Islamic Education An Islamic Wisdom Base

religions
Article
Islamic Education: An Islamic “Wisdom-Based
Cultural Environment” in a Western Context
Fella Lahmar
Markfield Institute of Higher Education, Leicestershire LE67 9SY, UK; fella.lahmar@gmail.com

Received: 16 June 2020; Accepted: 4 August 2020; Published: 7 August 2020
Abstract: As the number and types of Islamic schools in a Western context have increased, so too have
the questions on their purpose and impact in pluralistic Western societies. Amid this increasingly
complex environment, questions are raised, both internally and externally, to determine the nature
of Islamic educational goals, schools’ knowledge and pedagogical practices. Analysis in this paper
draws on multiple sources of data: classical and contemporary literature on education in Islam; the
Department for Education (DfE) school census and the Office for Standards in Education; Children’s
Services and Skills (Ofsted); and empirical case-study data extracted from the author’s PhD thesis
on diversity in Islamic schools in Britain conducted during 2008–2012 and subsequently revised
during 2018–2019 by following up emergent themes. This paper argues for a need to develop an
“Islamic wisdom-based culture” promoting action (‘amal) which nurtures the holistic growth of
learners in ethical areas (akhlāq), aesthetics (dhawq/jamāl) and develops a sense of freedom (huriyyah).
By doing so, the paper draws primarily on Bennabi’s analysis of the role of culture (thaqāfah) in the
civilisation cycle, ibn-Khaldūn’s analysis of freedom and dignity in educational practice embedded
in his discussion of the meanings of humanity) al-insāniyyah) and Gadamer’s analysis of “practical
wisdom”. Firstly, it contextualises Islamic schooling in Britain into a neoliberal pluralistic context.
The wisdom inherent in Islamic education is explored through critical dialogue during the process of
learning and action. The discussion then considers three key elements of “wisdom-based cultural
environment” for Islamic education.
Keywords: Muslim schools; Islamic education; Islamic schools; philosophy of education; culture;
Islamic environment; wisdom; Bennabi; ibn-Khaldun; al-Ghazali
1. Introduction
It is generally accepted that education forms an important role in achieving a better future
for both the individual and society. What constitutes education and its aims, however, remains
contested depending upon diverse value orientations for resolution. Islamic1 schools in Britain
intersect with different Muslim backgrounds and experiences, providing a contested space for dialogue
between national concepts of Britishness and Islam (as a lived religion) (Cheruvallil-Contractor and
Scott-Baumann 2015; Lahmar 2019). When preparing future citizens, Islamic school educators are
expected to serve society by critically understanding the nature and needs of their diverse Islamic
community, those of the wider society to which these learners belong and to respond to a range of
demands and pressures. Moreover, in light of extremist threats, Muslim educational leaders are forced
to publicly define and interpret their varying religious understandings and cultural practices in relation
to the dominant British socio-political context (Holmwood and O’Toole 2018; Lahmar 2012, 2019).
1 Islamic schools in this paper refer to schools that operate explicitly as schools driven by an Islamic ethos.
Religions 2020, 11, 409; doi:10.3390/rel11080409 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

Religions 2020, 11, 409 2 of 15
Such a situation demands critical reflexive dialogical understanding amongst diverse Muslim
communities and between Muslims and their pluralistic Western contexts (Abdalla et al. 2018; Lahmar
2011b). For Nasr (2016), the role of Islamic education in a globalised context is to resist homogenisation,
build bridges with diverse cultural contexts and preserve its unique framework while creatively and
authentically revive from within, thus benefiting from others by incorporating harmonious elements
compliant with its principles. Acquiring such goals demands intellectual criticality to absorb, appraise
and reject forms of modern knowledge. This process, Nasr (2016, p. 25) argues, requires “an Islamic
philosophy and praxis of education” pursuing a creative contemporary revival within an authentic
Islamic educational system. Muslim educators are challenged to think creatively about Islamic
education (Memon et al. 2020; Davids and Waghid 2019; Hashim et al. 2014). This paper contributes to
this ongoing debate by considering the question: What aspects are essential to the cultural environment
of an Islamic educational institution in order to nurture creative and wise social actors?
Analysis here draws on multiple sources of data: the Department for Education (DfE) school
census and the Office for Standards in Education; Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) school reports;
and the empirical qualitative case-study data extracted from the author’s PhD thesis on diversity in
Muslim schools in Britain conducted during 2008–2012 (Lahmar 2012). In this paper, the analysis
specifically refers to headteachers’ perspectives and parental semi-structured interviews and qualitative
questionnaire data in the six case-study schools2 . The paper also draws on semi-structured headteachers’
interview data from a follow-up assessment of two schools (London Independent Primary School
(London-PS) and Vision Independent Secondary School (Vision-SS) during 2018–2019. The two latter
case-study schools’ publicly available letters, value and mission statements, curriculum provision and
Ofsted reports were also revisited. Data were coded and analysed using NVivo software. Both phases
of the study followed the ethical approval procedures required by the research institutions prior to data
collection. Theoretical discussion draws on both classical and contemporary literature, including three
types of tafsir of a Qur’anic verse (02: 269) on h.ikmah (wisdom), along with ibn-Khaldūn’s sociological
analysis on discipline in education and Bennabi’s framework of cultural components.
The first section briefly contextualises Islamic schools in Britain within a neoliberal context. It
also examines the concept of “wisdom” as an Islamic educational goal essential for critical reflexive
dialogue between these schools and their contexts. The second part introduces the idea of an “Islamic
environment” as an emergent theme drawn from parental expectations of Islamic schooling. The
discussion then questions the concept of an educational “Islamic environment” and its attendant
culturally effective elements. Drawing on Bennabi’s analysis of cultural renaissance components, focus
is placed specifically on two primary elements of ethics and aesthetics. Finally, ibn-Khaldūn’s proposal
adds a third component, “freedom and dignity”, for nurturing social actors in an educational culture
fortified by Islamic values. Gadamer (1989) concept of “practical wisdom” underpins this paper’s
analysis of achieving “the right measure” in theory and practice within Islamic education.
2. Islamic Education in a Context of Choice and Pluralism
2.1. The Neoliberal Western Context of Islamic Education

In Britain, faith and education have been closely connected. The 1944 Education Act allowed
religious schools to be drawn under the state system as partners (Gates 2005). Accordingly, within a
multicultural policy context, some Muslim educationalists sought to align with state sectors to serve
the religious needs of Muslim children from within the system (Lahmar 2011a, Parker-Jenkins et al.
2005). Segregation, the marginalisation of girls and a lack of professionalism and resources were
2 Six schools from four different locations in England: the Andalusia-state funded secondary school (Andalusia-SS);
Iqra-independent secondary school (Iqra-SS); London-independent primary school (London-PS); Olive-independent primary
school (Olive-PS); Message-state funded primary school (Message-PS); and Vision-independent secondary school (Vision-SS)
were selected for inclusion in the study. All names are pseudonyms.
Religions 2020, 11, 409 3 of 15
key concerns levied against Islamic schools during the 1990s (Haw 1994). However, Islamic schools
in Britain continue to grow in number, secure state funding for different types of schools, develop
professional practice and gradually build resources (AMS-UK 2019b). For example, Muslim schools
managed to secure the top three positions in the overall performance of all pupils at the end of key
stage 4 in 2019 across all schools and colleges in England (GOV.UK 2019).
Though, based on an overview by the Association of Muslim Schools UK (AMS-UK 2019a)
reviewing Muslim schools in the UK (2013), 95% of Muslim children attended mainstream state schools.
The remaining 5% of Muslim children were attending Muslim schools, including 23% who were
attending state-funded Muslim schools and the remaining 77% were attending independent Muslim
schools (AMS-UK 2019b). In 2014, there were 156 registered Muslim schools in the UK, the majority of
which (120 schools) were affiliated to the AMS-UK (2019a). However, the number of both state-funded
and independent Muslim schools is dynamic. Table 1 shows the limited but steady growth of Muslim
state-funded schooling in England and the increase in their population of full-time pupils across five
consecutive years.
Table 1. State-funded Muslim schools in England between 2015/2016 and 2019/2020.
2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020

