ME413 (Gas Loop) (161117)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1
Gas loop
Fig. Gas loop (Ref: Morse)
Flue gas cleaning

The products of combustion of coal-fed fires contain particles
of solid matter floating in suspension. This may be smoke or
dust. If smoke, the indication is that combustion conditions
are faulty. If dust, the particles are mainly fine ash particles
called fly-ash intermixed with some quantity of carbon-ash
material called cinder.
Removal of dust by dust collectors:
1. Mechanical
i) Wet type
ii) Dry type
2. Electrical
Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Wet type
Called scrubbers, operate with water sprays to wash dust from
the air.
Fig. Spray tower scrubber
Fig. Cyclonic spray and baffle spray scrubbers

Disadvantages:
i) Large quantities of wash water are needed.
ii) Produces waste water that require chemical
neutralization before it can be discharged.
Dry type
a) Gravitational separators: Act by slowing down gas
flow so that particles remain in a chamber long enough to
settle to the bottom.
Disadvantage:
• Large chamber volume needed.
b) Inertial separators: Act by rapid change of direction of
gas, which cannot be followed completely by the heavier
particles.
i) Baffles: Baffle separators are improvised within a boiler
setting in order to drop the large cinders from the gases.
ii) Louvre: Louvre is a high-speed gas type in which a

small portion of the gas carries the bulk of the dust into
secondary chamber where velocities are low enough for a

combination of gravitational and inertia forces to make the
separation. Meanwhile the main gas flow passes out the side
of the direct-flow chamber.
iii) Cyclone: Cyclone is a separating chamber wherein high-

speed gas rotation is generated for the purpose of centrifuging
the particles from the carrying gases.
Fig. Louvered

Fig. Cyclone separator

c) Fabric filter (baghouse):
Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse and pass through fabric
bags that act as filters. The bags can be of woven or felted
cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber material in either a tube or
envelope shape.
Clean air
Dirty air
Filter bags
Fig. Fabric separator (baghouse)

Electrical separators/precipitator
Principal components: Two sets of electrodes. The first set is
composed of rows of electrically grounded vertical parallel
plates, called the collection electrodes, between which the
dust-laden gas flows. The second set of electrodes consists of
wires, called the discharge or emitting electrodes that are
centrally located between each pair of parallel plates. The
wires carry a unidirectional, negatively charged high voltage
(20 – 100 kV) current from an external dc source. The applied
high voltage generates a unidirectional, nonuniform electrical
field whose magnitude is greatest near the discharge
electrodes.
Separation principle consists of imposing an electrical charge
on the particles as they pass near a collecting electrode of
opposite polarity. This causes the particles to be attracted to
oppositely charged plates so that they can be removed from
the gas stream. Collected particulate is removed by hammer
scrapping system. The vibration knocks the particulate matter
off the collecting plates and into a hopper at the bottom of the
separator.

η = 1 − e − AVmo / Q
A = area of the collector plate, m2; Vmo = effective migration
velocity of particles, m/s; Q = flue gas volume flow rate for
each plate, m3/s.
Fig. Electrostatic separator

Fig. Typical fractional efficiencies of dust collectors (Ref:

Morse)
Efficiency: The absolute efficiency of a dust collector is the
percentage of entering solids that will be removed by the
collector.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) reduction technologies
Methods for controlling NOx from utility boilers:
• Low NOx burners
• Overfire air (to burn coal at lower temperature)
• Burners out of service
• Flue gas recirculation
• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) (Rampal)
• Selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR)
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR):

SCR is capable of NOx reduction efficiencies in the range of
70% to 90% (ICAC, 2000). Higher reductions are possible but
generally are not cost-effective. SCR can achieve high
reduction efficiencies (>70%) on NOx concentrations as low
as 20 ppm.

