P1: Discuss the benefits con constraints of different network types and standards.

Different Networking Systems Advantages and Disadvantages

Info: 1621 words (6 pages) Essay
Published: 17th Jul 2017 in Computer Science

Local Area Network: Local Area network is isolated network. Generally, It is build in a physical location. such as
office, home etc. Computers are connected to each other by a small server and also connected to the wide area
network (Internet). This types of networks are very usefull for sharing data likes files, small or big document, play
network games etc.

Metro Politian Area Network(MAN) :

Metropolitan area network is a large computer network where computers are connected with each other from
different geographical location. Its structure and built process are quite similar with LAN the only difference its
spans an entire city or a selected are like college or university campus or a commercial area. We can get a shared
network connection form MAN.

Wide Area Network (WANs):

Wide area network is similar to a Local area network but here all other device connected to each other by fiber-
optic cables, telephone line or a satellite links.

Networking Topologies:
Bus: Every node or device are individually linked up to successive other device or other node . Its a very simple
network but its has sum troubleshooting network issues . such as if a node is not working then how can anyone
find the error node. Other way it has data redundancy issues.

Ring: It quite similar to bus network topologies. It has no termination like bus topologies. The main reason is that
this topologes has no end it related to each other like a circle.

this network has some fault such as difficulty of adding a new node to a token ring network.

Star:

In this netwrok each and every node maintains an itotally individual connection to a switch, where all other nodes
are connected. It has a direct connection with swithch to node. the weakness are need more wire to setup a
network.
Mesh:

In this topology every node conected with each other node. It generally used in warreless network. It need a large
amount of overhead which very difficult to manage+

Hybrid:

This is simply a topology referring to the case where more than one topology is utilized. ti is the combination of
star and ring topology.

1.2 Evaluate the impact of current network technology, communication and standards.
Answer:
OSPF: It is a routing protocol generally used for larger network either a single network or a group network. It is
designed by Internet Engineering Task Force. It can also used as a Gateway Protocol.

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FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is mainly a standard protocol of Network which is used to transfer data from
client to host or one server to another server . If user or admin want to upload a file on a website he or she needs
a username, password and host address.

SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol is like a media which transfers e-mail. SMTP always work with POP3 service.
TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol is a set of a protocol stack. Basically it is tow
different protocol. TCP/IP is closely related with FTP, SMTP, HTTP.

1.3 Discuss how protocols enable the effective utilisation of different networking
systems.
Network Protocols are ensure proper utilisation of different network system.

OSI model Layer 2 protocol is data link protocol which handles the physical and logical connections to the
packet’s destination using a network interface card (NIC). Layer 3 Protocol called Internetwork Protocol (IP) it is
also called network layer protocol it work for routing, directing datagrams from one netwrok to another. IP
protocol always analysis larger datragrams and identify each and every host with a 32-bit IP address.
Layer 4 protocol are TCP, UDP. Transmission Control Prtocol (Tcp0 establishes connections between two hosts on
the network through sockets which are determined by the IP address and port number. one the other side
provides a low overhead transmission service, but with less error checking.

2.1 Discuss the role of software and hardware components.

Answer:

Software: All Network software consists of the programs and protocols which required to connect computers
together. Their primary purpose are data inter connect each other, data sharing.

Application sharing: For application sharing all computer use same platform to connect and manage computer.
If a network share application software platform to connect then it can reduce network cost.

Hardware or Peripheral sharing:

Network software also share hardware such as phone, fax, printer etc. A printer connected with ser with server
and all other computer can share that computer.

Management and Security:

Network software provide some mechanism to maintain proper security of data and its can make backup copy of
valuable date. It can monitor and make a digital report on resource utiliaation and efficiency.

Operating System: Windows or Linux system.

Hardware:

 Network Interface card (NIC)

 Hub
  Switches
 Bridges
 Routers
 Gateway
 Modems

2.2 Discuss server types and selection requirement.

Answer:

For the given scenario I would prefer a window server and here I want to clear my intension by full filing server
selection requirement.

So If any admin want to select a server types then admin must follow, server, proxy servers, web server, mail
server, FTP server, SMTP server. Here I try to mention server and its work
Server: A Server designed to get request or to process requests from other device or node(client) and deliver or
process data to other node or client over a local network, or the wide area network.