Full-time pupils 3632 4455 5002 5538 6315
N (per cent of the
number of full-time
pupils in the (0.08%) (0.10%) (0.11%) (0.12%) (0.13%)
State-funded state-funded primary
primary schools in England)
Number of schools 10 13 13 14 15
N (per cent of the
number of state-funded
(0.06%) (0.08%) (0.08%) (0.08%) (0.08%)
primary schools in
England)
5577 6332 7422 8491 8939
Full-time pupils
State-funded (0.17%) (0.20%) (0.22%) (0.25%) (0.26%)
secondary 14 14 16 17 18
Number of schools
(0.41%) (0.41%) (0.46%) (0.49%) (0.52%)
Source: Schools, pupils and their characteristics (GOV.UK 2020).
The “Trojan Horse Affair”, as it came to be known, is a plot alleged to have occurred in several
Birmingham schools during 2014, which placed some Muslim educational activists at the heart of
debates surrounding fear of Islamising mainstream British schools and nurturing extreme versions of
Islamic religiosity (Holmwood and O’Toole 2018). The charges of radicalisation and extremism were
later revealed to lack substance. However, on 27 November 2014, the DfE (2014) published guidance
on promoting Fundamental British Values (FBV) in schools as a requirement for pupils’ social, moral,
spiritual and cultural (SMSC) development. The FBV include: “democracy, the rule of law, individual
liberty, and mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs” (DfE 2014). In
such a context, Islamic schools, both independent and state-funded, fall under intense scrutiny and
suspicion regarding how FBV are promoted.
The trojan horse at the time had a massive impact on all Muslim schools, generally, because there
was a massive attack on Muslim schools, very very negative, and I have to say it is a credit to the
AMS, they have worked extremely hard with the DfE in particular, side by side to make sure that
Muslim schools revise their policies, their practices and there is no misunderstanding. (Headteacher,
Vision-SS, November 2018)
Religions 2020, 11, 409 4 of 15
Hence, these schools stand within the multiple tensions between independence and state
funding status, Islamic ethos and academic achievement, Britishness and Muslimness, religion
and culture, integration and segregation, extremism and Muslim unity and diversity (Lahmar 2019,
2012). Specifically, Islamic schools with an Islamic ethos are developing within a market characterised
by a competitive environment where funding, choice and policies are pushing school leaders to make
pragmatic choices. The following headteacher’s account illustrates part of that growth and struggle:
Since 2012, I think more and more schools have opened since then. Two things happened; the
independent school standards the DfE raised the bar, they introduced some new standards around
SMSC, spiritual, moral, social and cultural, and they also introduced the leadership management
standard. Then, Ofsted on the back of that went in with renewed vigour, let’s say, and periodically,
they raised the bar again, raised the bar again. The [sigh] framework for assessment was rewritten, it
became a common framework for assessment for schools that were in the independent sector and the
maintained sector. Some schools have had to close as a result of all of this; because they didn’t have the
capacity or the support of the leadership to be able to turn themselves around as quickly necessarily
as needed. The vast majority, I think, that had tough inspections have improved. (Headteacher,
London-PS, December 2018)
Ofsted judges schools across four main areas: quality of education, behaviour and attitudes,
personal development and leadership and management. Accordingly, the inspection judgements grade
schools on a four-point scale: outstanding, good, requires improvement and inadequate (Ofsted 2019b).
For example, as of 31 August 2019, Ofsted (2019a) inspected 135 non-association independent Muslim
schools with 19,000 pupils on their rolls. The inspection effectiveness judgement results report 8% as
“outstanding”, 53% as “good”, 20% as “requiring improvement” and 19% as “inadequate”. The Ofsted
inspection judgment on schools’ performance is an important factor regarding how these schools are
publicly presented; at times, this may mean resorting to court adjudication for the school to remain
functioning (BBC 2017).
However, independent schools and faith groups can establish “free schools” type, which are funded
by the government, are not run by the local education authority and are “all-ability” non-academic
selective schools which do not have to follow the national curriculum (GOV.UK n.d.). The Vision-SS
headteacher believes that an increase in the number of “free schools” has a potentially negative impact
on student recruitment in the independent sector of Islamic schooling that offers a more explicit focus
on religiosity:
There is a massive increase on free schools, and free faith schools with Muslim character and then
parents will say: ‘look, although I wish my child to come here because they are exposed fully to the
faith, I’d still I don’t have to pay!’ So, that obviously have an impact on our school, yeah, and I think
it will continue to have an impact; because there is a growth in this area. (Headteacher, Vision-SS,
November 2018)
The development of the Star Academies, from a Muslim school into a mixed Multi-Academy
Trust running a diverse network of primary and secondary schools, is an example of the continued
change in Islamic schooling provision (Star Academies 2020), form and vision in the British context.
In the free school sector, there has been a vast proliferation from one multi-academy trust which is
Star3 Institute now it’s called, previously called the Tauheedul Education Trust. They are schools
that have really thought about the demography and the problems and the context and what needs
to be addressed, and they’ve catered their curriculum towards meeting those things. (Headteacher,
London-PS, December 2018)
3 Star Institute is the learning and development centre for Star Academies.
Mu’tazilah’s opinion via their definition of wisdom (ḥikmah) as “the power of understanding
development of evidence” regarding mindfulness (tadabbur), and reflection (tafakkur),
necessary skills enabling the wise person to know the boundaries and realise the pros and
action before making an appropriate decision. For al-Zamakhshari (2009, p. 151), “those with i
are “the wise knowledgeable doers”. Thus, wisdom (ḥikmah) necessitates theoretical knowled
Religions 2020, 11, 409 5 of 15
a continuous in-depth critical reflection process on practice by using the faculty power of (
reach the appropriate judgment.
Research into theories and practices In defining ḥikmah, ibn-Qayyim
in Islamic/Muslim schools(1292–1350)
in Britain and (Ibn-Qayyim
Europe is a2008) selected the views of M
developing
(d. 722) and Mālik 5 and
area (Abdalla et al. 2018; Cheruvallil-Contractor (711–795) as: “knowledge
Scott-Baumann of the truth
2015). Questions (al-ḥaq)
are raised about and acting upon i
“righteousness in saying and doing”, which ibn-Qayyim
the goals of Islamic education in a Western context; many researchers called for a critical reflexive restricted to understanding the Q
dialogue between Islamicrulingsheritage and
and other teachings
Western of Islamtraditions
educational and truths of creed.
(Lahmar He (Ibn-Qayyim
2011b, 2012; Niyozov 2008) regards the ta
and Memon 2011; Sahin 2013). and tafakkur as within the faculty of the heart (qalb). Ibn-Qayyim distinguishes between the
tafakkur as the initial stage of understanding through reflection and tadhakkur as the upper s
2.2. Islamic Education: Critical Reflexive
retrieval of Dialogue
what has been already attained. He further adds the concept of t
(acuity/discernment) as a way to remind the heart of the evidence. Education for wisdom
2.2.1. Critical Reflexive Dialogue
approach focuses on the heart and its relation to the Qur’an.
The Arabic terms of ta’dib,However,
tarbiyah and taʿĀshūr
ibn- (1879–1973)
lı̄m express (Ibn-ʿĀshūr
three different 1984, in
dimensions p.the
61),educational
a Tunisian prominent scho
Islamic
process offering various views of revivalist, in his Qur’anic
the most encompassing exegesis,
concepts al-Tahrir
within Islamic waeducation
al-Tanwir(Al-Attas
(Liberation and Enlighten
1991; Halstead 2004; Sahin which
2013).isHowever,
influenced by a maqāsidī
additional concepts(higher objectives
reflect other aspects of ofShariʿah)
education approach
in in respond
modernity,
Islamic heritage, such as talqı̄n defines
(inculcation), wisdom
tablı̄igh as “mastering
(proclamation), tazkiyahknowledge and conducting
(purification/growth), tahdı̄baction according
¯
(refinement/edification) and knowledge”. He (Ibn-ʿĀshūrThus,
is.lāh (reform/improvement). 1984, p. 61)
claims refers
of an to the meaning
all-encompassing of wisdom
concept of as “judgme
education in Islam remain prevention”
open to dispute.becauseClassical
attainingdebates
wisdom on“prevents
the goals of from falling into
education wereerror
all, atand misguidance”
different degrees, prioritiestheandcondition of “mastering”
approaches, based on the knowledge,
consideration the of
definition
revelation that
as ibn-
a key ʿĀshūr
source(1984,
of p. 61) presents
knowledge, the Prophet aswith Fakhr al-Dīnofal-Rāzī’s
an embodiment the message viewand thatthe
wisdom is related
appreciation to role
of the knowing “theand
of reason objective reality of th
they areknowledge
spiritual experience in attaining with whatofthe God[human]
and His capability
creation.enables,
Classicali.e., so that on
literature similar facts do not get confuse
education
from Islamic thought include eachthat other …”. Similarly,
of ibn-Sahn al-Attas
ūn (819–870 CE), (1991), from
al-Farābı̄ a different
(847–950), analytical
al-Qābisı̄ dimension, considers tha
(935–1012),
of knowledge(1030–1130),
ibn-Sı̄nā (980–1037), ibn-Miskawayh and wisdomal-Ghazālı̄results in(1058–1111),
confusion. Unlike ibn-Rushd ibn-Qayyim (2008), restricting sou
(1126–1198),
Rumı̄ (Moulavi) (1207–1273), wisdom within classical
ibn-Taymiyyah Islamic fields
(1263–1328) andofibn-Khald
knowledge ūnrelated to understanding
(1392–1406), amongst the Qur’an, ibn-
many others. considered two basic sources, the divine, derived through revelation, and the human, a
A recent resurgencethrough
of debates mental diligence
for and against andthecross-fertilisation and development
Islamisation of knowledge projectofofferideas thebetween different n
He (Ibn-ʿĀshūr
prospect of generating intra-Muslim 1984) regards
discussions the work
and support for of Greek philosophers
developing new visionstofor represent
Islamic a unique contribu
education that are open tothis process
dialogue andbycritical
refining and dividing
engagement it into
through “practical
different wisdom”
contexts. While and
not“theoretical
the wisdom”
detailed discussion
place to assess different proposals of Greek philosophers’
within Islamisation theory, two main contributions,
approachesibn- ʿĀshūrnamely
emerged, (1984, p. 73) examines “p
epistemological and ethical wisdom”,
(Niyozovincluding
and Memon the2011;
science
Rahmanof ethics, which he 1988;
1988; Al-Faruqi claims is defined
Al-Attas 1991). asInabiding by “the ch
this regard, Niyozov and Memon (2011) rightly demand the re-examination of the epistemological and
methodological assumptions 4 Aand approaches
student of the Islamisation
of the Prophet’s companionproject with he
ibn-ʿAbbās; its is
diverse interpretations
a key figure in the Qur’anic tafsīr school t
in light of an inclusive critical approach of
developed in Makkah. the self and the other. By doing so, Islamic education is
required to “produce new 5 Mālik-bin-Anas
knowledge and(711–795),
re-definethe itsfounder
content,ofgoals,
the Mālikī
andschool
pedagogy of jurisprudence.
on this basis”
(Niyozov and Memon 2011, p. 25).
Similarly, I argued that “[s]eeking wisdom from whatever source is an Islamic Prophetic teaching
which [ . . . ] demands critical reflexive dialogue with the other” (Lahmar 2011b, p. 14). The
critical reflexive dialogical understanding is required, not only between Muslims and their Western
contexts, but also amongst diverse groups of Muslims. The implications of such internal and external
dialogues would contribute to the development of common Islamic educational aims and curriculum
resources in a contemporary context (Lahmar 2011a). However, the process of moving backwards
or forwards between educators’ Islamic heritage, diverse experiences, Western cultural contexts
and global changes necessitates “new types of flexible personal controls, dispositions and means
of orientation” (Featherstone 1990, p. 8). Navigating this complexity and recognising what is
“relevant” and “appropriate” to the situation demands more than technical knowledge about Islam;
it requires developing a critical reflexive questioning of one’s action, and that entails ethical and
moral considerations towards the self and others. Technical “recipes” seeking ready-made formulas
for Islamic educational practice require abandonment; self-reflexivity and contextual understanding
become essential parts to arriving at that “right measure” (Lahmar 2011a, 2011b).
2.2.2. Islamic Education for Wisdom

