Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1

Water loop

Steam generator
A steam generator is a combination of economizer, boiler,
superheater, reheater, and air preheater.

A boiler is that portion of the steam generator where saturated

liquid is converted to saturated steam.

Steam generator:
• Utility steam generator
• Industrial steam generator

Utility steam generators

Used by utilities for electric-power generating plants.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 2

Modern utility steam generators:

• Subcritical water-tube drum type (180 bar)
• Supercritical once-through type (230 – 265 bar)
• Ultra supercritical type (up to 300 bar)

The steam capacities of modern utility steam generators 125 –

1250 kg/s (125 – 1300 MW).

Industrial steam generators

Used by industrial (chemical, food processing, paper,
petroleum industries etc.) and institutional concerns.

Industrial steam generators:

• Water-tube pulverized coal units. Also may burn lump coal,
oil, or natural gas, often in combination, as well as
municipal refuse and process wastes or by-products.
• Heat recovery types that use waste heat from industrial
processes.
• Fire-tube type.
Industrial steam generators usually produce saturated steam.
Maximum pressure 105 bar. Steam capacity up to 125 kg/sec.

Fire-tube boiler
No longer used in large utility power plants. Used in industrial
plants to produce saturated steam at the upper limits of about
18 bar and 6.3 kg/sec.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 3

Fig: Fire tube boiler

heat water boiling surface

flue gas

water

Water-tube boiler
With high steam pressures and capacities, fire tube boilers
need large diameter shells. With such large diameters, the
shells would have to operate under such extreme pressure and
temperature stresses that their thickness would have been too
large. In addition, they were subjected to scale deposits and
boiler explosions.
The water tube boiler puts the pressure instead in tubes and
relatively small diameter drums that are capable of

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 4

withstanding the extreme pressures of the modern steam

generator.
heat flue gas

water/steam
boiling surface
flue gas

Radiant boiler
Heat is transferred from the combustion gas to the water walls
by both radiation and convection. A radiant boiler receives
most of its heat by radiation.

Combustion gases
• Luminous
• Non luminous
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 5

 Particulates emit at all wavelengths.

 Triatomic gases CO2, H2O are selective radiators that
emit radiation in certain wavelength.
 Diatomic gases are poor radiators.

Radiant boilers are limited to subcritical pressures, usually

125 – 170 bar. Steam capacities up to 1260 kg/sec.

Once-through boilers
The feed water goes through the economizer, furnace walls
and superheater sections, changing sequentially to saturated
water, saturated steam and superheated steam in one
continuous pass. No steam drum is required to separate
saturated steam from boiling water. The once-through boiler
is the only type suited to supercritical pressure operation
(above 221 bar for steam).

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 6

Superheaters
2 – 3 inch OD (for utility steam generators)
Tubes are subjected to:
• High temperature
• High pressure
• Thermal stress
OD ↓ steam flow pressure drop ↑ better pressure withstanding

Below 455oC (850oF) → carbon steel

Above 540oC (1000oF) → alloy steel

Convection superheater
Main mode of heat transfer between the combustion gases and
the superheater tubes is convection.

Demand for steam ↑

Steam flow ↑ hi ↑
Fuel-air flow ↑
Combustion gas flow ↑ ho ↑

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 7

If hi and ho increase, overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC)

increases. Steam outlet temperature increases.

Radiant superheater
Superheaters are placed nearer higher-temperature, in view of
the combustion flames. Main heat transfer between the hot
gases and flame, and the tube outer walls to be accomplished
by radiation.
Radiation heat transfer = σ(Tf4 – Tw4) W/m2
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.669×10-8 W/m2K4

Tf = flame absolute temperature

Tw = tube wall absolute temperature
Tf ˃˃ Tw

Tf not strongly dependent on load.

When steam flow increases, Tf does not change much.
Heat transfer per unit mass flow of steam ↓
Steam exit temperature ↓

Boiler makeup and treatment

Lose of working fluid because of,
• Leakage from fittings and bearings.
• Escape with noncondensable gases in deaeration
processes.
• Boiler blowdown.
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 8

Amount of lose = 0.5 to 1.5 percent of the flow rate.

The lose of working fluid should be made up. The water
added must be well treated to maintain water and steam purity
in order to prevent deposition of suspended solids and scale
on boiler surfaces and corrosion damage to turbine blades and
the condensate-feedwater system.
Makeup water treatment system:
1. Pretreatment
2. Demineralization
3. Condensate polishing
4. Boiler blowdown
Pretreatment
The extent of pretreatment depends upon the source of raw
water used.
Well water requires filtration.
Surface water requires more elaborate pretreatment.
(i) Clarification: The water is chlorinated to prevent
biofouling (algae, microorganisms, plants) of the equipment.
The suspended solids and turbidity are then made to coagulate
by special chemicals (like aluminum sulphate, Al2(SO3)) and
by being brought together by a slow agitation in the middle of
the clarifier vessel. The coagulated matter then settles by
gravity in the clarifier and is removed.

