others interpret key
terms/ideas and a debate of issues raised (Morgan, 1993). Moreover, pupils
may feel more at ease when they are in a group, and that may encourage
more spontaneity, especially if the pupils are classmates or close friends
(Bers, 1994).
Three groups of six pupils were chosen from each school for the focus
group discussions. The groupings were done according to the levels that the
pupils were from – Primary 3, 4, and 5. Each group had a 30-minute discus-
sion conducted in the classroom or the computer lab. A list of topics and ques-
tions was used to guide the group discussions: objectives of ICT-based
lessons, ICT and non-ICT tools, ICT-based lessons and learning, rules and
procedures, and division of labour among participants. These topics were gen-
erated from the activity theoretical framework and the literature review. Care
was taken to ensure a natural progression across topics in the list, with some
overlap between them; an artificial compartmentalisation of the discussion
might defeat the purpose of using focus group discussions (Morgan, 1993).

Data Analysis
From the various sources of data collected, units of information were iden-
tified. These units became the basis for defining categories. It was essential
that the activity theoretical framework informed these units with respect to
the availability of ICT tools, establishment of rules and procedures, support
of ICT-based activities by non-ICT and ICT tools, and division of labour
among participants (teachers, students, and TAs). These units were situated
in the ecological settings of the activity systems (ICT-based lessons in the
two schools).

ECOLOGICAL SETTINGS OF THE TWO CASE STUDIES

East Primary School

The study in East Primary School, a government-aided school, was carried
out from September 17, to October 2, 2001. Government-aided schools are
schools managed by a board of governors, usually from clans or religious
organizations, empowered to recruit staff of their own. At the time of the
study, there were 2118 pupils in East Primary School, consisting of boys and
girls with ages ranging from 7 to 12. The average class size was 40. The
school had a staff strength of 80 teachers and 10 support personnel. There
were two computer rooms where each had been equipped with about 40
computers, data projector, pull-down projector screen, and whiteboard.
These computer rooms were fully air-conditioned.
A TA was available to address technical problems that might arise in the
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 413

computer rooms, such as program failure and CD-ROM access problem.

The ICT learning packages that were used included Midisaurus for Music,
I-Micro and RoboLab for Science, and a wide range of CD-ROMs for other
subjects, such as English, Mathematics, Social Studies, Art, Malay, Chinese,
and Tamil. The school had also converted certain areas in the school into free
access corners with a total of 12 computers for pupils to engage in indepen-
dent learning during tea or lunch breaks.

North Primary School

The fieldwork in North Primary School, also a government-aided school,
was carried out from August 21, 2001 to January 8, 2002. All 720 pupils
were girls between 7 to 12 years old. The average class size was 40. There
were 31 teaching staff and 4 support staff, including the TA. There was one
fully air-conditioned computer room with about 40 computers, data projec-
tor, pull-down projector screen, whiteboard, and two printers. Some of the
IT learning packages that were used in North Primary School included
Midisaurus for Music, Crayola for Art, and CD-ROMs such as MathBlaster
and ZARC for Mathematics. The area outside the school general office was
converted to a free access area with 6 computers.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Availability of ICT tools

Under the Singapore Masterplan for ICT in education, launched in April
1997, all schools were provided with ICT tools, both hardware and software.
One of the goals of the Masterplan was to ensure that by the end of 2002, all
368 schools in Singapore would be equipped with the necessary hardware,
software, and infrastructure that would support an ICT integrated learning
environment. At the launch of the Mastreplan on April 28, 1997, the Minis-
ter of Education in his opening speech elaborated on the rationale for the
Masterplan:
Singapore’s Masterplan for Information Technology (IT) in Education
lays out a comprehensive strategy for creating an IT-based teaching and
learning environment in every school. It will be one of our key strategies
for equipping our young with skills that are critical for the future – cre-
ative thinking, the ability to learn independently and continuously, and
effective communication (Ministry of Education, 1997).

By December 1999, the teacher-computer ratio was 2:1 for all schools
and pupil-computer ratio was 6.6:1 for primary schools. The schools were
also given funds to purchase educational software and other peripherals
annually. The schools have the autonomy to identify and purchase ICT
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414 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

resources that best meet the needs of their students and teachers. The music
teacher in North Primary School, during the interview, recalled how she per-
suaded her school to purchase Midisaurus, a music software:
The school has always been supportive of the use of information tech-
nologies (IT). I came across Midisaurus in a music workshop and asked
for a demo copy to explore. After evaluation, I put up a proposal to pur-
chase 50 copies of the CD-ROMs. The school has funds for the purchase
of hardware and software, so it is up to the individual teacher to propose
the purchase of IT resources that are useful for their students.