Now a days we find plenty of servers around us. So, I try to figure out some common server types:

Proxy Servers: A proxy server like a middle man between a client and a real server. Here client means a web
browser such as Internet explorer or chrome. When a client make a inquiry then web browser its try to solve it,
otherwise web browser forward the query to the real server. In this way a proxy server reduce search time.

A proxy server also used to filter request. A network admin used it to control unauthorized web access. Such as:
many company block facebook, online game site etc

Mail Servers: A mail server used for delivers e-mail over a network or over the internet. This types of servers
receive e-mails from other nodes or users and send the mail to correct node or client.
Web Servers:

Web server generally a server which commonly used to host websites. Its deliver web page with content to client
site and all the content are plain HTML documents or a image.

Application Servers: Application server generally called appserver. It is a software which controlled all
application between users and an server.

Real-Time Communication Servers

FTP Servers: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is mainly a standard protocol of Network which is used to transfer data
from client to host or one server to another server . If user or admin want to upload a file on a website he or she
needs a username, password and host address.
Server types selection is an important step for a new network. To select a server for office or a home is not easy
its seems quite complicated.

So an administer should make his own criteria to select server type. So, I try to set some criteria.

Software requirements:

Comment

Operating systems (OS)

Windows

CPU type and speed

Lattes

Expansion/Upgrade Criteria

Must

Drive types, space, and speeds

Lattes

Physical characteristics

Yes
Brand

Intel(Processor), HP (Network Printer)

2.3 Discuss the inter-dependence of workstation hardware with network components.

3.1 Design a networked system to meet a given specification.
Answer: Design of a computer network systems first think about a central device which could be a switch or a
router, A central server, a pc for every users, hard ware components .

Office

PrinterLife Insurance company

Router

Agent 6

Agent 4

Server

Agent 2

Agent 5

Life Insurance Company Network Structure

Agent 3

Hardware requirement:
Name
Quantity
Comment
Server

Main Server
Printer

Network Printer

Router

Main Router, Office and Agents

Switch
1

Central switch

PC

Main office and agents

Software requirement:
1. Windows 7
2. Internet connection

3.2 Evaluate the design and analyse user feedback.

Answer:

4.1 Implement a networked system based on a prepared design

4.2 Test the network system to meet user requirements.

4.3 Document and analyse test results against expected results

4.4 Recommend potential enhancements for the networked systems.

4.5 Design a maintenance schedule to support the networked system

P2: Explain the impact of network topology, communication and bandwidth requirement.
Client Server
This type of relationship is between two systems. One is the client (user), and the other is a server. The client will
make a service request to the other system (Server) which will send back information to the client. Within this
type of relationship, the client requires the information given from the server for it to function correctly; therefore,
it must be managed correctly. Furthermore, the server controls the security of the network which can be
beneficial as this means that the user does not need to have security measures on their side. With this type of
topology, the bandwidth between the client and the server is limited by the hardware that is used either by the
server or the client. (BBC, n.d.) For example, a server may have hardware supporting 1000 mb/s transfer speed but
is limited to 30 mb/s due to the bandwidth allocated by the ISP (Internet Server Provider). This scenario can also
be applied to the client as their hardware configuration may support higher bandwidth than their ISP (Internet
Service Provider) has allocated for them.

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Cloud
The cloud network topology refers to a collection of servers and data centers which are used to create a
collection of resources that could be accessed from anywhere in the world as long as the user has an Internet
connection. Cloud networks can be beneficial for small or large organisations as they can accompany expansion
which only requires an adjustment to their current contract with the provider (Microsoft, n.d.). As a result of cloud
technology, this has led to the popularisation of cloud software. Cloud software is a type of software that can be
accessed through browsers. For example, Google cloud suite allows users to use a variety of software such as
Docs, Slides, Sheets or Drive. These will enable users to create and edit documents, upload files and also share
these documents with other users through email. This can be advantageous for organisations as this can be used
to improve communication and also allows employees to continue working on documents outside of business
hours.