Algae Aluminum sulphate

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 9

(ii) Softening: The clarified water, depending upon its

hardness and alkalinity, undergoes softening. Softening is
usually done using lime [Ca(OH)2] / soda ash [Na2CO3] to
eliminate hardness and alkalinity. Hardness, the chief source
of scale in heat exchangers, boilers and pipelines, is caused by
the presence of calcium and magnesium salts. Alkalinity is
mostly bicarbonate (HCO3-) but is also carbonate and hydrate.
Lime precipitates calcium bicarbonate as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), and magnesium salts as magnesium hydroxide
[Mg(OH)2],

Ca(OH)2 + CaHCO3 → 2 CaCO3 ↓ + 2 H2O

(lime)
2 Ca(OH)2 + MgHCO3 → 2 CaCO3 ↓ + Mg(OH)2 ↓ + 2 H2O
Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaSO4

Soda ash is added to react with calcium chloride and calcium

sulfate to form calcium carbonate.
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 → CaCO3 ↓ + Na2SO4
(soda ash)
The products calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide,
are insoluble in water and settle to the bottom of the vessel.
(iii) Filtration: Further removes residual suspended solids
and turbidity.
Filter media: sand, activated charcoal.
Demineralization
Demineralization is the process of removing dissolved solids
by ion exchange. Two types of resins are used,
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 10

• Cation resin
• Anion resin
Cation resin has a positively charged hydrogen ion attached
to a negatively charged polymer. The hydrogen ion is
exchanged for the cations calcium, magnesium and sodium.
Anion resin has a negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH−),
attached to a positively charged polymer structure. The
hydroxide ion is exchanged for the anion sulfates, chlorides,
and bicarbonates.

Condensate polishing
The water in its journey through the cycle can pick up metallic
ions, such as iron and copper, from pipelines, etc., as well as
impurities due to condenser inleakage from the circulating
water.
Power plants such as those using once-through boilers and
boiling-water nuclear reactors requires continual high-quality
water and use a condensate polishing system. Condensate
polishing is accomplished by passing the condensate through
large demineralizing vessels that contain both cation and
anion resins. The resins remove dissolved solids and act as
filters for impurities or suspended solids.

Boiler blowdown
Concentrated solid precipitates at drum bottom are removed
through blowdown, which may be either intermittent or
continuous, the amount of blowdown being removed
governed by the allowable solids concentration and purity of
feedwater.
High pressure water tube boiler: TDS < 1000 ppm
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 11

Fig: Boiler blowdown (Ref: www.dcnz.com)

Evaporators
One form of boiler make up used in ships to produce both
power plant makeup and potable water from seawater.
• One-stage, or single-effect
• Multistage or multi-effect type
 Usually two and sometimes three effects.

Single-effect: Produce approximately 0.8 kg of vapor per kg

motive steam.
Double-effect: produce approximately 1.5 kg vapor per kg of
motive steam.
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 12

Triple-effect: 2 kg vapor / kg steam.

 Increased complexity and capital cost

Heat head below 11oC not effective. Heat heads above 55oC
result in film boiling and a reduction in heat transfer. Most
effective heat heads are in the range 20 – 30oC.

Fig: Single effect submerged evaporator

Fig: Double effect evaporator

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 13

Deaeration
Sources of noncondensables:
• Noncondensables are mostly air that leaks from the
atmosphere into those portions of the cycle that operate
below atmospheric pressure such as the condenser.
• Decomposition of water into O2 and H2 by thermal
action.
• Chemical reactions between water and material of
construction.

Undesirable effects of noncondensable gases:

1. They raise the total pressure of the system.
pcond = psat of steam + partial pressure of
noncondensables
pcond ↑ η↓
2. They blanket the heat-transfer surfaces such as outside
surface of condenser tubes.

condensing surface
heat steam

cooling water

condensate
3. The presence of some noncondensables results in various
chemical activities, e.g. O2 causes corrosion.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 14

 The process of removing noncondensables is called

deaeration.
 Most fossil fuel power plants have a deaerating feed water
heater, but whether or not a plant has such a heater, or other
separate deaerator, it is essential that the condenser itself
be the place of good deaeration.
 Good deaeration within a condenser requires: time,
turbulence and good venting equipment.
The cold condensate falling from the lower tubes must have
sufficient height and scrubbing steam for reheat and
deaeration. The scrubbing steam is provided by allowing
some of the incoming steam to pass through an open flow area
directly to the bottom tubes to reheat the condensate. The
reason is that noncondensables are more easily released from
a hotter than a colder liquid. Once the noncondensables are
released, they are cooled to reduce their volume before being
pumped out of the condenser.