Classical debate disputes the aim of attaining wisdom (h.ikmah) as an educational goal in Islam.
This goal is supported by various Qur’anic texts, including Surah Luqmān where Luqmān is described
Religions 2020, 11, 409 6 of 15
as being a wise person of knowledge and an educator. Wisdom as a goal of education in Islam is also
supported by the Qur’anic verse (02: 269): “Whoever is given wisdom [h.ikmah] has truly been given
much good, but only those with insight [ulū al-albāb] bear this in mind” (Abdel Haleem 2005, p. 31).
Interpretations of this verse reflect the diversity within Muslim thought regarding the primary aims
of education based on differing understandings of the Qur’an. It also questions the existence of a
dichotomy
Religions 2020,between
11, x “Islamic” and a supposed “other”. 6 of 15
For example, from a rationalist approach, the views of al-Zamakhshari (1075–1144) (offering a
rational
and Mu‘tazilah
philosophy) approach)
differ on whether and Fakhrwisdom ad-Dı̄n
Religions is2020, ar-Rāzı̄’s
attained
11, x through (1149–1209) human (supporting
faculties or rational
bestowed theology as a
and philosophy)
divine gift based on differ
theon whether wisdom
interpretation is attained through human
of ītā’ (granting/bestowing). However, faculties they or both bestowed
agree when as a
divine gift based
considering on the interpretation
“theoretical knowledge” (‘ilm) of
and ı̄tā’and(granting/bestowing).
practical differ
philosophy) “righton conduct” However,
whether (ṣawab)
wisdom they asboth
two agree
key aspects
is attained when
through human facul
of wisdom. For
considering “theoretical
both, theknowledge” (‘ilm)
practical commitment divine andgift practical
based“right
to theoretical on the conduct”
knowledge
interpretation (s
is. awab)
regardedofasītā’ twoas akey aspects of
requirement
(granting/bestowing). However, t
wisdom.
for any personFor both,to be theconsidered
practical commitment
“wise”.considering to theoretical knowledge
“theoretical knowledge” is regarded (‘ilm) asanda requirement
practical “right for conduct” (ṣawa
any person to be considered
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī “wise”. wisdom. the
1981)ofconsiders Forjudgment
both, the practical (ḥukm) ofcommitment “wisdom” combined to theoretical withknowledge is rega
Fakhrasal-Dı̄n
“reason” al-Rāzı̄ element
an essential (Ar-Rāzı̄in 1981)
thefor considers
process
any person ofthe judgment
reaching unbiased
to be considered (h.ukm)accurateof “wisdom”
“wise”. truth.combined
In contrast with to
“reason”
reason, Fakhr as an essential
al-Dīn al-Rāzī element in the process
(Ar-Rāzī 1981) Fakhr ofal-Dīn
regards reaching the
al-Rāzīunbiased
judgment (Ar-Rāzī accurate
(ḥukm)1981)of truth. In contrast
a person’s
considers desire
the judgment to (ḥukm) of “wis
Religions 2020, 11, x 6 of
reason, Fakhr
(shahwah) andal-Dı̄n
soul (nafs)al-Rāzı̄to be(Ar-Rāzı̄
based 1981)
on“reason” regards
imagination asthe an judgment
and delusion,
essential (h.ukm)
elementled by ofinthe
a the
person’s
urgeprocessofdesire
“achieving (shahwah)
of reaching theunbiased accurate
present
and soulpleasure”.
(nafs) to be For
and wisdom
basedphilosophy) perceived
on imagination reason,
differ as
onand “the Fakhr
whether rightal-Dīn
delusion, conduct
wisdomled al-Rāzī
byis (ṣawab)”,
the urge
(Ar-Rāzī
attained Fakhr
of al-Dīn
“achieving
through 1981) human al-Rāzī
the present
regards (Ar-judgment
the
faculties or bestowed (ḥukm) as
Rāzī 1981) considers
pleasure”. For wisdom it as part
perceived of theas human-being’s
“the right conduct journey(s awab)”,
in
(nafs) pursuing
toFakhr
divine gift based on the interpretation. of ītā’ (granting/bestowing). However, they both agreethe
(shahwah) and soul be perfection
al-Dı̄n
based on al-Rāzı̄(kamāl).
imagination (Ar-Rāzı̄Theand verse
1981)
delusion, led by wheu
of wisdomitends
considers as part byof restricting remembrance
the human-being’s
considering “theoreticalpresent
journey (tadhakkur)
pleasure”.
knowledge” in pursuing to “those
For
(‘ilm) andwith
wisdom
perfection insight”
perceived
(kamāl).
practical “right (albāb).
The asconduct”
“the
verse In ofthis
right sense,
wisdom conduct
(ṣawab) (ṣawab)”,
as two key aspec Fakh
Fakhr
ends by al-Dīn al-Rāzī
restricting (Ar-Rāzī
remembrance 1981) argues
Rāzī
(tadhakkur) that
1981) to critical
considers
“those reflection
with it as part
insight” is
of wisdom. For both, the practical commitment to theoretical knowledge is regarded as a requiremenaofway the
(albāb).of deepening
human-being’s
In this faith
sense,journey in
Fakhrthe in pursuing perfect
heart
al-Dı̄nby examining
al-Rāzı̄ (Ar-Rāzı̄ theany
for already
1981) attained
argues
person beof
to that knowledge
wisdom
critical
considered ends
reflectionbeyond
“wise”. aan
byisrestricting
way apparent remembrance
of deepening layer of understanding
faith (tadhakkur)
in the heart to by to
“those with insight”
deeper
examining layers of reflection
the already attained on the
knowledge essence.
Fakhr beyond Fakhr
al-Dīn an al-Dīn
al-Rāzī
apparent al-Rāzī
(Ar-Rāzī
layer
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī 1981) considers the judgment (ḥukm) of “wisdom” combined of (Ar-Rāzī
1981)
understandingargues 1981) that
to endorses
critical
deeper the
reflection
layers is a way of witd
Mu’tazilah’s
of reflection on opinion via
the essence. their definition
Fakhr al-Dı̄n of
heart wisdom
al-Rāzı̄ by (ḥikmah)
examining
(Ar-Rāzı̄ 1981) as
the “the
already
endorses power
“reason” as an essential element in the process of reaching unbiased accurate truth. In contrast t of
attained
the understanding
knowledge
Mu’tazilah’s and
beyond
opinion the
via an apparent laye
development
their definitionof evidence”
of wisdom
reason,(h.Fakhr regarding
ikmah) as “the
al-Dīn mindfulness
deeper power
al-Rāzī layers
of(Ar-Rāzī (tadabbur),
of
understanding 1981) and
reflection onthe
and
regards reflection
thedevelopment
the essence. (tafakkur),
judgment Fakhr
of (ḥukm) of the
al-Dīn
evidence” of al-Rāzī
a person’s (Ar-Rāzī
desir
necessary
regarding skills enabling
mindfulness the wise
(tadabbur), person
and to
Mu’tazilah’s
reflection know the
(tafakkur), boundaries
opinion ofvia the their and realise
definition
necessary
(shahwah) and soul (nafs) to be based on imagination and delusion, led by the urge of “achieving skillsthe
of pros
wisdom
enabling and cons
(ḥikmah)
the wise ofas “the power of th
u
action before
person to know making
thepresentan appropriate
boundaries and decision.
development
realise the For
pros al-Zamakhshari
and of evidence”
cons of action(2009,
pleasure”. For wisdom perceived as “the right conduct (ṣawab)”, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (A p.
regarding
before 151),making “those
mindfulnessan with insight”
appropriate(tadabbur), and reflecti
are “the wise
decision. knowledgeable
Rāzī 1981) doers”.
For Al-Zamakhshari (2009, p.Thus,
considers it aswisdom
necessary
151), “those
part of (ḥikmah)
skills
with
the enabling
insight” necessitates
human-being’s the “the
are wise theoretical
person
wise
journey knowledgeable
in pursuing knowledge
to know the and (kamāl).
boundaries
doers”.
perfection andThe realise
vers
a continuous
Thus, wisdomin-depth
(h.ikmah) critical
necessitates reflection
theoreticalprocess
action before on
knowledge practice
making and by
an a using
appropriate
continuous
of wisdom ends by restricting remembrance (tadhakkur) to “those with insight” (albāb). In this the faculty
decision.
in-depth power For
critical of (lubb)
al-Zamakhshari
reflection to (2009, p.sens
151)
reach the
process onappropriate
practice Fakhrby judgment.
using al-Rāzīare
the faculty
al-Dīn power “theofwise
(Ar-Rāzī (lubb)
1981) knowledgeable
to reachthat
argues doers”.reflection
the appropriate
critical Thus, wisdom
judgment. is a way (ḥikmah) necessitates
of deepening faiththeor
in th
defining h.ḥikmah,
In defining ikmah, ibn-Qayyim
ibn-Qayyim (1292–1350)
a continuous
(1292–1350) (Ibn-Qayyim
(Ibn-Qayyimin-depth 2008)
critical
2008)
heart by examining the already attained knowledge beyond an apparent layer of understanding t selected
reflection
selected the the views
process
views of of
on Mujāhid
practice
Mujāhid 4 (d. 4by using the facu
(d.
722)722) 5 (711–795)
and Mālik 5 (711–795) as:
and Mālik deeper as: of “knowledge
“knowledge
layers reach of the
reflection thetruth on ofthe
appropriatetheessence.
(al-h truth
. aq) and(al-ḥaq)
judgment. acting
Fakhrupon and
al-Dīn acting
it” and
al-Rāzī upon
“righteousness it” and1981) endorses th
(Ar-Rāzī
“righteousness
in saying and doing”, in saying which
Mu’tazilah’s andibn-Qayyim
doing”,
opinionwhich via In
restricted
theiribn-Qayyim
defining ḥikmah,restricted
to understanding
definition of wisdom ibn-Qayyim to
the understanding
(ḥikmah) (1292–1350)
Qur’an, as “therulings the
power and Qur’an,
(Ibn-Qayyimofother 2008) selected
understanding and th t
rulings
teachings and ofother
Islamteachings
and truths of Islam
of and
creed. (d.
Hetruths
722) of
(Ibn-Qayyim andcreed. MālikHe2008)(Ibn-Qayyim
5 (711–795)
regards
development of evidence” regarding mindfulness (tadabbur), and reflection (tafakkur), of th the 2008)
as: regards
“knowledge
tadhakkur and the oftadhakkur
tafakkurthe truth
as (al-ḥaq) and
and tafakkur
within as within
the faculty of thetheheart
necessary faculty ofenabling
(qalb).
skills the heartthe
“righteousness
Ibn-Qayyim (qalb).
wise Ibn-Qayyim
in saying
distinguishes
person to know distinguishes
and
between doing”,
the the between
which
level
boundaries therealise
of ibn-Qayyim
tafakkur
and level
as the of
restricted
the pros and to under
cons o
tafakkur
initial stageas the initial
of understandingstage of understanding
through rulings
reflection through
and and other reflection
teachings
tadhakkur as and
the of
action before making an appropriate decision. For al-Zamakhshari (2009, p. 151), “those with insightadhakkur
Islam
upper and
stage as the
truths
of upper
of
retrieval creed.stage
of He
what of
(Ibn-Qayyim 2008)
retrieval
has been alreadyof what has
attained. been
He already
further and
adds attained.
tafakkur
the
are “the wise knowledgeable doers”. Thus, .wisdom concept asHe within
of further
tabas thes. ur adds
faculty the
of the
(acuity/discernment) concept
heart of
(qalb).as atabaṣṣur
Ibn-Qayyim
(ḥikmah) necessitates theoretical knowledge anway to distinguishes
(acuity/discernment)
remind the heart ofathe asevidence.
a way toin-depth
continuous remind
Educationtafakkurthe forheart
critical as
wisdomtheofinitial
reflection the evidence.
in this stage
process approachofon Education
understanding
focusesby
practice for
onusingwisdom
through
the heart
the and in this
reflection
faculty and tadhakkur
its power of (lubb) t
approach
relation tofocuses
the Qur’an. on the heart and its
reach the appropriate judgment. relation
retrieval to the
of Qur’an.
what has been already attained. He further adds the
However, ibn-ʿĀshūr ĀshIn (1879–1973)
ūr defining (Ibn-
(Ibn-’ ʿ Āshūr
Āsh ūr 1984, p. 61),
as
61), a away
a Tunisian
to
ḥikmah, ibn-Qayyim (1292–1350) (Ibn-Qayyim 2008) selected the views of Mujāhid remind prominent the heart scholarof theand evidence. Educatio
Islamic revivalist, in his Qur’anic
(d. 722) and Mālikapproach
Qur’anic exegesis,
exegesis, al-Tahrir
al-Tahrir
5 (711–795) focuses wa “knowledge
as: al-Tanwir
on the heart and
(Liberation
of the and Enlightenment),
its relation
truth to the Qur’an.
Enlightenment),
(al-ḥaq) and acting upon it” an
which isisinfluenced
influenced by by
a a maqāsidī
maqāsidı̄ (higher (higher
objectives objectives
However, of
“righteousness in saying and doing”, which ibn-Qayyim restricted ibn-
Shari ofʿ ah) Shariʿah)
Āshūr approach approach
(1879–1973) in (Ibn-
responding in ʿ responding
Āshūr toto 1984,
modernity, p.
understandingto61), a Tunisian
the Qur’an pr
modernity,
defines wisdom defines wisdom
as rulings
“mastering as “mastering
knowledge Islamic and knowledge
revivalist,
conducting and
in his
action conducting
Qur’anic
according
and other teachings of Islam and truths of creed. He (Ibn-Qayyim 2008) regards the tadhakku action
exegesis,
to that according
al-Tahrir
knowledge”. wato that
al-Tanwir
He (Liberation
knowledge”.
(Ibn-’ Āshūr 1984,He (Ibn- p. ʿ
and tafakkur1984,
61) Āshūr
refers thep.meaning
to within
as 61)
which therefers faculty toofthe
isofinfluenced
wisdom themeaning
asby
heart “judgment of wisdom
a(qalb).
maqāsidī and
Ibn-Qayyim (higher as “judgment
prevention” objectives
distinguishes because and
of between
Shariʿah)theapproalevel o
prevention”
attaining wisdom because attaining
“prevents wisdom
from falling“prevents
modernity,
into errorfrom
definesandfalling
wisdom into
misguidance”.
tafakkur as the initial stage of understanding through reflection and tadhakkur as the error
as and
“mastering
Given misguidance”.
theknowledge
condition Givenand
of conducting
upper stage actio
the condition of
“mastering” knowledge, “mastering”
retrieval knowledge,
the definition
of whatthat the
knowledge”.
hasIbn-’ definition
beenĀshūr He that
(Ibn-
(1984,
already ibn- ʿ
ʿĀshūrĀshūr
p.attained.
61) presents (1984,
1984,He agreesp. p.
further 61)
61)with presents
refers
addsFakhrto the agrees
the
al-Dı̄nmeaning of
concept of wisdom
tabaṣṣu
with Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s view that wisdom
prevention” is related to
because knowing
attaining
(acuity/discernment) as a way to remind the heart of the evidence. Education for wisdom in “the objective
wisdom reality
“prevents of things
from as
falling into error andth
they are with what approach the [human] capability the enables,
condition i.e.,
of
focuses on the heart and its relation to the Qur’an.so that
“mastering” similar facts
knowledge, do not get
the confused
definition with
that ibn- ʿĀshūr (1984,
each
4 A other
student…”.of theSimilarly,
Prophet’s al-Attas (1991),
However,
companion ibn-ʿwith
ibn- from
Āshūr
Abbās; Fakhr a isdifferent
aal-Dīn
(1879–1973)
he key figure analytical
al-Rāzī’s
(Ibn-
in the ʿĀshūr dimension,
view
Qur’anic that
1984, wisdom
tafsı̄r p. considers
61), that
school aisTunisian
had that
related atoprominent
developed lack
knowing “the objecti
scholar an
of knowledge
in Makkah. and Islamic wisdomrevivalist,
results ininthey confusion.
his are
Qur’anic with Unlike
what ibn-Qayyim
exegesis,the [human]
al-Tahrir (2008),
capability
wa restricting
al-Tanwir enables, sources
i.e.,
(Liberation so of
that
and similar facts
Enlightenment do
5 Mālik-bin-Anas (711–795), Islamic
the founder of the Mālikı̄ school…”. ofrelated
jurisprudence.
wisdom within classical which is influenced fields ofeach
knowledge
by other a maqāsidī to understanding
Similarly,
(higher al-Attas
objectives (1991), theShariʿah)
of Qur’an,
from ibn-
a different ʿĀshūr
approach analytical dimensiont
in responding
considered two basic sources, defines
modernity, the divine,of
wisdom derived
knowledge through
and wisdom
as “mastering revelation, resultsand
knowledge inand theconducting
confusion.human, attained
Unlike actionibn-Qayyim
according(2008), to th
through mental diligence and cross-fertilisation
wisdom and
within development
classical
knowledge”. He (Ibn-ʿĀshūr 1984, p. 61) refers to the meaning of wisdom as “judgment an of
Islamic ideas fields between
of different
knowledge nations.
related to understanding th
He (Ibn-ʿĀshūr 1984) regards the work of Greek
considered philosophers
two basic to
sources,
prevention” because attaining wisdom “prevents from falling into error and misguidance”. Giverepresent the a unique
divine, contribution
derived through in revelation, and
this process by refining and dividing
the condition it
of “mastering”into “practical
through mental
knowledge, wisdom”
diligence and and
the definition “theoretical
that ibn-wisdom”.
cross-fertilisation ʿĀshūr and (1984, In his
development of ideas agree
p. 61) presents betw
detailed discussion with of Greek philosophers’ He (Ibn- ʿ
contributions,Āshūr ibn-
1984) ʿĀshūr
regards (1984,
the
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s view that wisdom is related to knowing “the objective reality of things p.
work 73) of examines
Greek “practical
philosophers to represent a ua
wisdom”, including the science of ethics, this which
process heby claims
refining is defined
and dividing as abiding it into by“practical
“the character wisdom” and “theore
a continuous in-depth critical reflection process on prac
reach the appropriate judgment.
In defining ḥikmah, ibn-Qayyim (1292–1350) (Ibn-Q
(d. 722) and Mālik 5 (711–795) as: “knowledge of th
“righteousness in saying and doing”, which ibn-Qayy
Religions 2020, 11, 409 7 of 15
rulings and other teachings of Islam and truths of creed.
and tafakkur as within the faculty of the heart (qalb). Ibn
al-Rāzı̄’s view that wisdom is related to knowing “the objectivetafakkur reality ofas things
the initial stage
as they areofwith
understanding
what through re
the [human] capability enables, i.e., so that similar facts do not retrieval of what
get confused withhas eachbeen . . . ”.
other already attained. He
Similarly, Al-Attas (1991), from a different analytical dimension, (acuity/discernment)
considers that a lack as of
a way to remind the heart of t
knowledge
and wisdom results in confusion. Unlike Ibn-Qayyim (2008),approach restricting focuses
sources onofthe heart and
wisdom withinits relation to the Qur
classical Islamic fields of knowledge related to understanding the Qur’an, ibn-ʿĀshūr
However, considered (Ibn-ʿĀshūr 1984
Āshūr (1879–1973)
two basic sources, the divine, derived through revelation, andIslamic revivalist,
the human, in his
attained Qur’anic
through exegesis, al-Tahrir wa
mental
diligence and cross-fertilisation and development of ideas between whichdifferent
is influenced
nations.by Hea(Ibn-’
maqāsidī
Āshūr(higher objectives
1984) regards the work of Greek philosophers to represent a unique modernity, defines wisdom
contribution as “mastering
in this process by knowledge
refining and dividing it into “practical wisdom” and “theoretical knowledge”.
wisdom”. In Hehis(Ibn- ʿĀshūr
detailed 1984, p. 61) refers to th
discussion
of Greek philosophers’ contributions, Ibn-’Āshūr (1984, p. 73) examinesprevention” because
“practical attaining
wisdom”, wisdom “prevents from
including
the science of ethics, which he claims is defined as abiding bythe “thecondition
characterofattributes
“mastering” knowledge,
of the Divine the definition
High according to human ability, which would [i.e. the divine] withbe Fakhr al-Dīn
the source ofal-Rāzī’s view that wisdom is related t
human perfection”.
This proposed Greek philosophers’ definition, cited in Ibn-’Āsh theyūrare withtafsı̄r,
(1984) whatisthe [human]
identical to capability
Fakhr enables, i.e., s
each other
al-Dı̄n al-Rāzı̄’s (Ar-Rāzı̄ 1981) in his tafsı̄r of the same verse offering …”. Similarly,
a definition of wisdom al-Attas (1991), from a differen
as practice.
This sample of tafsı̄r threads illustrate the complexity of the of knowledge
accumulated and wisdom
thought results in confusion. Unlik
on education
in Islam, even within the literature on Qur’anic commentary. wisdom Hence, the within
two classical Islamic
worlds, East andfields
West,of knowledge rela
are not mutually exclusive and modern European culture wasconsidered not immunetwo frombasic sources,
Muslim the divine, derived thr
intellectual
heritage, influence and inspiration and vice versa (Iqbal 1999).through Discussionmental diligencehighlights
on wisdom and cross-fertilisation
the and dev
important relationship between knowledge and action in Muslim He (Ibn- ʿĀshūrIn
thought. 1984)
this regards the work of Greek philoso
regard, Bennabi
(2006) argument is adopted in this paper, by stating that: this process by refining and dividing it into “practical
detailed discussion of Greek philosophers’ contributions
What is lacking in a Muslim is not the logic of the idea, but the logic of action and movement.
wisdom”, including the science of ethics, which he cla
[The Muslim] does not think to act, but rather to say abstract words. (Bennabi 2006, p. 103)
Accordingly, the task of Islamic education is to re-instil this4 A student