Virtualised
Virtualised networks can be presented in a variety of different forms that work in a variety of ways and for a
different purpose. VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network. Cisco (URL, n.d.) summarises a VLAN as a “group
of devices on one or more LANs that are configured to communicate as if they were attached to the same wire”.
Within an organisation this can be beneficial as the connecting LANs could allow for increased communication
between departments or branches, therefore. Another type of Virtual network is a VPN. This stands for a virtual
private network which according to Cisco (n.d. 2) is defined as “an encrypted connection over the Internet from a
device to a network”. This can also be known as remote access. Within an organisation that allows employees to
connect to the network securely. This can be beneficial as it can enable the work from home approach which
could prevent demotivation.

Logical Topology
Ethernet
The Ethernet typology is the most typical type of logical topology used. This topology can use two physical
topologies that are the bus and the star topology. The bus topology connects all devices on the network through
the same medium, also known as a physical channel. Some examples of this physical channel are coaxial Cables,
twisted pair or fibre optic. When using this topology, any communication that occurs can be heard by all other
devices connected (Blackbox, n.d.). Ethernet also utilises CSMA/CD which stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection. Carrier Sense refers to the prevention of transmission from other devices if one is already
transmitting (Blackbox, n.d.). Multiple Access refers to the ability for multiple devices to communicate using the
same medium (Blackbox, n.d.). Collision Detection refers to a check that occurs to detect if more than one
transmission signal is occurring, jamming the signal and then waiting for a random interval before retransmission.
(Blackbox, n.d.)

Physical Topology
Star
BBC (n.d. 3) defines the star network topology as “each device on the network has its own cable that connects to
a switch or hub”. This means that visually the switch/hub is located at the centre of and the computers are
connected to the hub/switch rather than being connected to two different computers. This can be essential for
network management as all the traffic will be directed through the switch/hub which it can be easily managed.
Similar to other types of topologies it is also easy to add devices to the network as it will only require a cable
connected to the switch/hub. If a device other than the hub/switch fails, then the rest of the network will still be
accessible. However, if the hub/switch fails, then the entire network will not be accessible by the other devices.
This also has additional cost due to the requirement of a networking device to be used. (BBC, n.d. 3).

Ring
According to ComputerHope (2018), the ring topology is defined as “A ring topology is a network configuration
in which device connections create a circular data path. Each networked device is connected to two others, like
points on a circle”. From this, it can be assumed that in the event of an error occurring at one part of the ring this
will cause the chain to break and the network to fail. The ring topology also only allows transmission in a certain
direction at a certain time within the circle while other topologies such as the star allows the data to flow in either
direction. Unlike the star topology, it does not require a networking device for it to function correctly as each
device will connect to two other devices. This also allows the network to be flexible. It can expand the ring as long
as the new device can connect to two other devices to continue the ring. Furthermore, as the data is travelling in
one direction, this can reduce collisions that occur when transmissions are sent. However, this topology can be
slow. For example, if a device has to transmit data to a device that is “behind” it on the ring, it will have to go to
every other device before it reaches its destination. (Computerhope, 2018).

IPv4
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol Version 4 which is a 32-bit IP address that is formatted as four three-digit
numbers separated by a dot. For example, 111.111.111.111. This can allow any number from 0 to 255 which
roughly provides 4 billion unique addresses. As computing devices have become more affordable, it had led to it
becoming more common in everyday houses and organisations. As IPv4 has a set limitation on the number of
unique addresses it can allocate, it will mean that at in the future we will run out of unique addresses. To solve
this major issue, a new type of unique address will be used as a replacement to the IPv4 system. This is called
IPv6. (PC, 2009)
IPv6
IPv6 is the 6th version of the Internet Protocol which is an increasingly complex version from an earlier version.
This is because it uses a 128-bit address which is four hexadecimal (0-9 and A-F) numbers laid out in the
following pattern ‘aaaa:bbbb:cccc:dddd:eeee:ffff:gggg:hhhh’. As this follows hexadecimal, this can be easily
perceived as being more secure as attempting to guess the IP would take significantly more time than what it
would for an IPv4 address. This type of Internet Protocol has not been fully adopted yet. This is due to a wide
range of systems using IPv4, and the immediate switch could be financially expensive. However, as of the 22d
November 2018, there is a 22.77% IPv6 adoption with 21.85% of the amount being in the United Kingdom.
(Google, n.d.)
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol and it is used for transferring files between a client and a server. This type of
protocol utilises the client-server network topology when communicating between the server and the client. FTP
also uses two ports, one for sending data (port 20) and another port for the server to listen for incoming clients
(port 21) (Gibson Research Corporation, 2008). FTP can also be handy for a user as this allows them to easily
upload and download files remotely through the connection which further eliminates the requirements for the
user to use a removable media to merely update the files on their server. Depending on the configuration this
also means that it can also be remotely accessed from different geolocations. FTP is commonly used when using a
company as a server hosting provider as most times the servers are not physically accessible the user. (BBC, n.d. 2)
HTTP
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol which is used for transmitting digital media for example HTML. This
protocol is used when sending requests from a browser to a web server. This type of protocol is stateless which is
defined as not recording any data. This type of transmission protocol has been superseded by HTTPS which is a
secure version of the HTTP protocol. HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP which utilises encryption methods to
ensure any data transmitted or received by the user cannot be intercepted. (BBC, n.d. 2)

OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. According to (CloudFlare, n.d.) the OSI provides “Standardization
which enables diverse communication systems to communicate using standard protocols.”
Layer 7
Layer 7 also known as the Application layer. This layer interacts with the user and is used to establish the
communication. This layer gains this communication from software applications which rely on protocols for
communicating data and also receiving data (Cloudflare, n.d.). A common example of this is the HTTP protocol as
the user requests a web page from a browser which in turn attempts to establish communication with the server.
Another typical example is the usage of FTP. As the software relies on communicating with the server for the
purpose of sending and receiving files.

Layer 6
Layer 6 also known as the Presentation layer. This layer specialises in translation of data so that the different
layers can use it. This means that any information passed from the application layer will need to be translated so
it can be readable by another device. This also works in the opposite direction as data from another device will
not be readable by the application layer. Therefore, it will need to be translated into a format that can be used by
the application layer. Furthermore, encryption, decryption, and compression are also done during this stage if
required. (Cloudflare, n.d.)

Layer 5
Layer 5 also known as the Session layer. This layer has the primary focus of managing the communication
between the two devices that are used for the transmission and receiving of data. This layer also has the ability to
establish and terminate the communication. This layer is essential as it ensures that communication between the
two devices is established long enough for the data to be fully transmitted without any errors. To further ensure
that the data is fully transmitted, checks are conducted periodically to identify the recipient or sender has
disconnected. If this occurs, the layer will save the last point that data was transmitted or received so that it only
sends the missing packets rather than all of them. (Cloudflare, n.d.)
Layer 4
Layer 4 also known as the Transport layer. This focuses on taking data gained from the session layer then
breaking it into segments which will then be given to the network layer (layer 3). This layer is also responsible for
the data communication for the two devices. This contains flow and error control which will identify the
transmission speed required so that it does not cause issues for the recipient if they have a lower speed than the
sender. Error control ensures that all data is sent correctly and if it is not correctly sent it will retransmit the
missing data. (Cloudflare, n.d.)

Layer 3
Layer 3, also known as the Network layer. This layer is designed to transfer the data from one network to another.
This layer is only applicable if the two devices are not contained on the same network as this layer will be skipped
and sent to layer 2. During the network layer, the segments gained from the previous layer are then further split
into packets. These contain the data and information such as the receiver’s IP address to allow it to get to the
correct location.

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Layer 2
Layer 2, also known as the Data Link layer, refers to the section which specialises in the transmitting and receiving
of data between two devices that are connected within the same network. This takes the packets received from
layer three that do not contain information in relation to which local machine requested the data. This then adds
the MAC address to the packet so it can be correctly forwarded to the right system. As with the network layer, this
also contains flow control and error control functionality to ensure the data is received correctly. (Cloudflare, n.d.)

Layer 1
Layer1, also known as the physical layer, refers to the use of physical equipment that is required for data to be
transferred successfully. This is typically done through mediums such as an Ethernet cable. During this layer, the
data gets converted into bits which consist of 1s and 0s. When communicating between devices, these must be
correctly synchronised to understand the data conversion. (Cloudflare, n.d.)
IEEE 802.3
10Base-T
10Base-T is an Ethernet standard established by the IEEE. Sopto (n.d.) defines 10Base-T as “10BASE-T is the IEEE
standard that defines the requirement for sending information at 10 Mbps on unshielded twisted-pair cabling”.
This means that when using a 10Base-T wire for connecting devices together will only allow a transmission speed
of 10 Mbps.