All classrooms in the two primary schools were equipped with a data pro-
jector and a desktop computer. And the computer rooms were equipped with
more than 40 desktop computers per room, enough for a class of 40 pupils
to engage in individual work, and flexible enough to support pair and group
work. In all the ICT-based lessons observed, there was no problem that was
associated to a lack of computers, educational software or ICT peripherals.
All the teachers, who were interviewed, stated that they have more flexibil-
ity in planning and conducting ICT-based lessons, as they were not con-
strained by the availability of ICT tools. Therefore, the availability of ICT
tools in the computer rooms mediates between the teacher and his/her man-
agement of the ICT-based lessons that creates a conducive learning environ-
ment for the effective integration of ICT in these schools.

Establishment of Rules and Procedures

Although the rules and procedures established in a non-ICT based classroom
apply in an ICT-based classroom, there are additional rules and procedures
to be established in the latter. This is due to the addition of computers, print-
ers, monitors, CD-ROMs, and other ICT resources. Moreover, pupils are
often less familiar with ICT-based classrooms than non-ICT based ones. The
rules and procedures include both discipline-specific ones and educational
ones. The former include rules and procedures for room use, moving in and
out of the room, teacher-led instruction, and general tasks such as distribu-
tion of worksheets. The latter include rules and procedures for educational
activities such as group work and note-taking. This section discusses both
types of rules and procedures.
In both schools, the discipline-specific rules of the computer room were
clearly displayed on the wall. They included no water bottles or food in the
computer room, no unauthorised installation of programs, no unauthorised
change to the features of the control panel, no running about in the comput-
er room, and no playing games unless the teacher gives permission. Besides
setting rules, it is also important to establish procedures for pupils to follow
when they are in the computer room. These procedures minimise the occur-
rences of deviant behaviour among pupils and keep the pupils on task.
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 415

All the pupils in the focus group discussions agreed that the discipline-
specific rules and procedures were reasonable and they ensured the smooth
running of the lCT-based lessons. A few of them elaborated on the impor-
tance of rules and procedures during these discussions: “… if not (no rules),
we’re talking too much and we don’t follow the teacher’s instructions, we do
our own things” and “if there are no rules about the computers, other people
may mess up the computers. We already have something to work on for the
class, and if the computer is messy, then we’ve got another problem to think
of and it makes it very hard for us.”
Some discipline-specific procedures that were observed in both schools
included the following:
• Pupils entered and exited the computer room in an orderly fashion
according to their class index number. Each of them knew their
assigned seats and there was no rushing. The computers were indexed
with the index number of the pupil. Indexing facilitated the procedure
of seat assignment and the monitoring of the ICT tools. One teacher
from the school elaborated during the interview:

Every computer is labelled with an index, and the pupil of that index
number will use that particular computer…even the CD-ROMs are also
tagged with numbers, so that we can check any breakdown, or any mis-
chief done to the computer. And before they [the pupils] leave, they have
to turn the mouse over, so that the track ball…you can see that the track
ball is still inside.

• Some teachers grouped or paired pupils with ICT skills with those who
needed more support using ICT. Such an arrangement facilitated the
learning process of pupils who were weak in ICT skills as they were
able to better engage in the task. It also eliminated the need for these
pupils to frequently interrupt the teacher for help. For example, one
teacher in East Primary School paired pupils who were weak in typing
with those who could type well. She also made sure that no “playful”
pupils were put together.
• Pupils turned on the computers only when the teacher gave instructions
to. In both schools, some teachers would get the pupils to turn off their
monitor or move to the front of the computer room (away from the com-
puters) when they were explaining a concept or giving instructions.
These procedures ensured that the pupils paid attention to the instruc-
tions and explanations.
The discipline-specific rules and procedures observed in East and North
Primary School communicated the teachers’ expectation of the pupils’
behaviour. Of all the 30 lessons observed in both schools, there were only 2
lessons in East Primary School and 1 in North Primary School that lacked a
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416 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