Theory of Operation:
The SCR process chemically reduces the NOx molecule into
molecular nitrogen and water vapor. A nitrogen based
reagent such as ammonia or urea (CH4N2O) is injected in to
the ductwork, downstream of the combustion unit. The waste
gas mixes with the reagent and enters a reactor module
containing catalyst (vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten). The
hot flue gas and reagent diffuse through the catalyst. The
reagent reacts selectively with the NOx within a specific
temperature range (250 – 427oC) and in the presence of the
catalyst and oxygen. Temperature, the amount of reducing
agent, injection grid design and catalyst activity are the main
factors that determine the actual removal efficiency.
The catalyst is composed of active metals or ceramics with a
highly porous structure. Catalysts configurations are generally
ceramic honeycomb and pleated metal plate designs. The
catalyst composition, type, and physical properties affect
performance, reliability, catalyst quantity required, and cost.
Catalyst activity is a measure of the NOx reduction reaction
rate.
Catalyst deactivation is caused by:
• poisoning of active sites by flue gas constituents,
• thermal sintering of active sites due to high temperatures
within reactor,
• blinding/plugging/fouling of active sites by ammonia-sulfur
salts and particulate matter, and
• erosion due to high gas velocities.

As the catalyst activity decreases, NOx removal decreases and
ammonia slip increases. When the ammonia slip reaches the
maximum design or permitted level (2 – 10 ppm), new
catalyst must be installed.
There are several different locations downstream of the
combustion unit where SCR systems can be installed. Most
coal-fired applications locate the reactor downstream of the
economizer and upstream of the air heater and particulate
control devices (hot-side). The flue gas in this location is
usually within the optimum temperature window for NOx
reduction reactions using metal oxide catalysts. SCR may be
applied after PM and sulfur removal equipment (cold-side),
however, reheating of the flue gas may be required, which
significantly increases the operational costs.
SCR can be used separately or in combination with other NOx

combustion control technologies such as low NOx burners
(LNB) and natural gas reburn (NGR).

Advantages:
• Higher NOx reductions than low-NOx burners and
selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
• Applicable to sources with low NOx concentrations
• Reactions occur within a lower and broader temperature
range than SNCR.
• Does not require modifications to the combustion unit.
Disadvantages:
• Significantly higher capital and operating costs than low-
NOx burners and SNCR.
• Large volume of reagent and catalyst required.
• May require downstream equipment cleaning.
• Results in ammonia in the waste gas stream which may
impact plume visibility, and resale or disposal of ash.
Sources of NOx: Oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen (thermal

NOx) and fuel nitrogen (fuel NOx).
Low NOx burners:

Combustion airflow is divided into about 30% of primary air
and about 70% of secondary air thereby giving a fuel rich in
the primary airflow zone and fuel lean in the secondary
airflow zone are intentionally generated, in that NOx
reduction may be attained to a great extent due to a lower
firing temperature led by fuel rich and also by fuel lean
combustion at a secondary airflow zone, whereas secondary
excess air performs a complete combustion of the whole
burner unit at the outer edges of fuel rich gas flows.
Two-stage venturi furnace: In a two-stage venturi furnace coal
is burned in two separate chambers. In the initial chamber coal
is burned in two separate chambers. In the initial chamber coal

is burned at substoichiometric (fuel rich) conditions, resulting

in incomplete combustion.
Fig. Two-stage venture furnace (low NOx burner)
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD):

Flue gas desulfurization technology extracts sulfur dioxides
from flue gases produced in coal-based thermal power plants,
where sulfur content in coal is more than 0.5%. Sulfur dioxide
is extracted from flue gases in wet scrubber.
CaCO3 + SO2 → CaSO3 + CO2
CaSO3 + H2O +1/2O2 → CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum)

Air preheaters
Utilize some of the energy left in the flue gases before
exhausting them to the atmosphere.
⇒ Gases at 315 – 430oC.
These gases are cooled to only 135 – 180oC to avoid gas
condensation and corrosion problems and allow for proper
dispersion in the atmosphere. The air is heated to 260 – 345oC
and sometimes higher.
Principal benefits of preheating the air:

i) Increased thermal efficiency
ii) Increased steam capacity per unit area of boiler surface.
Air preheaters are not essential to the operation of a steam

generating unit. They are used where a study of the costs
indicate some money can be saved or some beneficial action
on combustion be obtained by their use.

