10.

7: Homeostasis and Feedback

Last updatedApr 6, 2021

10.6: Interaction of Organ Systems

10.8: Case Study Conclusion: Pressure and Chapter Summary

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Contributed by Suzanne Wakim & Mandeep Grewal

Professors (Cell Molecular Biology & Plant Science) at Butte College

Steady as She Goes

This device looks simple, but it controls a complex system that keeps a home at a steady temperature.
The device is an old-fashioned thermostat. The dial shows the current temperature in the room and also
allows the occupant to set the thermostat to the desired temperature. A thermostat is a commonly cited
model of how living systems, including the human body, maintain a steady state called homeostasis.

Honeywell thermostat

Figure 10.7.1 : Thermostat for a building

What is Homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the condition in which a system such as the human body is maintained in a more-or-less
steady state. It is the job of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems throughout the body to maintain
many different variables within narrow ranges that are compatible with life. Keeping a stable internal
environment requires continuous monitoring of the internal environment and constantly making
adjustments to keep things in balance.
Setpoint and Normal Range

For any given variable, such as body temperature or blood glucose level, there is a particular setpoint
that is the physiological optimum value. For example, the setpoint for human body temperature is about
37 ºC (98.6 ºF). As the body works to maintain homeostasis for temperature or any other internal
variable, the value typically fluctuates around the set point. Such fluctuations are normal as long as they
do not become too extreme. The spread of values within which such fluctuations are considered
insignificant is called the normal range. In the case of body temperature, for example, the normal range
for an adult is about 36.5 to 37.5 ºC (97.7 to 99.5 ºF).

Maintaining Homeostasis

Homeostasis is normally maintained in the human body by an extremely complex balancing act.
Regardless of the variable being kept within its normal range, maintaining homeostasis requires at least
four interacting components: stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector.

The stimulus is provided by the variable that is being regulated. Generally, the stimulus indicates that
the value of the variable has moved away from the set point or has left the normal range.

The sensor monitors the values of the variable and sends data on it to the control center.

The control center matches the data with normal values. If the value is not at the set point or is outside
the normal range, the control center sends a signal to the effector.

The effector is an organ, gland, muscle, or other structure that acts on the signal from the control center
to move the variable back toward the set point.

Each of these components is illustrated in Figure 10.7.2 . The diagram on the left is a general model
showing how the components interact to maintain homeostasis. The stimulus activates the sensor. The
sensor activates the control system that regulates the effector. The diagram on the right shows the
example of body temperature. From the diagrams, you can see that maintaining homeostasis involves
feedback, which is data that feeds back to control a response. High body temperature may stimulate the
temperature regulatory center of the brain to activate the sweat glands to bring the body temperature
down. When body temperature reaches normal range, it acts as negative feedback to stop the process.
Feedback may be negative or positive. All the feedback mechanisms that maintain homeostasis use
negative feedback. Biological examples of positive feedback are much less common.

Negative Feedback Loops of human body

Figure 10.7.2 : Maintaining homeostasis through feedback requires a stimulus, sensor, control center,
and effector

Negative Feedback

In a negative feedback loop, feedback serves to reduce an excessive response and keep a variable within
the normal range. Examples of processes controlled by negative feedback include body temperature
regulation and control of blood glucose.

Body Temperature

Body temperature regulation involves negative feedback whether it lowers the temperature or raises it
(Figure 10.7.3 ).

Cooling Down

The human body’s temperature regulatory center is the hypothalamus in the brain. When the
hypothalamus receives data from sensors in the skin and brain that body temperature is higher than the
setpoint, it sets into motion the following responses:

Blood vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation) to allow more blood from the warm body core to flow
close to the surface of the body, so heat can be radiated into the environment.

As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands in the skin are activated to increase their output of
sweat (diaphoresis). When the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes
the heat with it.

Breathing becomes deeper, and the person may breathe through the mouth instead of the nasal
passages. This increases heat loss from the lungs.

Temperature Regulation via negative feedback

Figure 10.7.3 : The hypothalamus plays a major role in temperature regulation

Heating Up

When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that body temperature is lower than the
setpoint, it sets into motion the following responses:
Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction) to prevent blood from flowing close to the surface
of the body. This reduces heat loss from the surface.