“logic of theand
of action Prophet’s companion
movement” into ibn-ʿAbbās; he is a
developed in Makkah.
Muslim belief (Bennabi 2006). Certainly, advanced critical, analytical and debating skills to the level of
5
al-Burhān, as Ibn-Rushd (1997) contends, are necessary for scholarship. Mālik-bin-Anas
However, (711–795),
they dothenot
founder
formof the Mālikī school
the driving component for moral ethical action; these skills remain at the realm of “the logic of the
idea” as Bennabi (2006) skilfully analysed. The moral ethical action, as previously argued, constitutes a
component of practical wisdom to attain “the right measure”.
Certainly, from an Islamic perspective, moral ethical action is also connected to the notion of taqwá
(God consciousness), which forms an important element in al-Ghazālı̄’s (1058–1111) ethical theory of
human conduct. In the learning process, al-Ghazālı̄ considers both theory and practice, stating that
“knowledge without work is insanity, and work without knowledge is vanity” (Al-Ghazali 2000a, p.
13). For him (Al-Ghazali 2000a, p. 21), tasting the light of knowledge does not come through “the
ecstatic utterances and vehement cries of the Sufis”, while neither comes through formal knowledge
and rational reasoning of philosophers. However, in his book “The Incoherence of Philosophers”,
Al-Ghazali (2000b) accepts rational reasoning but uses it to reject metaphysics as a genuine route to
true knowledge. For him (Al-Ghazali 1964), educational practice needs to encompass the internal
spheres of the self, the soul, spirit and heart, which are part of al-’aql (intellect/reason). This is because a
person’s selfish lower self of desires and lusts (shahwah) and soul (nafs) do not get disciplined through
mere rational reasoning but through the struggle of “tazkiyah” by self-disciplinary exercises (mujāhadah)
as an inner spiritual experience process of “tasting” (dhawq) (Al-Ghazali 2000a). It is this process of
“tazkiyah” that takes the learner from the formal knowledge of rational reasoning to tasting the light
of knowledge. Accordingly, al-Ghazālı̄ regarded the inner experience, or what he conceptualised as
“tasting” (dhawq), of paramount importance to inner purification and, therefore, to the outer action. It is
this moral inner ethical drive that Bennabi considers as a primary component to a cultural environment
that promotes the logic of action; a view that this paper adopts to propose a “wisdom-based cultural
environment” for Islamic education.
Religions 2020, 11, 409 8 of 15
3. “Wisdom-Based Cultural Environment” for Islamic Education
3.1. The School Environment and Islamic Schooling in Britain