Two types of air preheaters:

i) Recuperative
ii) Regenerative
Recuperative air preheaters have heat transferred directly
from the hot gases to the air across the heat exchange surface.
They are commonly tubular and tubular units are essentially
counterflow shell-and-tube heat exchangers in which the hot
gases flow inside vertical or horizontal straight tubes and the
air flows outside.
Regenerative air preheaters are those in which heat is

transferred from the hot flue gases first to an intermediate
heat-storage medium, then to the air. The most common is the
rotary air preheater, known as the Ljungstorm preheater.
Fig. Tubular air preheater

Fig. Regenerative air preheater

Economizers
The economizer is the heat exchanger that raises the
temperature of the water leaving the highest-pressure
feedwater heater to the saturation temperature corresponding
to the boiler pressure. This is done by gases leaving the last
superheater or reheater.
Gases at 370oC – 540oC
Economisers are generally placed between the last
superheater-reheater and the air preheater.
Draft
The oxygen is required for combustion therefore air. To move
this air through the fuel bed and to produce a flow of the
gaseous products of combustion out of furnace, then through
the boiler, economizer etc. requires a difference of pressure
equal to that necessary to accelerate the gases to their final

velocity, plus friction head losses. This difference of pressure

is called draft.
Draft:
Vacuum: at a pressure less than atmospheric
Plenum: at a pressure above atmospheric.
Draft losses
i) Velocity head, Vs2/2g: Vs is the final velocity of gas exit
from the chimney.
ii) Fuel bed resistance: Applies to grates. It varies with the
rate of combustion.
iii) Draft loss caused by friction of gas flow through the
equipment of gas loop.
iv) Draft loss due to friction in the air ducts, gas breechings,
chimney.
i + ii + iii + iv = required draft

air
air
Fig. Typical pressure in the gas loop (Ref: Morse)
Draft
i) Natural draft: The fluid pressure difference created by a
confining of heated gas, as by a chimney.
ii) Mechanical draft: By fan.
Mechanical draft
a) Forced draft: Fans are placed at the air entrance to the
air preheater and put the entire system up to the stack entrance
under positive gage pressure.

(www3.epa.gov/)
Advantages:
i) Handle only cold air.
ii) Consume less power (cold air has the lowest specific
volume in air gas path).
Disadvantage:
Gas tight furnace construction is necessary to stop gas
leakage.
b) Induced draft: Fans are located in the gas stream

between the air preheater and the stack. They place the system
under negative gage pressure.
Disadvantages:
• Handle hot, corrosive combustion products and ash.
• Greater power requirement.
⇒ Induced fans are seldom used alone.
c) Balanced draft: Both forced and induced-draft fans are

used. The FD fans push atmospheric air through the air
preheater, air ducts and burners in the furnace. The ID fans
pull the combustion gases from the furnace, through the heat-
transfer surfaces in the superheaters, reheaters, economizer
and gas side air preheater.
⇒ Modern system uses balanced draft system.
(www.quora.com/)
Chimney/stack
• To produce natural draft.
• To assist the fans in overcoming the pressure losses.
• To help disperse the gas effluent into the atmosphere.

Fig. Evaluation of chimney action (Ref: Morse)
When the gas is heated, it expands in volume and decreases in

density, in which condition it may be displaced by a more
dense gas.
a. Air movement is produced by heating one leg of U-tube.
b. Comparative weights of equal columns of air (23.9oC)
and flue gas (260oC), the difference producing the draft.
c. The U-tube is replaced by two stacks connected at their
bases. The heat of combustion produces a flow of air
down the cool stack and gas up the heated stack.
d. The air stack is brought around the chimney, producing
the same flow conditions as in (c.).
e. If the diameter of the air stack is made exceedingly large,
then the chimney standing alone in the atmosphere, but
performing as in (c.) because of the flow action produced
by the heat not absorbed in the boiler.
Materials
• Steel (stack)
• Concrete
• Masonry