conducive learning environment. In one of these lessons in East Primary

School, there was a lack of discipline-specific rules and procedures. For
example, a few pupils were working on their workstations and some were
talking among themselves when the teacher was giving instructions prior to
the ICT-based activity. Moreover, the pupils in this lesson have failed to
enter and exit the computer room in an orderly fashion, and many of them
were not seated according to their index numbers.
For the other 2 lessons that were observed to lack a conducive learning
environment, the main problem appeared to stem from a lack of education-
al rules and procedures, especially for carrying out group work and taking
notes from the ICT package. During group work in these 2 lessons, 1 or 2
pupils in each group usually dominated the discussions and tasks. The rest
of the pupils displayed off-task behaviours such as daydreaming, talking
among themselves, or engaging in another task other than the task at hands.
Research studies have shown that simply putting pupils in groups and ask-
ing them to work together does not automatically result in cooperative learn-
ing (Sheingold, Hawkins, & Char, 1984; Sharan, 1994). Sharan stated that
educational rules and procedures are necessary to create a conducive envi-
ronment for cooperative learning. They include ensuring individual account-
ability, teaching of cooperative social rules/procedures and establishing pos-
itive interdependence.
The pupils in the focus group discussion at North Primary School
recalled how their teacher assigned each of them with a role, and hence
ensured individual accountability: “I was the recorder and I have to record
everything the group has discussed, without any mistakes, and then passed
to the presenter,” “The teacher only assigned us with roles during the first
few lessons, after that, she said we can take care of ourselves and assign our-
selves,” and “There were the group leaders, the noise controller, the recorder
and the presenter whenever we have group work. Everybody was responsi-
ble for something.” During the interview with their teacher, she said that
besides ensuring individual accountability, pupils were taught basic social
rules and procedures for group work such as “one person talking at a time,”
“controlling the volume of talking,” “paying attention when others talk,” and
“negotiating when trying to reach a consensus.”
Therefore, to create a conducive learning environment, teachers have to
set clear rules and procedures, both discipline-specific and educational ones,
to mediate between the community of the ICT-based lesson and the object of
effective management of the lesson.

Support of ICT-based Activities by Non-ICT and ICT Tools

Pupils cannot be assumed to be “expert” learners in the ICT-based learning
environment. They may lack the technical skills to navigate and learn in the
ICT learning packages; or/and they may lack the motivation to learn using
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 417

the ICT learning package. If these assumptions are not addressed, pupils
may lose task-orientation and display deviant behaviours that are disruptive
(Lim, 2001). Therefore, teachers need to employ ICT and non-ICT tools to
support the ICT-based activities such that the assumptions of the “expert”
learners are addressed. Such practices were observed in both schools at var-
ious stages of the ICT-based lessons: preinstructional activities, instruction-
al activities, and postinstructional activities.

Preinstructional Activities
Most of the teachers reviewed previous concepts and made links to the con-
cepts to be covered in the ICT-based lessons. Some teachers highlighted and
demonstrated the key features and the navigation buttons of the ICT learn-
ing package before allowing pupils to start using the computers. The teach-
ers, mediated by the whiteboard, visualiser, teacher’s computer, overhead
projector, and data projector, carried out these presentations and demonstra-
tions that created a conducive environment for learning.
These activities, supported by ICT and non-ICT tools, are especially
important when a new hardware and/or software are being introduced, as in
the case of North Primary School. When the QX3 microscope and its accom-
panying program were first introduced in a Science lesson with a group of
Primary three pupils, the teacher explained the features and functions of the
different parts of the microscope with the use of PowerPoint slides. She then
asked the pupils to imitate her actions as she used the microscope and soft-
ware to capture some images. This ensured that the pupils knew how to use
the microscope and its accompanying program. The pupils in the focus
group discussions found the introduction and demonstration of the micro-
scope helpful as they “did not encounter any problems when using the
microscope” and they were able to “concentrate on the science experiment.”
Most of the instructions for the ICT-based activities were usually given
to pupils as handouts or projected onto the screen by way of the teachers’
computer. When pupils were clear about the tasks that they were to com-
plete, they were more likely to be task-oriented and motivated. When
instructions were confusing, as observed in a lesson in North Primary
School, pupils were found to display more deviant behaviours. In the focus
group discussion, one of the pupils who was talking to his partner during the
lesson, commented that he did not know what the ICT-based task was about
and he was “lost in cyberspace” when carrying out the task.