During the initial 2012 study phase (Lahmar 2012), concepts of an “Islamic environment” and
“practicing Islam” became conceptually significant, emerging from the data analysis, as referred to
by the majority of parents via open-ended questionnaire responses and semi-structured interviews.
Two main themes emerged across the schools in relation to an Islamic environment: first, helping
children to establish confidence in their Islamic way of life; and, second, encouraging children to
contribute to society (Lahmar 2012). However, parents presented different priorities regarding what
constitutes “Islamic” within a school environment. The Islamic environment was not just centred on
teaching Islamic subjects, but focused on codes of conduct in school, role modelling, dress, greetings
and celebrations. Within such an environment, parents expected higher behavioural standards than
those found in mainstream schools. Fostering a sense of belonging represents a key theme across
parents and headteachers’ responses in the 2012 phase of the study:
The [Olive-PS] environment is good; it has gone beyond my expectations of what I wanted. It gives
me a lot of pleasure to hear Zeinab come home and pray salah, she’s prayed there [ . . . ]. It was such
a nice atmosphere in the school, everybody excited and stuff, [ . . . ]. I think it teaches them lots of
things but it still teaches them to be happy in their own religion, and that is nice, they have got a
sense of belonging. For however long it lasts it will not last forever, they will have to move on, [ . . .
]. (Mother-2, interview, Olive-PS, 2012, emphasis added)
For a number of parents, pupils need to feel comfortable and “normal” when they are practising
Islamic rituals, building love and confidence of their Islamic history and heritage and this demands
a positive experience within Islamic schooling. Thus, a number of parents perceived the schools
as supporting their parental role in helping children to balance various values, such as academic
attainment and fitting in as Muslims within a British context:
For me it’s like a weight lifted off my shoulder [ . . . ]. I knew she is in a safe environment with people
that understand, respect her religion, where she could feel proud of her religion and express herself,
instead of feeling that she has to hide it away as something different. But then, you want your children
to grow as good citizens and contribute to society and not get into any trouble. (Mother-2, interview,
2012, Vision-SS)
The educational Islamic environment, as described by the majority of parents and school leaders,
pays particular attention to learners’ religious needs in terms of ritual observance, dress code and
community cohesion to improve Islamic practice and strengthen a sense of belonging (Lahmar 2012).
Both themes of nurturing a sense of confidence in Muslim identity, and positively contributing to
society are reemphasised by the two headteachers interviewed in the 2018–2019 phase. However,
the discourse of social cohesion has been shifted to an emphasis on FBV as an embedded part of the
school environment to prepare pupils as citizens for active roles in society. As part of serving parents’
expectations, many independent Islamic schools emphasise their religious character as the Vision-SS
headteacher (November 2018) stresses that: “there is a massive more emphasis on the religion of the
school here [than in free schools]”. However, some schools present different models of environments
underpinned by Islamic ethos, including that of the Star Academies’ example:
They [Star Institute] have a model which is different from our school. So, whereas in schools like
mine and many others, actually most Muslim schools, we explicitly teach Qur’an, we explicitly teach
Arabic, we explicitly teach Islamic Studies [ . . . ] etcetera, whereas Tauheedul is different. They
teach the spirit of Islam through social action, through behaviour, through appreciation, and they
cater for Muslims within that environment [ . . . ]; the embracing of Muslim identity and cultures.
(Headteacher, London-PS, December 2018)
Religions 2020, 11, 409 9 of 15
To fathom the importance of cultural aspects within such an environment, the following analysis
draws on Bennabi (2006) framework of “culture” to examine its role in educating Muslim learners
towards developing an authentic sense of self and active creative agency.
3.2. Islamic “Wisdom-Based Cultural Environment”