Disadvantage of chimney
• Chimney may have to be high enough to produce
sufficient draft.
Advantage of chimney
• Once erected, cost nothing for operation. Long life.
Advantage of mechanical draft by fans
• Higher rates of combustion are possible.
• More readily controlled to meet varying load
conditions.
• Independent of atmospheric conditions.
Driving pressure:
The driving pressure ∆pd, supplied by a chimney is
proportional to,
1. The height (H)
2. The difference in density of air and gas.
Δpd = (ρ a − ρs ) g H N/m2
ρa = atmospheric air density, kg/m3
ρs = average chimney gas density, kg/m3
Air and gas obey perfect law,
 p p 
Δp d =  a − s g H
 R a Ta R s Ts 
pa and ps = absolute pressures of atmospheric air and chimney
gas respectively, N/m2
Ra and Rs = gas constants for air and chimney gas
respectively, J/kg.K

Ta and T s = air and average chimney gas temperatures

respectively, K.
pa and ps differ only slightly.
Ra = 287 J/kg.K
Rs depends upon gas composition and hence upon the fuel
used.
Rs = 282 for coal J/kg.K
= 286 for fuel oil J/kg.K
= 299 for natural gas J/kg.K
p a ≈ ps
Ra ≈ Rs
pa  1 1 
Δp d =  − g H
R a  Ta Ts 
• pa varies daily according to weather conditions. It is
also function of the altitude of the location.
• Ta varies seasonally, daily, hourly etc.
• T s is dependent upon the temperature variation of the
gas along the chimney, which is dependent upon the
heat losses through the chimney walls and any
filtration of cold outside air.
T + TH
Ts = O
2
TO = chimney inlet temperature, K
TH = chimney exit temperature, K
TO↑ TH ↑
D↑ TH ↑
H↑ TH ↓
D is chimney diameter
Dispersion
Dispersion of the flue gases into the atmosphere, is defined as
the movement of the flue gases horizontally and vertically and
their dilution by the atmosphere.
• The horizontal motion is the result of the existing

wind.
• The vertical motion to much higher elevations results
from the upward motion of high-velocity warm
chimney gases.
• The chimney exit velocity results in a plume rise ∆H
above the actual chimney/stack.
• The gases bend in the direction of wind flow.
Effective chimney height, He = H + ∆H
Correlations for ∆H
Consider momentum term that accounts for the vertical
momentum of the gases caused by the chimney exit velocity
and buoyancy term that accounts for the difference between
chimney gas and atmospheric densities.
1. Carson and Moses (1976)

0.5
Vs D Qe
ΔH = −0.029 + 2.62 m
Vw Vw
Vs = chimney-gas exit velocity, m/s
D = chimney diameter, m
Vw = wind velocity at chimney exit, m/s
Qe = heat emission, W
=m  c p (TH − TaH )
m = gas mass flow rate, kg/s
cp = specific heat of gas, J/kg.K
TH = gas temperature at chimney exit, K
TaH = air temperature at chimney exit, K
2. Briggs (1969)
1
114 C F 3
ΔH =
Vw
C = dimensionless temperature gradient parameter
= 1.58 – 41.4(∆θ/∆Z)
∆θ/∆Z = air potential temperature gradient, K/m
= – 0.001 to +0.013 K/m
= 0 for neutral atmospheric stability conditions
F = buoyancy flux
g Vs D 2 (TH − TaH )
= m4/s2
4 TaH
Potential temperature: The potential temperature (θ) of a
parcel of fluid at pressure p is the temperature that the parcel
would acquire if adiabatically brought to a standard reference
pressure po (1 bar).
R
 po  cp
θ = T  K
 
p
Fuel
Fossil fuel: Originate from the earth as a result of the slow
decomposition and chemical conversion of organic material.
* Solid (coal)
* Liquid (oil)
* Natural gas
Coal:
Types of coal: There are several different types of coal, that
have different properties usually dependent on their age and
the depth to which they have been buried under other rocks.
• Peat: Peat is the layer of vegetable material directly