Instructional Activities
Scaffolding activities were present in most lessons observed in both schools.
Worksheets and checklists were distributed to the pupils to guide them to
complete their tasks. During a Science lesson in East Primary School, the
teacher designed a worksheet to mediate knowledge construction (searching
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418 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

for and analysing information based on the guided questions to construct

their own meaning of scientific concepts) as her pupils worked through a
section of CD-ROM on Natural Habitat. Some of her pupils commented dur-
ing the focus group discussion that “the worksheet helped us to think about
things in the computer” and “without the worksheet, we won’t know what to
learn and what is important.”
In another Science lesson observed in North Primary School, the teacher
prepared a checklist to guide his pupils to conduct an inquiry on the water
cycle mediated by the Internet. During the interview, he explained the ratio-
nale for the checklist: “If the pupils are to conduct the inquiry without a check-
list, they may be overloaded with information. The purpose for the checklist
is to provide a focus on what they need for the inquiry and thus, they won’t be
lost.” Such scaffolding tools ensured that pupils were able to successfully
engage in the tasks and complete them. Besides worksheets and checklists, the
teachers in both schools also posed many guiding questions verbally. These
questions served as scaffold, guiding the pupils learning processes.
In East Primary School, a red cup was placed beside each computer to
allow pupils to signal for help. It was known as the red alert cup. When
pupils encountered a technical or instructional problem, they would place
their cups on top of their monitors to request for help. The TA (if present) or
teacher would then assist the pupils accordingly. As the use of such cups was
absent in North Primary School, the pupils who encountered problems had
to raise their hands and that disrupted or delayed the completion of their
tasks. Therefore, the cup mediated between the rules and the community,
and that created a more conducive environment in East Primary School than
North Primary School.

Postinstructional Activities
All the teachers who were observed in both schools carried out postinstruc-
tional activities to round up the ICT-based lessons and linked the concepts
learnt to the next lesson. They also briefed the pupils on the tasks to be com-
pleted by the next lesson. Most of the tools used to mediate these activities
were similar to the ones used in the preinstructional activities. In East Pri-
mary School, one of the teachers used a concept-mapping software, Inspi-
ration, to engage her pupils in the reflection of the ICT-based lessons. The
teacher constructed the concept map on her computer, projected on the
screen, together with her pupils. Another teacher in the school constructed
the concept map with his class on the whiteboard.
The teachers in both schools employed both ICT and non-ICT tools to
support the ICT-based activities to ensure that their pupils were task-orient-
ed and engaged in their learning processes. These tools, employed by the
teachers to create a conducive learning environment, mediate between the
community and the object of managing ICT-based lessons.
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 419

Division of Labour among Participants

The responsibility of ensuring a conducive learning environment should not
fall entirely on the teacher. There is a need for the division of labour among
the participants in the computer room. The role of the teacher in the two
schools was to plan for the ICT-based lessons, conduct and manage them,
evaluate them and make necessary changes. They moved around the com-
puter room to engage the pupils in dialogues while the pupils were working
at the computers. However, it was observed that TAs and pupil helpers also
played crucial roles.

Role of Teacher
There were only two lessons observed in East Primary School where more
than two-thirds of the lesson was spent on direct teaching. The other ICT-
based lessons were pupil-centred with very little direct teaching. Examples
of such lessons included pupils working with CD-ROMs, composing essays
with Microsoft Word, searching for information on the Internet and present-
ing their findings, and carrying out experiments with ICT tools such as the
QX3 microscope. Although pupil learning was mediated by ICT and non-
ICT tools (worksheets, checklists, and handouts), the teachers were
observed to be facilitators, helping and guiding the pupils in their work. As
the pupils worked at their own pace, the teachers were able to spend more
time working with the weaker pupils, and provided them with more scaf-
folding to complete the tasks. When pupils are able to successfully carry out
and complete the tasks, they are less likely to engage in deviant behaviours
that may be disruptive to the lesson.