As the temperature falls lower, random signals to skeletal muscles are triggered, causing them to
contract. This causes shivering, which generates a small amount of heat.

The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain (via the pituitary gland) to secrete more thyroid
hormones. This hormone increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body.

The adrenal glands may also be stimulated to secrete the hormone adrenaline. This hormone causes the
breakdown of glycogen (the carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals) to glucose, which can be
used as an energy source. This catabolic chemical process is exothermic, or heat producing.

Blood Glucose

In the control of the blood glucose level, certain endocrine cells in the pancreas called alpha and beta
cells, detect the level of glucose in the blood. Then they respond appropriately to keep the level of blood
glucose within the normal range.

If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range, pancreatic beta cells release the hormone
insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin signals cells to take up the excess glucose from the blood until the
level of blood glucose decreases to the normal range.

If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range, pancreatic alpha cells release the hormone
glucagon into the bloodstream. Glucagon signals cells to break down stored glycogen to glucose and
release the glucose into the blood until the level of blood glucose increases to the normal range.

Positive Feedback

In a positive feedback loop, feedback serves to intensify a response until an endpoint is reached.
Examples of processes controlled by positive feedback in the human body include blood clotting and
childbirth.

Blood Clotting

When a wound causes bleeding, the body responds with a positive feedback loop to clot the blood and
stop blood loss. Substances released by the injured blood vessel wall begin the process of blood clotting.
Platelets in the blood start to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract additional
platelets. As the platelets continue to amass, more of the chemicals are released and more platelets are
attracted to the site of the clot. The positive feedback accelerates the process of clotting until the clot is
large enough to stop the bleeding.
Childbirth via Positive Feedback

Figure 10.7.4 : Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop. Positive feedback causes an
increasing deviation from the normal state to a fixed endpoint rather than a return to a normal set point
as in homeostasis

Childbirth

Figure 10.7.4 shows the positive feedback loop that controls childbirth. The process normally begins
when the head of the infant pushes against the cervix. This stimulates nerve impulses, which travel from
the cervix to the hypothalamus in the brain. In response, the hypothalamus sends the hormone oxytocin
to the pituitary gland, which secretes it into the bloodstream so it can be carried to the uterus. Oxytocin
stimulates uterine contractions, which push the baby harder against the cervix. In response, the cervix
starts to dilate in preparation for the passage of the baby. This cycle of positive feedback continues, with
increasing levels of oxytocin, stronger uterine contractions, and wider dilation of the cervix until the
baby is pushed through the birth canal and out of the body. At that point, the cervix is no longer
stimulated to send nerve impulses to the brain, and the entire process stops.

When Homeostasis Fails

Homeostatic mechanisms work continuously to maintain stable conditions in the human body.
Sometimes, however, the mechanisms fail. When they do, homeostatic imbalance may result, in which
cells may not get everything they need or toxic wastes may accumulate in the body. If homeostasis is
not restored, the imbalance may lead to disease or even death. Diabetes is an example of a disease
caused by homeostatic imbalance. In the case of diabetes, blood glucose levels are no longer regulated
and may be dangerously high. Medical intervention can help restore homeostasis and possibly prevent
permanent damage to the organism.

Normal aging may bring about a reduction in the efficiency of the body’s control systems. This makes the
body more susceptible to disease. For example, older people may have a harder time regulating their
body temperature. This is one reason they are more likely than younger people to develop serious heat-
induced illnesses such as heat stroke.

Feature: My Human Body

Diabetes is diagnosed in people who have abnormally high levels of blood glucose after fasting for at
least 12 hours. A fasting level of blood glucose below 100 is normal. A level between 100 and 125 places
you in the pre-diabetes category, and a level higher than 125 results in a diagnosis of diabetes.
Of the two types of diabetes, type 2 diabetes is the most common, accounting for about 90 percent of
all cases of diabetes in the United States. Type 2 diabetes typically starts after the age of 40. However,
because of the dramatic increase in recent decades in obesity in younger people, the age at which type 2
diabetes is diagnosed has fallen. Even children are now being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Today,
about 30 million Americans have type 2 diabetes, and another 90 million have pre-diabetes.