underlying the growing zone of a coal forming environment.
The vegetable material shows very little alteration and
contains the roots of living plants. Peat is an organic sediment.
Burial, compaction and coalification will transform it into
coal, a rock.
• Lignite (brown coal): Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It
is a peat that has been transformed into a rock. Lignite
sometimes contains recognizable plant structures. It is brown
and can be soft and fibrous, containing discernible plant
material. It also contains large amounts of moisture and so has
a low energy content. 25 – 35% carbon.
• Sub-bituminous: Sub bituminous coal is a lignite that has
been subjected to an increased level of organic
metamorphism. This metamorphism has driven off some of
the oxygen and hydrogen in the coal. That loss produces coal
with a higher carbon content. 35 – 45% carbon.
• Bituminous: Bituminous is the most abundant rank of coal.
Bituminous coal is formed when a sub bituminous coal is

subjected to increased levels of organic metamorphism. 45 –

85% carbon.
• Anthracite: Anthracite is the highest rank of coal.
Anthracite is a hard, black, shiny form of coal that contains
virtually no moisture and very low volatile content. 85 – 98%
carbon.
Bituminous coal Anthracite coal
Proximate analysis: Volatile material, fixed carbon,

moisture, ash.
Volatile matter in coal refers to the components of coal,
except for moisture, which are liberated at high temperature in
the absence of air. This is usually a mixture of short and long
chain hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and some sulfur.
The volatile matter of coal is determined under rigidly

controlled standards. In Australian and British laboratories
this involves heating the coal sample to 900 ± 5 °C for 7
minutes in a cylindrical silica crucible in a muffle furnace.
American Standard procedures involve heating to 950 ± 25 °C
in a vertical platinum crucible.
The fixed carbon content of the coal is the carbon found in
the coal which is left after volatile materials are driven off.
Fixed carbon is used as an estimate of the amount of coke that
will be yielded from a sample of coal.
Ash content of coal is the non-combustible material left after
coal is burnt. It is the bulk mineral matter after carbon,
oxygen, sulfur and water has been driven off during
combustion.
Ultimate analysis: Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, ash,

oxygen.
Coal typical content
Anthracite Bituminous Sub- Lignite Peat
bituminous
Fixed 85 – 98% 45 – 85% 35 – 45% 25 – 35%
carbon
Moisture <15% 2 – 15% 10 – 45% 30 – 60%
Ash 10 – 20% 3 – 12% ≤10% 10 – 50%
Sulfur 0.6 – 0.8% 0.7 – 4% <2% 0.4 – 1%
Heating 30 – 35 25 – 35 19 – 30 9 – 19
value
(MJ/kg)

Synthetic fuel: Also called synfuels, are gaseous and liquid

fuels produced largely from coal but also from various wastes
and biomass.
Coal conversion
- Gasification
- Liquefaction
Biomass: Biomass is organic matter produced by plants and
their derivatives.
Coal Storage
Factors to be considered for coal storage,
* nearness to coal fields
* transportation facilities
* amount coal will weather
* availability of substitute fuels
Storage = 10% of annual consumption.
Where the area is available, it is not uncommon to find a full
twelve-month coal supply in storage.
Storage
* Live storage
* Dead storage
Live storage: Storage from which coal may be withdrawn to
supply in combustion equipment with little or no rehandling.
Dead storage: Is that holding area from which coal can only
be taken by the exercise of a definite reclaiming and
conveying activity.
Weather: When coal is piled in storage, it oxidizes with
accompanying liberation of heat and has tendency to become

slack.
Measures against temperature rise during storage
Coal should be loosely piled in shallow piles with large
lumps, so that natural circulation of air currents may carry the
heat off rapidly.
Coal having high sulfur content is liable to prove troublesome
to store in volume because local heating apparently originates
in a reaction between sulfur, air, and water.
Deep piling with exposure to winds aggravates spontaneous
heating.
Spread the coal horizontally and not in conical piles to
prevent the finer coal from clustering in the center and the
lumps rolling to the bottom.
Coal piles should not be stacked higher than 12 feet and
should not contain more than 1500 tons in a single pile.
Duration of storage should be minimized.
Remedy to exclude air from the pile
* Underwater storage
* Bituminous surface coatings
* Rolling and packing an air-tight layer of fine coal on the
surface.
* Layering and compacting coal into tightly compressed
piles.
* Storage in bins and bunkers.
The coal handling equipment is generally one of the major