Children in Muslim schools derive from diverse Muslim sub-communities, often cited within
deprived educational and economic backgrounds, whereby a majority hail from immigrant family
backgrounds albeit at different stages of arrival and settlement (Ofsted 2013; Lahmar 2012). Islamic
school communities provide an internally diverse cultural sample, offering the potential to act as
catalysts of change within distinct Muslim communities. Following Bennabi (2006) line of analysis,
cultural transformation becomes a necessity within Islamic schooling as a civilising project, rather than
as an Islamising decorative process. The change goes beyond the accumulation of prestigious objects,
including premises and examination ranking, or decorative apparent superficial religiosity. It can be
asserted that Islamic education should rather develop a new synthesis of human personality and its
essential qualities to assume responsibilities within their given contexts. In this regard, Bennabi (2006)
considers the decline within the Muslim ummah as embedded within its cultural norms, fostering
individuals prone to internalising a sense of inferiority towards the dominant European colonisers.
Furthermore, Bennabi (2006) suggests that with the decline of civilisation people lose their sense of
agency, creativity and efficacy. Accordingly, they become imitators either stagnating within an idealised
past or rejecting their heritage to adopt the look, behaviour and superficial consumerist borrowing
from whom they see as superior. This argument partly relates to Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) theory that the
dominated always imitate those who dominate them because they believe in their perfection.
Within this complexity, Bennabi (2006) links the problem of human beings directly to the problem
of civilisation, whereby, culture becomes a context of a pivotal educational value. In his view, culture is
a crucial social and educational agent of change in the process of reconstruction of the self to regain
self-determination, efficacy, creativity and social agency. Although there is no universally accepted
definition of culture, according to Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) definition, culture has “patterns” and
“systems”, the behaviour in which is “acquired” and “transmitted”:
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted
by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically
derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on
the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other as conditioning elements of
further action. (Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952, p. 181)
In applying such a definition of culture to analyse any particular Islamic school environment,
two essential levels of depth can be regarded for observation: explicit and implicit patterns. The
manifestations of such patterns include: ideas and values, artifacts that express some aspects of culture
and control systems that produce actions and behavioural norms. In concert with these aspects, Bennabi
(2006) differentiates between culture and knowledge, considering culture as a theory of behaviour.
Accordingly, Bennabi (2006, p. 89) conceives culture as “the environment in which the individual
forms his character and personality”.
It is as Bennabi (2006) elaborates, culture is more general than knowledge and more closely related
to issues influencing personality than to the collection of information. He (Bennabi 2006) defines culture
as a process of being and becoming. In pedagogical terms, Bennabi (2006) cultural envisioning presents
ethics, aesthetics, practical logic and technical skills as four elements of any civilisational change.
Bennabi (2006) regards culture as the plasma within which human social relations are embedded and
nurtured by the two primary components that determine its direction, namely ethics and aesthetics.
However, nurturing a moral drive without risking a repulsive extreme reaction or indoctrination, or
what Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) terms domestication remains a pertinent question. For Bennabi (2006), this
Religions 2020, 11, 409 10 of 15
requires nurturing the “aesthetic element”, in its broad sense, as a second primary crucial component of
culture towards productive action. For Ibn-Khaldūn (2005), and the Tunisian philosopher Al-Marzouqi
(2015), the process requires nurturing a “sense of freedom” and dignity. Thus, this paper argues for
the need to embed the three components within the Islamic educational environment: the ethical and
moral reflexivity, the “aesthetics of ih.sān (excellence)” in its broader scope and the “sense of freedom
and dignity”.
3.2.1. The Ethics and Morals Component