You are likely to have your blood glucose level tested during a routine medical exam. If your blood
glucose level indicates that you have diabetes, it may come as a shock to you because you may not have
any symptoms of the disease. You are not alone, because as many as one in four diabetics do not know
they have the disease. Once the diagnosis of diabetes sinks in, you may be devastated by the news.
Diabetes can lead to heart attacks, strokes, blindness, kidney failure, and loss of toes or feet. The risk of
death in adults with diabetes is 50 percent greater than it is in adults without diabetes, and diabetes is
the seventh leading cause of death of adults. In addition, controlling diabetes usually requires frequent
blood glucose testing, watching what and when you eat, and taking medications or even insulin
injections. All of this may seem overwhelming.

The good news is that changing your lifestyle may stop the progression of type 2 diabetes or even
reverse it. By adopting healthier habits, you may be able to keep your blood glucose level within the
normal range without medications or insulin. Here’s how:

Lose weight. Any weight loss is beneficial. Losing as little as seven percent of your weight may be all that
is needed to stop diabetes in its tracks. It is especially important to eliminate excess weight around your
waist.

Exercise regularly. You should try to exercise five days a week for at least 30 minutes. This will not only
lower your blood sugar and help your insulin work better; it will also lower your blood pressure and
improve your heart health. Another bonus of exercise is that it will help you lose weight by increasing
your basal metabolic rate.

Adopt a healthy diet. Decrease your consumption of refined carbohydrates such as sweets and sugary
drinks. Increase your intake of fiber-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. About a
quarter of each meal should consist of high-protein foods, such as fish, chicken, dairy products, legumes,
or nuts.

Control stress. Stress can increase your blood glucose and also raise your blood pressure and risk of
heart disease. When you feel stressed out, do breathing exercises or take a brisk walk or jog. Also, try to
replace stressful thoughts with more calming ones.
Establish a support system. Enlist the help and support of loved ones as well as medical professionals
such as a nutritionist and diabetes educator. Having a support system will help ensure that you are on
the path to wellness and that you can stick to your plan.

Review

What is homeostasis?

Define the setpoint and normal range for physiological measures.

Identify and define the four interacting components that maintain homeostasis in feedback loops.

Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback loops.

Explain how negative feedback controls body temperature.

Give two examples of physiological processes that are controlled by positive feedback loops.

A negative feedback loop:

brings a variable’s level back to a normal range

can lower, but not raise, body temperature

is the type of feedback involved in blood clotting

A and B

During breastfeeding, the stimulus of the baby sucking on the nipple increases the amount of milk
produced by the mother. The more sucking, the more milk is usually produced.

Is this an example of negative or positive feedback? Explain your answer.

What do you think might be the evolutionary benefit of the milk production regulation mechanism
described in part a?

Explain why homeostasis is regulated by negative feedback loops, rather than positive feedback loops.

A setpoint is usually:

the top of a normal range

the bottom of a normal range

in the middle of a normal range

the point at which changes can no longer occur

The level of a sex hormone, testosterone (T), is controlled by negative feedback. Another hormone,
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), is released by the hypothalamus of the brain, which triggers
the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH). LH stimulates the gonads to produce T. When
there is too much T in the bloodstream, it feeds back on the hypothalamus, causing it to produce less
GnRH. While this does not describe all the feedback loops involved in regulating T, answer the following
questions about this particular feedback loop.

What is the stimulus in this system? Explain your answer.

What is the control center in this system? Explain your answer.

What is the pituitary considered in this system: stimulus, sensor, control center, or effector? Explain
your answer.

Explore More

You can learn how the body maintains homeostasis in its water content by watching this video:

Check out this video on the comparisons between positive and negative feed

homeostasis 2

Positive and Negative Feedback Loops in Biology

The Albert Team

Last Updated On: June 1, 2020

Positive and Negative Feedback Loops in Biology

Feedback is defined as the information gained about a reaction to a product, which will allow the
modification of the product. Feedback loops are therefore the process whereby a change to the system
results in an alarm which will trigger a certain result. This result will either increase the change to the
system or reduce it to bring the system back to normal. A few questions remain: How do these systems
work? What is a positive feedback? What is negative feedback? Where do we find these systems in
nature?
Biological systems operate on a mechanism of inputs and outputs, each caused by and causing a certain
event. A feedback loop is a biological occurrence wherein the output of a system amplifies the system
(positive feedback) or inhibits the system (negative feedback). Feedback loops are important because
they allow living organisms to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the mechanism that enables us to
keep our internal environment relatively constant – not too hot, or too cold, not too hungry or tired. The
level of energy that an organism needs to maintain homeostasis depends on the type of organism, as
well as the environment it inhabits. For example, a cold-blooded fish keeps its temperature at the same
level as the water around it, and so doesn’t need to control its internal temperature. Compare this to a
warm-blooded whale in the same environment: it needs to keep its body temperature higher than that
of the water around it, and so it will expend more energy in temperature regulation. This is a difference
between ectotherms and endotherms: an ectotherm uses the environmental temperature to control its
internal temperature (e.g. reptiles, amphibians, and fish), whereas an endotherm uses homeostasis to
maintain its internal temperature. Endotherms can maintain their metabolism at a constant rate,
allowing constant movement, reaction and internal processes, whereas ectotherms cannot maintain
their metabolism at a constant rate. This means that their movement, reaction and internal processes
are dependent on adequate external heat, but it also means that they require less energy in the form of
food, as their bodies are not constantly burning fuel.

Feedback loops can also occur to a larger degree: at the ecosystem level, a form of homeostasis is
maintained. A good example of this is in the cycle of predator and prey populations: a boom in prey
population will mean more food for predators, which will increase predator numbers. This will then lead
to over predation, and the prey population will again decline. The predator population will decline in
response, releasing the pressure on the prey population and allowing it to bounce back. See figure 1.
Another example is what is known as the “evolutionary arms race,” wherein a predator and its prey are
continually trying to out compete each other. One such relationship is that of nectarivorous birds and
the flowers on which they feed. The birds evolve long beaks to gain access to the nectar within the
flower. In response, the flower develops a longer and longer trumpet-like shape, in an attempt at
preventing the bird from getting to the nectar. The bird responds by developing an even longer beak.
And so it continues.

Volterra_lotka_dynamics

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

Figure 1: The population trends of predator and prey.

Positive Feedback Loops

A positive feedback loop occurs in nature when the product of a reaction leads to an increase in that
reaction. If we look at a system in homeostasis, a positive feedback loop moves a system further away
from the target of equilibrium. It does this by amplifying the effects of a product or event and occurs
when something needs to happen quickly.

Example 1: Fruit Ripening

There is a surprising effect in nature where a tree or bush will suddenly ripen all of its fruit or vegetables,
without any visible signal. This is our first example of a positive biological feedback loop. If we look at an
apple tree, with many apples, seemingly overnight they all go from unripe to ripe to overripe. This will
begin with the first apple to ripen. Once ripe, it gives off a gas known as ethylene (C2H4) through its
skin. When exposed to this gas, the apples near to it also ripen. Once ripe, they too produce ethylene,
which continues to ripen the rest of the tree in an effect much like a wave. This feedback loop is often
used in fruit production, with apples being exposed to manufactured ethylene gas to make them ripen
faster.

Fruit Ripening

Figure 2: The process of apples ripening is a positive feedback loop.

Example 2: Childbirth

When labor begins, the baby’s head is pushed downwards and results in increased pressure on the
cervix. This stimulates receptor cells to send a chemical signal to the brain, allowing the release of
oxytocin. This oxytocin diffuses to the cervix via the blood, where it stimulated further contractions.
These contractions stimulate further oxytocin release until the baby is born.

Childbirth

Figure 3: The contractions experienced in childbirth come about as a result of a positive feedback loop.

Example 3: Blood Clotting

When tissue is torn or injured, a chemical is released. This chemical causes platelets in the blood to
activate. Once these platelets have activated, they release a chemical which signals more platelets to
activate, until the wound is clotted.

Blood Clotting

Figure 4: The process of wound clotting is a positive feedback loop.

Negative Feedback Loops

A negative feedback loop occurs in biology when the product of a reaction leads to a decrease in that
reaction. In this way, a negative feedback loop brings a system closer to a target of stability or
homeostasis. Negative feedback loops are responsible for the stabilization of a system, and ensure the
maintenance of a steady, stable state. The response of the regulating mechanism is opposite to the
output of the event.