components of plant cost.
Coal conveyors: A conveying system is to carry the coal from
the delivery station (or point of reclamation from storage) to

the combustion equipment.
The coal movement is generally accomplished in three

steps:
(i) A hoist to a convenient elevation above live storage.
(ii) Horizontal transportation and damping into live storage.
(iii) Gravity flow to the combustion equipment.
Pulverized coal
Coal is pulverized in order to increase its surface exposure,
thus promoting rapid combustion without using large
quantities of excess air. In a typical unit system, lump coal,
crushed to uniform size, is continuously supplied to the
pulverizer hopper, from where it is withdrawn by a feeder and
sent to the pulverizing section.
Fig.: Coal handling (Ref: Morse)

Coal reserve in Bangladesh:

Coal basin / Year of Reserve Comments
area discovery MMT
Barapukuria, 1985 390 UG mining
Dinajpur Bituminous
Phulbari, 1997 572
Dinajpur Bituminous
Khalashpur 1989 400
Deeghipara 1995 600
Jamalgonj 1962 1053
Barapukuria coal properties (Safiullah et al., 2011):

Heating value (MJ/kg) 27.9
Fixed carbon (%) 56.47
Sulfur (%) 0.67±0.04
Moisture (%) 2.73±0.1
Ash (%) 12.1±1.91
Volatile matter (%) 28.7±1.31

Use of coal in Bangladesh:

Target to generate around 20,000MW of electricity from coal-
based power projects by 2030.
The government planned to set up 22 coal-fired power plants
across the country under public, public-private partnership
and independent power producer initiatives. All of these
power plants are expected to start production between March
2015 and 2020.
The government also has set the target for 50% of the power
generation using coal within 2030.
References:
1. M. M. El-Wakil, Powerplant Technology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore, 1984.
2. Frederick T. Morse, Power Plant Engineering, Litton Educational Publishing, Inc., 1953.
3. P. K. Nag, Power Plant Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2008.

ME413 (Gas Loop) (161117)

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1

Fig. Gas loop (Ref: Morse)

Flue gas cleaning

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. Spray tower scrubber

Fig. Cyclonic spray and baffle spray scrubbers

ii) Louvre: Louvre is a high-speed gas type in which a

secondary chamber where velocities are low enough for a

iii) Cyclone: Cyclone is a separating chamber wherein high-

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. Cyclone separator

Fig. Fabric separator (baghouse)

Fig. Electrostatic separator

Fig. Typical fractional efficiencies of dust collectors (Ref:

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR):

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

• erosion due to high gas velocities.

SCR can be used separately or in combination with other NOx

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Sources of NOx: Oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen (thermal

Low NOx burners:

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

is burned at substoichiometric (fuel rich) conditions, resulting

Fig. Two-stage venture furnace (low NOx burner)

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD):

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Principal benefits of preheating the air:

Air preheaters are not essential to the operation of a steam

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Two types of air preheaters:

Regenerative air preheaters are those in which heat is

Fig. Tubular air preheater

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. Regenerative air preheater

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

velocity, plus friction head losses. This difference of pressure

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. Typical pressure in the gas loop (Ref: Morse)

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

b) Induced draft: Fans are located in the gas stream

⇒ Induced fans are seldom used alone.

c) Balanced draft: Both forced and induced-draft fans are

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Fig. Evaluation of chimney action (Ref: Morse)

When the gas is heated, it expands in volume and decreases in

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Ta and T s = air and average chimney gas temperatures

• The horizontal motion is the result of the existing

1. Carson and Moses (1976)

• Peat: Peat is the layer of vegetable material directly

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

subjected to increased levels of organic metamorphism. 45 –

Bituminous coal Anthracite coal

Proximate analysis: Volatile material, fixed carbon,

The volatile matter of coal is determined under rigidly

Ultimate analysis: Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, ash,

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Synthetic fuel: Also called synfuels, are gaseous and liquid

Power Plant Engineering (Gas loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

The coal handling equipment is generally one of the major

the delivery station (or point of reclamation from storage) to