Muslims amid this fast-changing global context, and within Western non-Muslim arenas, are
required to be creative in navigating a path through heritage, present context, and envisioning their
future
Religions 2020, 11, status.
x Islamic educational institutions, including schools, are at the centre of 6such of 15process.
Their roles should not be restricted to cultural transmission, possibly resulting in stagnation within
and philosophy)
an idealised differ
past,onorwhether
adoptingwisdoma passive is consumeristic
attained through humantofaculties
approach or bestowed
the “dominant” presentas acontexts,
divine gift
but based
ratheron tothe interpretation
produce ideas and of develop
ītā’ (granting/bestowing).
learners who areHowever, they both
critical, creative and agree when social
efficacious
considering
agents. “theoretical
In doing knowledge”
so, the diversity (‘ilm)within
and practical “rightneed
these schools conduct”
to be(ṣawab)
recognisedas two andkey aspects rather
celebrated
of wisdom than . For both, the or
denounced practical commitment
suppressed under the to guise
theoretical
of “oneknowledge
ummah”.isItregarded
is as Nasr as(2016)
a requirement
states:
for any person to be considered “wise”.
Fakhr al-Dīn[W]hen we think
al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzīabout Islamic
1981) education,
considers we must
the judgment thinkofof“wisdom”
(ḥukm) ‘diversitycombined
within unity’.
with It
“reason” as an essential element in the process of reaching unbiased accurate truth. In contrast tothe
is to discern the unifying elements in Islamic educational practice without ignoring
reason, Fakhr local differences.
al-Dīn al-Rāzī(Nasr 2016,1981)
(Ar-Rāzī p. 18; regards
quotes inthe original)
judgment (ḥukm) of a person’s desire
(shahwah) and soul (nafs) to be based on imagination and delusion, led by the urge of “achieving the
Differences within the school environment need to be integrated into a coherent synthesis to be
present pleasure”. For wisdom perceived as “the right conduct (ṣawab)”, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-
productive. Bennabi (2006) rightly insists that such integration is a condition for the development of
Rāzī 1981) considers it as part of the human-being’s journey in pursuing perfection (kamāl). The verse
efficacious actors able not only to acquire and transmit culture, but also to become producers of a rising
of wisdom ends by restricting remembrance (tadhakkur) to “those with insight” (albāb). In this sense,
creative culture. In this regard, he considers ethics and morals as an essential integrating cultural force
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī 1981) argues that critical reflection is a way of deepening faith in the
stating that:
heart by examining the already attained knowledge beyond an apparent layer of understanding to
deeper layers Theofrolereflection
of the moralon the essence.
ideal Fakhrtoal-Dīn
is precisely constructal-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī
the realm 1981) endorses
of persons without whichthe
Mu’tazilah’sneither opinionthe viarealm
theirof definition
ideas norofthat wisdom (ḥikmah)
of objects as “the
will have anypower
raisonofd’être.
understanding
(Bennabi 2006,and thep. 95)
development of evidence” regarding mindfulness (tadabbur), and reflection (tafakkur), of the
necessary skills As forenabling
Muslims, theethics
wise stem
person from to divine
know the boundaries
revelation and realise
and religious the pros
spiritual and cons ofMissing
connectedness.
action before
such amakingcementing an appropriate
element would decision.
lead toFortheal-Zamakhshari
fragmentation(2009, p. 151), “those
of communities intowith insight”
isolated individuals
are “thewho wisehave knowledgeable doers”.and
no clear direction, Thus,are wisdom
unable to(ḥikmah)
transmitnecessitates
their heritage,theoretical
let aloneknowledge
produce any andauthentic
a continuous
renewed in-depth critical
efficacious selfreflection
(Bennabiprocess
2006). For on Bennabi
practice (2006),
by using thethe faculty
ethical power ofnot
component (lubb)
onlytocontains
reach the theappropriate
force to unify judgment.
and integrate different segments of society, but also determines the societal cultural
defining ḥikmah,
In orientation ibn-Qayyimhuman
and transforms (1292–1350)action(Ibn-Qayyim
into a conscious 2008)deliberative
selected theand views of Mujāhid
purposive praxis.
4 His
(d. 722)(Bennabi
and Mālik 2006) (711–795)
5 proposal ofas: “knowledge
ethical and moral of values
the truthas the(al-ḥaq) andcore
essential acting upon partly
for action it” and resonates
“righteousness in sayingemphasis
with al-Ghazālı̄’s and doing”, which ibn-Qayyim
on “tazkiyah” to achieve restricted
taqwá (Godtoconsciousness)
understandingand theself-discipline
Qur’an, of
rulings the
andsoul other asteachings
necessaryofprocesses
Islam and intruths of creed.
attaining He (Ibn-Qayyim
righteous 2008) regards
action in harmony the tadhakkur
with spiritual goals. Unlike
and tafakkur
Fakhrasal-Dı̄nwithin the faculty
al-Rāzı̄ of the
(Ar-Rāzı̄ heart
1981), for(qalb). Ibn-Qayyim
both al-Ghazālı̄ anddistinguishes
Bennabi (2006), between the level
directing of
the powers of
tafakkurdesire
as the(shahwah)
initial stage andofthe understanding
soul (nafs) requiresthrough reflection
spiritual moral and tadhakkur as
deliberation morethethan
upper stage reasoning
rational of
retrievalperofse. what has been already attained. He further adds the concept of tabaṣṣur
Propheticasteachings
a way to through
remind the theheart
Qur’an of the
and evidence.
practiceEducation
changed for some wisdom in this
essential elements
approach focuses on the
underpinning heart and
cultural its relation
values in Madinan to the society;
Qur’an. a change which gradually led to the erosion
However,
of the tribal ibn-ʿĀshūr
as.abiyyah 6 in its pre-Islamic
(1879–1973) (Ibn-ʿĀshūr form.1984,It wasp.a61), a Tunisian
challenging prominent
change that provedscholar and
transformative
Islamic to revivalist, in his Qur’anic
the companions’ value exegesis,
system and al-Tahrir wa al-Tanwir
self-confidence (Liberation
regarding their and Enlightenment),
potential towards building
which is influenced based
a civilisation by a on maqāsidī
newly(higher
adoptedobjectives of Shariʿah)
Islamic beliefs approachembedded
and worldview in responding withintoa moral
modernity,valuedefines
system.wisdom
Niyozovasand “mastering
Memon (2011) knowledge
rightly and
argueconducting
that Islamicaction according
education duringtothe that
Prophetic
knowledge”. He (Ibn-ʿĀshūr 1984, p. 61) refers to the meaning of wisdom as “judgment and
prevention” because attaining wisdom “prevents from falling into error and misguidance”. Given
the condition
6 of “mastering”
‘As.abiyyah: knowledge, the definition that ibn-ʿĀshūr (1984, p. 61) presents agrees
tribal solidarity.
with Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s view that wisdom is related to knowing “the objective reality of things as
they are with what the [human] capability enables, i.e., so that similar facts do not get confused with
each other …”. Similarly, al-Attas (1991), from a different analytical dimension, considers that a lack
of knowledge and wisdom results in confusion. Unlike ibn-Qayyim (2008), restricting sources of
wisdom within classical Islamic fields of knowledge related to understanding the Qur’an, ibn-ʿĀshūr
Religions 2020, 11, 409 11 of 15
period was radical and transmitted a number of transformational goals. The Prophet established the
foundations for acknowledging the “other” within their differences, but also recognised similarities
and shared values. This transformation in human potential and values was not driven by rational
reasoning at that stage, but rather by spiritual experience and moral drive (Bennabi 2006). The moral,
spiritual element was the link that “cemented” various aspects of the new educational environment
within which individuals were willingly directing their natural instincts, desires and energy towards
their new ideals, goals and means. Bennabi (2006) analysis of the spiritual experience resonates in
some of its aspects with al-Ghazālı̄’s conceptualisation of taste “dhawq”, which is different from dhawq
offered by mystics or from the rational reasoning of philosophers.
3.2.2. Aesthetic Component to form Public Dhawq (Taste)

A moral spiritual drive would display pitfalls if not nurtured with aesthetic taste and affinity
that would refine the drive’s application in context, so as to avoid the risk of turning into an arid and
repulsive act (Bennabi 2006). Hence, a sensible action would require both the moral ethical drive
and the aesthetic taste to adjust for the “right measure” of context. The moral component forms the
Religions 2020, 11, x
framework for the aesthetic aspect (h.usn and jamāl) in social actions, reflected within ideas, behaviour,
artefacts, dress codes, sounds, colours, smells, natural taste, material production, etcetera, to the level
and philosophy) differ on whether wisdom
of “ih.sān” (excellence). Regarded as a primary element, for Bennabi (2006), the aesthetic component
divine gift based on the interpretation of ītā’
shapes culture and determines identity and taste. In its broad sense, this aesthetic component influences
considering “theoretical knowledge” (‘ilm) an
personal identity, social relations, representations and customs. In a pluralistic context, it may also
of wisdom. For both, the practical commitmen
create areas of tension regarding what is considered tasteful and acceptable in the public sphere. For
for any person to be considered “wise”.
example, how to define art in education and refinement in behaviour? In addition, issues of hijab, niqab,
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī 1981) consi
statues, music, etcetera become part of public discussions on dhawq in Islamic schooling or Muslim
“reason” as an essential element in the proce
visibility in the Western public arena. Although the influences within such tensions are complex, the
reason, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī 1981
aesthetic component forms an important part. Different empirical studies in Islamic/Muslim schools
(shahwah) and soul (nafs) to be based on imag
have raised critical questions about restrictions on music and/or art provision (McCreery et al. 2007;
present pleasure”. For wisdom perceived as
Halstead 1994). In this regard, McCreery et al. (2007) question:
Rāzī 1981) considers it as part of the human-b
Why do we educate children in certain ways and in certain subjects—why of wisdomdo weendsfeel by restricting remembrance (
music
and dance to be important aspects of children’s education? We begin to recognise that it (Ar-Rāzī
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī is 1981) argues th
our own cultural heritage that informs our choice of subjects, and wehearthaveby to examining
consider how the already attained kno
deeper layers
valid this is for an education system that teaches children from other cultures. (McCreery et of reflection on the essence
al. 2007, p. 212) Mu’tazilah’s opinion via their definition of wi
development of evidence” regarding mind
The discussion amongst Islamic schools’ populations regarding thenecessaryteachingskills enabling
of music and art the wise person to
action before
demonstrates that Muslim educators, in their encounter with emerging challenges, making an
continuously appropriate decision.
juggle
and apply ethical judgments. In this sense, “practical wisdom” concerns the aresensitive
“the wiseimplementation
knowledgeable doers”. Thus, w
a continuous
of the possible choices as determined in particular social contexts. The school in-depth
ethos required critical reflection proc
reflexive
approaches to decide on the aesthetical expressions of moral values reach the appropriate
underpinning judgment.
the cultural
environment of these schools. Hence, efficacious action should be well-planned, In defining ḥikmah,and
organised ibn-Qayyim (1292–13
conscious rather reactionary or random action (Bennabi 2006). (d. 722) and Mālik 5 (711–795) as: “knowle
“righteousness in saying and doing”, which