Fig: Condensers

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 15

Steam jet air ejector (SJAE) (Jet pump)

It uses a steam jet as their motive or driving flow. Steam at a
low pressure that enters a driving flow nozzle in the first
stage ejector, from which it exists with high velocity and
momentum and reduced pressure. This reduced pressure
draws in the noncondensables from the condenser.

Fig: Steam jet air ejector

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 16

Fig: Steam jet air ejector

Open feedwater heaters
An open feedwater heater, also called direct-contact and
deaerating (DA) heater is one that heats the feedwater by
directly mixing it with bled steam from the turbine.
The DA heater is usually positioned in the feed water line at a
pressure to prevent air inleakage and at a temperature at which
oxygen retention is least likely. Most DA heaters are designed
for oxygen concentrations in the outlet feedwater below 0.005
cm3/L.
The DA outlet feedwater is at or near saturation. Pumping
saturated water results in cavitation because of the pressure
drop below saturated pressure, thus causing flashing on the

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 17

back side of pump vanes. The DA heater is therefore usually

positioned in the power plant steam-generator house high
above its pump by perhaps 60 ft. This provides sufficient
pump inlet pressure to render the saturated water compressed
and prevents cavitation.
The presence of dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide in water makes the water corrosive, as they react with
the metal to form iron oxide. The solubility of these gases in
waters decreases with increase in temperature and becomes
zero at the boiling or saturation temperature. These gases are
removed in the deaerator where feedwater is heated to the
saturation temperature by the steam bled from the turbine. By
contact the steam condenses and the feedwater is heated to the
saturation temperature. Dissolved gases get released from the
water. To neutralize the effect of residual dissolved oxygen in
water, sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) or hydrazine is injected into
the feedwater.
Three types of DA heaters:
1. Spray-type deaerators: The feed water enters the heater
through nozzles that spray it into the extraction-steam-
filled heater space.
2. Tray-type deaerators: Feedwater is directed onto a
series of cascading horizontal trays.
3. Combination spray-tray deaerators: Feedwater is first
sprayed into a steam-filled space, then made to cascade
down trays.
Condenser
Purposes of condenser:
1. Condenses the exhaust steam from the turbine.
2. Provides the complete retention of the treated working
fluid.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 18

3. Creates a low back pressure (vacuum) for the turbine to

exhaust to.
4. Increases the work of the turbine, increases the plant
efficiency.

Condenser types:
1. Direct-contact condenser
2. Surface condenser

Direct-contact condenser
Direct-contact condensers, condense the steam by mixing it
directly with the cooling water.
Types:
i. Spray type
ii. Barometric type
iii. Diffuser or jet type

Fig: Direct-contact condenser of the spray type (Ref: Wakil)

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 19

Fig: Direct-contact condensers (a) barometric (b) diffuser or

jet

Surface condensers
Most common type used in power plants. Shell and tube heat
exchangers.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 20

Fig: Surface condenser (Ref: Wakil)

Surface-condenser calculations
Heat transfer mechanisms are:
• Condensation of the steam over colder but varying-
temperature tube surfaces.
• Conduction through the tube walls.
• Forced convection of the circulating water inside the
tubes.
Outer tube surfaces are usually clean when the condenser is
new.
New → dropwise condensation
Old → filmwise condensation

Condensing heat transfer coefficient depends upon:

• Tsat of steam – Twall of tube
• Relative position of tubes
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 21

• Steam velocity and turbulence

• Extent of noncondensables
• Existence of superheated steam, if any.

The circulating water heat transfer coefficient depends upon:

• Velocity
• Temperature
• Cleanliness of inside surface.

Heat-transfer surface area

Q = U . A . ∆Tm
Q = heat load on condenser, W
U = overall condenser heat-transfer coefficient based on
outside tube area, W/m2K
A = total outside tube surface area, m2
∆Tm = log mean temperature difference in the condenser, oC
ΔTi − ΔTo
∆Tm =
 ΔT 
ln i 
 ΔTo 
∆Ti = difference between saturation-steam temperature and
inlet circulating water temperature, oC
∆To = difference between saturation steam temperature and
outlet circulating water temperature, oC
The overall heat-transfer coefficient U is given empirically by
U = C1 C2 C3 C4 Vw

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 22

C1 = dimensional factor depending upon tube outer diameter

C2 = dimensionless correction factor for circulating-water
inlet temperature
C3 = dimensionless correction factor for tube material and
gauge
C4 = dimensionless cleanliness factor
Vw = circulating-water velocity in the tubes at inlet condition.
C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 from Table 6-2 (Wakil).