Example 1: Temperature Regulation

Temperature regulation in humans occurs constantly. Normal human body temperature is

approximately 98.6°F. When body temperature rises above this, two mechanisms kick in the body
begins to sweat, and vasodilation occurs to allow more of the blood surface area to be exposed to the
cooler external environment. As the sweat cools, it causes evaporative cooling, while the blood vessels
cause convective cooling. Normal temperature is regained. Should these cooling mechanisms continue,
the body will become cold. The mechanisms which then kick in are the formation of goose bumps, and
vasoconstriction. Goosebumps in other mammals raise the hair or fur, allowing more heat to be
retained. In humans, they tighten the surrounding skin, reducing (slightly) the surface area from which
to lose heat. Vasoconstriction ensures that only a small surface area of the veins is exposed to the cooler
outside temperature, retaining heat. Normal temperature is regained.

Temperature Regulation

Figure 5: The process of temperature regulation in humans is a negative feedback loop.

Example 2: Blood Pressure Regulation (Baroreflex)

Blood pressure needs to remain high enough to pump blood to all parts of the body, but not so high as
to cause damage while doing so. While the heart is pumping, baroreceptors detect the pressure of the
blood going through the arteries. If the pressure is too high or too low, a chemical signal is sent to the
brain via the glossopharyngeal nerve. The brain then sends a chemical signal to the heart to adjust the
rate of pumping: if blood pressure is low, heart rate increases, while if blood pressure is high, heart rate
decreases.

Example 3: Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation refers to the control of the concentration of various liquids within the body, to maintain
homeostasis. We will again look at an example of a fish, living in the ocean. The concentration of salt in
the water surrounding the fish is much higher than that of the liquid in the fish. This water enters the
fish diffusion through the gills, through food consumption, and through drinking. Also, because the
concentration of salt is higher outside than inside the fish, there is passive diffusion of salt into the fish
and water out of the fish. The salt concentration is then too high in the fish, and salt ions must be
released through excretion. This occurs via the skin, and in very concentrated urine. In addition, high salt
levels in the blood are removed via active transport by the chloride secretory cells in the gills. The
correct salt concentration is thus maintained.

Osmoregulation

Figure 6: The process of osmoregulation in saltwater fish is a constant negative feedback loop.

Positive vs. Negative Feedback

The key difference between positive and negative feedback is their response to change: positive
feedback amplifies change while negative feedback reduces change. This means that positive feedback
will result in more of a product: more apples, more contractions, or more clotting platelets. Negative
feedback will result in less of a product: less heat, less pressure, or less salt. Positive feedback moves
away from a target point while negative feedback moves towards a target.

Why is Feedback Important?

Without feedback, homeostasis cannot occur. This means that an organism loses the ability to self-
regulate its body. Negative feedback mechanisms are more common in homeostasis, but positive
feedback loops are also important. Changes in feedback loops can lead to various issues, including
diabetes mellitus.

glucose cycle

Figure 7: In a normal glucose cycle, increases in blood glucose levels detected by the pancreas will result
in the beta cells of the pancreas secreting insulin until normal blood glucose levels are reached. Whereas
if low blood glucose levels are detected, the alpha cells of the pancreas will release glucagon to raise
blood glucose levels to be normal.

In type 1 diabetes, beta cells don’t work. This means that when blood glucose levels rise, insulin
production is not triggered, and so blood glucose levels continue to go up. This can result in symptoms
such as blurred vision, weight loss, hyperventilation, nausea and vomiting, among others. In type 2
diabetes, chronic high blood glucose levels have occurred as a result of poor diet and lack of exercise.
This results in cells no longer recognizing insulin, and so blood glucose levels continue to rise.

Wrapping Up Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

Feedback loops are biological mechanisms whereby homeostasis is maintained. This occurs when the
product or output of an event or reaction changes the organism’s response to that reaction. Positive
feedback occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to make it occur
more quickly. Negative feedback occurs to reduce the change or output: the result of a reaction is
reduced to bring the system back to a stable state. Some examples of positive feedback are contractions
in child birth and the ripening of fruit; negative feedback examples include the regulation of blood
glucose levels and osmoregulation.

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