Role of Technology Assistant

In both schools, the TAs were present in most of the ICT-based lessons
observed. Most of the teachers who were interviewed acknowledged the cru-
cial role of the TA in these lessons. The TAs helped the teachers address tech-
nical problems faced by the pupils. In reality, the TAs could not be present in
the computer room for most ICT-based lessons as they might be engaged in
the maintenance of ICT tools in other parts of the school. In the interviews,
most teachers said that they would try to attend to the technical problems
themselves or expect the pupils to help one another to solve the problems.
However, they would still need the support of the TAs if all else failed. One
teacher in North Primary School elaborated on this point during the interview:
I’ll try to attend to it and check whether if there’s any problem but if I
cannot handle, my immediate response will be to get the technician to
handle it. Actually, the pupils will help one another and if they cannot
solve the problem, they will get me, I mean get their teachers to help and
if I can’t handle it, I’ll get the TA to handle it.
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420 Ping, Teo, Wong, Khine, Chai, and Divaharan

By doing so, the TAs freed the teachers from attending to technical prob-
lems and ensured that the teachers focused their attention on the conduct and
management of the ICT-based lessons. That is, the division of labour
between the TA and the teacher in the ICT-based lesson mediates between
the subject (teacher) and the object of managing the lesson to create a con-
ducive learning environment.

Role of Pupil Leaders/Helpers

In both schools, group leaders and assistant group leaders were assigned to
collect, distribute, and return CD-ROMs, diskettes, worksheets, and check-
lists. These group leaders were chosen based on their seating positions; in
East Primary School, they were the ones seated at the first row of the com-
puter room, while in North Primary School, they were seated at the extreme
right hand column of the computer room. In either case, the roles of the
group leaders and assistant group leaders were very clear. The group leaders
were supposed to collect and distribute the CD-ROMs, worksheets, hand-
outs, and checklists, and the assistant group leaders were supposed to collect
and distribute the pupils’ work (for example, printouts) and personal
diskettes.
In North Primary School, two pupils were chosen from each class as
pupil helpers to handle simple technical procedures and problems. These
pupil helpers facilitated the smooth running of the lesson by relieving some
of the burden of the teacher, so that he/she could channel more energy into
conducting and managing the ICT-based lesson. A teacher in the school
explained the role of the pupil helper during the interview:
The pupils will actually set up some of the things like visualiser or even
laptops…we actually have at least two girls trained in IT so that…when
it comes to lesson…the teacher is very busy doing other things so the
teacher may need them to set up the things. They [girls trained in IT] will
know how to set up the things.

The division of labour among the teachers, pupils, and TAs in both
schools have indeed facilitated the creation of a conducive environment that
is the necessary condition for the effective integration of ICT in the class-
room. By defining the roles of each participant in the ICT-based lesson, the
teacher is then able to achieve the object of managing the lesson; the role
definitions or division of labour mediates between the community of the
ICT-based lesson and the object of a well-managed lesson.

CONCLUSION
Managing ICT-based lessons is not very different from managing non-ICT
based ones. The basic classroom management principles apply for both. Tak-
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Creating a Conducive Learning Environment 421

ing the ICT-based lesson as an activity system, we can study how the tools,
rules, community, and division of labour mediate between the subject
(teacher) and the object of managing the ICT-based lesson. The findings in
the collective case study have highlighted the elements of a well-managed
ICT-based lesson as:
1. Availability of ICT tools: When ICT tools are available and ade-
quate in the learning environment, they mediate between the
teacher and his/her management of ICT-based lessons that creates a
conducive environment for effective ICT integration.
2. Establishment of rules and procedures: Teachers have to set clear
discipline-specific and educational rules and procedures to mediate
between the community of participants and the object of effective
management of ICT-based lessons.
3. Supporting ICT and non-ICT tools for ICT-based activities: Teach-
ers have to employ both ICT and non-ICT tools to support ICT-
based activities by mediating between the community of partici-
pants and rules of the learning environment, and/or mediating
between the community and the object of effective management of
ICT-based lessons.
4. Division of labour among teachers, TAs, and pupils: Every partici-
pant in the ICT-based lesson has a role to play in ensuring a con-
ducive learning environment. The well-defined roles of participants
mediate between the community and the object of a well-managed
ICT-based lesson.
These elements facilitate the creation of a conducive learning environ-
ment that provides the necessary condition for the effective integration of
ICT in the classroom. In such an environment, pupils are more likely to be
task-oriented and reflective, and hence, more likely to engage in higher
order thinking.

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