Necessary to know
• Steam saturation temperature
• Circulating water inlet temperature
⇒ ∆Ti
Select
∆To
For a given ∆Ti , calculated U, and selected ∆To , the tube
surface area is calculated and the condenser design is fixed.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 23

Recommended
∆Ti = 11 – 17oC
∆To ≥ 2.8oC

Circulating-water flow and pressure drop

The water mass-flow rate m w is given by,
Q
 w=
m
c p ( t 2 − t1 )
cp = specific heat of water
t1 , t2 = inlet and exit temperature of water respectively

The pressure drop in the condenser is composed of,

1. The pressure drop in water boxes and
2. The friction pressure drop in the tubes
∆p = ρ g H
ρ = density
H = head

Water inlet velocity

Maximum 8 ft/s (~ 2.5 m/s) to minimize erosion
Minimum 5 or 6 ft/s (1.5 to 1.8 m/s) for good heat transfer.

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 24

Pressure drop in condenser water boxes

Fig: Pressure drop in condenser water boxes (A) one-pass (B)

two-pass (Ref: Wakil).
Pressure drop in condenser tubes

16 BWG = 1.651 mm thick; 18 BWG = 1.245 mm; 20 BWG = 0.889 mm (BMW = Birmingham wire gauge)

Fig: Pressure drop in condenser tubes (Ref: Wakil).

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 25

# A condenser that handles 380 kg/sec of 90% quality steam

at 0.07 bar, as well as 45 kg/sec of 45 oC drain water from the
feed water heater, and 0.25 kg/sec of 180 oC drains from
SJAE. Fresh cooling water is available at 20 oC. Calculate the
number of tubes required, cooling water flow rate, inner tube
diameter and power required for cooling water flow rate.
Given, tube outside diameter = 22 mm, each tube length = 15
m, two pass. Cooling water velocity = 2 m/s. Overall heat
transfer coefficient = 2 kW/m2.K. TTD = 3 oC. Pressure drop
in water boxes = 12.8 cm H2O, pressure drop in tubes = 0.32
cm water/cm.
# Soln

Heat load, Q = turbine exhaust + feed water heater drain

+ SJAE drain
hf at 0.07 bar = 163.43 kJ/kg
hfg at 0.07 bar = 2409 kJ/kg
hf at 180 oC = 763.12 kJ/kg
hf at 45 oC = 188.35 kJ/kg
tsat at 0.07 bar = 39.03oC

Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 26

Q = 380 (x hfg , 0.07 bar) + 45 (hf , 45oC − hf , 0.07 bar) +

0.25 (hf , 180oC − hf , 0.07 bar)
= 380 (0.9×2409) + 45 (188.35 − 163.43) +
0.25 (763.12 − 163.43)
= 825149.3 kW

t1 = 20oC

∆ti = 39.03 – 20 = 19.03oC

19.03 − 3
∆tm = = 8.68oC
 19.03 
ln 
 3 
Now, Q = U A ∆tm
Q 825149.3
⇒A= = = 47531.6 m2
U.Δ. m 2 × 8.68
Total tube area = π d L = 47531.6 m2
47531.6
Total tube length, L = m = 687717.9 m
22
π×
1000
687717.9
Number of tubes = = 45847.9 ≈ 45850 ←
15
Cooling water requirement
m w = water flow rate, kg/s
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 27

 w cp (t2 – t1)
Also, Q = m
∆ti − ∆to = tsat − t1 − (tsat − t2)
⇒ 19.03 − 3 = t2 − t1
∴ t2 − t1 = 16.03oC
825149.3 = m  w × 4.174 (16.03) cp = 4.174 kJ/kg.K
 w = 12332.37 kg/s ←
m

Tube dimension
Cooling water flow rates through each tube

12332.37
= kg/s
45850
2
Ac = each tube cross sectional area
12332.37
Now, = ρw Ac Vw
45850
2
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Vw = cooling water velocity
di = inner tube dia
⇒ Ac = 2.6897×10-4 m2
⇒ π/4×di2 = 2.6897×10-4 m2
⇒ di = 0.0185 m = 18.5 mm ←
Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 28

Pressure drop in the condenser = pressure drop in water boxes

+ pressure drop in tubes
= 12.8 + 0.32×2×1500 (neglecting tube sheet)
∆p = 972.8 cm water
= 9.728 m water
 w g . ∆p
Power required for water = m
= 12332.37 ×9.81×9.728 Watt
= 1176898.8 W
= 1176.9 kW ←

Reference:
M. M. El-Wakil, Powerplant Technology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Singapore, 1984.

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Power Plant Engineering (Water loop) Dr. Bodius Salam