3.2.3. Freedom for Active Action (‘amal) rulings and other teachings of Islam and truth
“Without freedom [we] cannot exist authentically.”—Paulo Freire (Freire and tafakkur
1993, p.as 48)within the faculty of the heart
tafakkur as the initial stage of understanding
retrievaltheofpurpose
Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) regards assisting learners through the journey of fulfilling what (ghāyah)
has been already att
and the scope (madá) of being human, as the central aim of education. (acuity/discernment)
Regarding the ghāyah as aofway to remind the
humanity, ibn-Khaldūn defines it by succession (istikhlāf ) and leadership approach
(ri’āsah).focuses on the the
Determining heart and its relation
concept of madá, it appears through ibn-Khaldūn’s text as related to colonising However, (istiʿĀshūr
the land ibn- mār), in(1879–1973) (Ibn-ʿ
the materialist sense, to ensure the survival and empowerment of the human Islamic revivalist,
species. in his the
To achieve Qur’anic exegesis, al
ghāyah and achieve this madá of being a human, Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) stipulateswhich the is influenced
concepts by a maqāsidī (higher
of freedom
modernity, defines wisdom as “mastering
knowledge”. He (Ibn-ʿĀshūr 1984, p. 61) r
prevention” because attaining wisdom “prev
the condition of “mastering” knowledge, the
with Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī’s view that wisdom
Religions 2020, 11, 409 12 of 15
and dignity—oppressive educational practice corrupts essential qualities. He noted that, when people
are overpowered and subjugated, they lose the desire to achieve, be creative or defend themselves;
rather, they become imitators of their oppressors.
This resonates, on different underlying assumptions, with Freire’s concept of “alienation” where
“the oppressed want at any cost to resemble the oppressors, to imitate them, to follow them” (Freire
1993, p. 44). Within the process of imitation, Bennabi (2006) argues people who lose their civilisation
would miss identifying the systematic dynamic essence of the civilisation of the dominant. The
consequence is a mere consumeristic approach to the dominant civilisation’s objects and ideas detached
from the spirit and origin of those ideas and objects, which aggravates the post-civilisational people’s
self-decline, lack of creativity and dependency. This resembles Freire (1993) notion of “dependency”
that, the more estranged the oppressed become from self and one’s heritage by internalising their
oppressors’ view of them, the more dependent they become. This, Freire (1993) argues, would result
into a state of ambiguity, disempowerment and immobilisation to the sense of self-determination and
social agency of those oppressed. The lack of freedom, Freire (1993) argues, can also lead to “fatalism”
becoming a trait within oppressed societies as they “accept” their exploitation. However, for Fanon
(1963), fatalism, embedded within violent oppression, manifests in contradictory ways, including
aggression towards one’s own community.
It is then worth questioning the nature of discipline in the school environment and what could be
inheritably Islamic in terms of ta’dı̄b practices. “Rigorous discipline” is claimed to be one of “features,
consistently associated with Islamic education”, which makes it “inappropriate” to be regarded as a
“high tradition”, that is grafted upon and independent compared to “an earlier tradition of Orientalist
scholarship” (Eickelman 1978, pp. 493–94). This swift generalisation of Islamic education is based
on observations of the common practice of Qur’anic memorisation classes in a Moroccan context.
Similar observations of harsh discipline were observed in some Qur’anic elementary classes in Britain
(Halder 2015). However, Ibn-KhaldIbn-Khaldūn (2005) critically noted such contextual practices in
his time and examined the differences in the taught curriculum, pedagogies, discipline, goals and the
socio-political environment and their impact on learning. Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) rightly regarded strict
discipline etiquettes between the teacher and the learner as a hindrance to the sense of freedom and
dignity that would negatively affect the creativity of learners as they learn how to suppress their dignity
and humiliate themselves to others. Furthermore, Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) considers violence and coercion
in education to cause more corruption than good, by negatively affecting the physical, psychological
and ethical behavioural aspects of learners. As for the psychological aspects, violence and coercion
in educational practice negatively affect the happiness of the learner, their motivation and activity
levels and their desire to work and be productive. As for its negative impact on the behavioural aspect,
Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) presents two elements: passive and active. This would involve avoiding being
oppressed and abused, as the learner develops habits of lying and malice and being two-faced. In
addition, education based on intimidation and force results in the development of habits and morals,
engaging deception towards others. Such consequences run contrary to nurturing wise moral action,
as discussed above. To avoid such consequences, Ibn-Khaldūn (2005) proposes the Prophet’s success
in preserving the individuality and dignity of the Sahabas (Companions) as learners, while refining
their wild Bedouin raw attitudes. Similarly, Bennabi considers such refinement as part of aesthetic
development through moral spiritual and ethical drive, by directing spiritual energy towards creativity
and action, while infusing “ih.sān” (spiritual excellence), with its aesthetic aspect, into the action.
In this regard, prophet Yusuf in Egypt, based on the Qur’anic story (Quran: 12), could be regarded
as one who had achieved spiritual freedom, knowledge and enjoyed the taste (dhawq) to the level of
“ih.sān” in his conduct. These qualities provided Yusuf with the resilience to counter the challenging
circumstances, thereby becoming creative and beneficial to the Egyptian society, which did not share
his faith, and to his own kinship. Yusuf’s model of h.ikmah combines ethics and moral values, freedom
for choice and ih.san in action (‘amal); an example that Muslim educators in Western contexts should
seriously ponder upon in their endeavour to nurture creative and wise social actors.
Religions 2020, 11, 409 13 of 15
4. Conclusions
A key task for Islamic school leaders is to provide learners with an educational environment
that exposes them to challenges and choices in society beyond the school gates and enables them to
navigate life with confidence and positive action. It is not about reading Qur’anic verses and values
in a superficial Islamic school environment, but rather to creatively act upon Qur’anic values in a
challenging context. Accordingly, the “Islamic environment” emerges as a concept that needs further
exploration with respect to “Islamic practice” because it is utilised by both Muslim educators and
parents to discuss the Islamic ethos and school goals.
This leads to questions regarding how to create an educational environment based on Islamic
values that stimulates learners’ interests and desire to develop into creative social actors? This paper
considers Bennabi’s analysis of culture as a framework to argue for the need to consciously develop
Religions 2020, 11, x 6 o
educational
Religions 2020, 11, x cultures that stimulate spirituality, aesthetics and thoughtful social action. Accordingly,
6 of 15
this culture needs toand nurture reflexivediffer
philosophy) thought at the level
on whether of moral
wisdom ethics and
is attained aesthetics;
through human thefaculties
two or bestowed a
elements need
and philosophy) differ on whether to be embedded
divinewisdom into
gift based the environment
is attained in
through human
on the interpretation its broader
of ītā’ sense.
faculties However, for wise
or bestowed as However,
(granting/bestowing). action
a to bethey both agree wh
divine giftachieved,
based onthe theapproach
interpretationtowards
considering discipline
of ītā’ regarding
(granting/bestowing).
“theoretical knowledge” Islamic manners
However,
(‘ilm) and theyshould
practicalboth penetrate
agree when
“right deeper than
conduct” a as two key aspe
(ṣawab)
considering decorative
“theoretical “Islamicity” of wisdom. For both, the practical commitment to theoretical knowledge is regarded as a requirem
knowledge” level of action;
(‘ilm) and it should
practical centre
“right on transformation
conduct” (ṣawab) of
as the
two self
key by interconnecting
aspects
of wisdomgoals,. For both,
means theand endsfor
practical tocommitment
secure
any socialtoto
person action.
be Promoting
theoretical
considered knowledge“freedom
“wise”. and dignity”
is regarded constitutes an essential
as a requirement
2020, 11, x 13 of 15
for any personelement to bebeside Islamic“wise”.
considered morals,
Fakhrethics al-Dīn and aesthetics.
al-Rāzī (Ar-Rāzī During1981)such a process,
considers rational reasoning
the judgment (ḥukm) ofis“wisdom”
vital combined w
g: The PhD research to
Fakhrwas be
al-Dīndeveloped,
al-Rāzī
funded by the but
(Ar-Rāzīis insufficient
“reason”
University 1981) to
considers drive
as an essential
of Nottingham, the the deeply
judgment
UK. element
The follow-up conscious
(ḥukm) ethical
of “wisdom”
in theresearch
process action from
combined
of reaching
2018–19 within, without
with accurate truth. In contras
unbiased
“reason”
d no external funding. thean
as tazkiyah
essential process
elementofreason,
self-discipline.
in theFakhr process of reaching
al-Dīn al-Rāzī unbiased(Ar-Rāzī accurate1981) regards truth. In thecontrast
judgment to (ḥukm) of a person’s des
reason, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (shahwah) (Ar-Rāzī 1981) and soul regards
(nafs) the to bejudgment (ḥukm) of a and
based on imagination person’s
delusion, desire led by the urge of “achieving
s of Interest: The author
Funding:declares
The no PhD conflict
research of interest.
was funded by the University of Nottingham, UK. The follow-up research 2018–19
(shahwah) received
and soulno(nafs) to be
external based
present
funding. onpleasure”.
imagination Forand wisdomdelusion, led by as
perceived the“the
urgeright of “achieving
conduct (ṣawab)”,the Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (
nces present pleasure”. For wisdom perceived
Rāzī 1981) as “the
considers right
it as conduct
part of the (ṣawab)”,
human-being’s Fakhr al-Dīn
journey al-Rāzī
in (Ar-
pursuing perfection (kamāl). The ve
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Rāzī 1981) considers it as part ofofthe human-being’s journey in pursuing perfection (kamāl).
wisdom ends by restricting remembrance (tadhakkur) to “those with insight” (albāb). In this sen The verse
a et al. 2018) Abdalla, ends
of wisdom Mohamad, Dylan Chown,
by restricting and
remembrance
Fakhr Muhammad
al-Dīn (tadhakkur)
al-Rāzī Abdullah. 2018.
to “those
(Ar-Rāzī 1981)Islamic
with
argues Schooling
insight” in the reflection
(albāb).
that critical In this sense, is a way of deepening faith in
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Ibn-Qayyim distinguishes
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Islamic Education An Islamic Wisdom Base

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religions

Religions 2020, 11, 409; doi:10.3390/rel11080409 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

2. Islamic Education in a Context of Choice and Pluralism

2.1. The Neoliberal Western Context of Islamic Education

Table 1. State-funded Muslim schools in England between 2015/2016 and 2019/2020.

2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018 2018/2019 2019/2020

2.2.2. Islamic Education for Wisdom

Accordingly, the task of Islamic education is to re-instil this4 A student

3. “Wisdom-Based Cultural Environment” for Islamic Education

3.1. The School Environment and Islamic Schooling in Britain

3.2. Islamic “Wisdom-Based Cultural Environment”

3.2.1. The Ethics and Morals Component

3.2.2. Aesthetic Component to form Public Dhawq (Taste)

“righteousness in saying and doing”, which

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