100Base-TX
According to Pcmag (n.d.), 100Base-TX is a modified version of 100Base-T which supports transmission speeds of
100 Mbps between devices using two pairs of category 5 cables while the 100Base-TX utilizes the Category 6
cables.
1000Base-T
1000Base-T is an updated standard by the IEE which is defined by Sopto (n.d.) as “sending information at 1000
Mbps on unshielded twisted-pair cabling”. This type of Ethernet is an updated version of 10Base-T but allows for
significantly faster transmission speeds of 1 gigabit. This also utilizes Category 5 cables within which will enable it
to have the 1 gigabit transmission speed. (Sopto n.d.)

10GBase-T
According to an article published by Cablinginstall (2006), 10GBase-T refers to a standard for ethernet that
supports the ability to have 10 gigabits per second transmission speeds up to 100 meters. This is further
expanded by the usage of Category 6 Augmented cables (Cat 6a) which allow these speeds to be used for
distances over 100 meters. This type of Even though this was first established in 2006 it is still uncommon for the
standard household. This is because a lot of ISPs and consumer level hardware do not support those types of
speeds. However, this is used by large organisations that conduct large-scale file transfers and receiving. This is
also common within data centers as they are reliant on maintaining high transmissions speeds.

IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 refers to the working standards set for Wireless Local Area Networks created by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). This also sets specifications for the Media Access Control (MAC) and
the Physical Layer (PHY). The first version of these standards was released in 1997 and has been amended and
updated as wireless technology advances. Below contains some of the examples of the various protocols that are
set by the IEEE. (Mitchell, 2018)
802.11a
This iteration of the 802.11a wireless standard sough to improve upon the original networking speed of 1-2Mbps
transmission. This was upgraded to 54Mbps and also utilized the 5GHz band, standard 802.11 utilised 2.4GHz.
This also made sure it would be compatible with other iterations of the wireless standard such as the 802.11b and
802.11g. (Mitchell, 2018)

802.11b
This standard also is adapted from the original 802.11 standard but focuses on improvements within the 2.4GHz
range which increased the transmission speeds to 11 Mbps. This further allowed wireless to be more viable as an
alternative to ethernet.  (Mitchell, 2018)
802.11g
This type of wireless standard is the most commonly used one today. This further expands on the 802.11b
wireless standard by allowing transmission speeds up to 54Mbps and distances up to 150 feet (45.72 Meters). It
also still uses the 2.4GHz range which allows it to be compatible with the 802.11b wireless standard. (Mitchell,
2018)

802.11n
This wireless standard was designed to be an improvement over the 802.11g wireless standard. This utilises MIMO
technology, which stands for Multiple Input, Multiple Output. This allows the access point to use more than one
antenna which can improve speed, range, and overall efficiency. (Mitchell, 2018)
802.11ac
802.11ac was created as an overall improvement to the 802.11 standard but more specifically the 802.11n wireless
standard. This wireless standard provides significantly increased transmission speeds (from 433 Mbps). This also
runs on the 5GHz range to ensure speed is maintained as most other devices run on the 2.4GHz range. This also
incorporates the MIMO technology and also uses a new technology called beamforming. Which according to
Lendino (2016) “sends signal directly to client devices”.

REFERENCES
 Gibson Research Corporation (2008) Port 20 [Online] [Accessed 18th November 2018]. Available at:
<https://www.grc.com/port_20.htm>
 Cloudflare (n.d.) What is the OSI model? [Online] [Accessed 18th November 2018]. Available at:
<https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/ddos/glossary/open-systems-interconnection-model-osi/>
 cloudflare (n.d.) What is the OSI model? [Online] [Accessed 18th November 2018]. Available at:
<https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/ddos/glossary/open-systems-interconnection-model-osi/>
 Blackbox (n.d.) Ethernet Topologies [Online] [Accessed 22 nd November 2018]. Available at: <https://www.black-
box.de/en-de/page/21072/Resources/Technical-Resources/Technology-Overview/Ethernet-Topologies>
 Cablinginstall (2006) Performance is everything: The standards for 10GBase-T [Online] [Accessed 24 th November
2018]. Available at: <https://www.cablinginstall.com/articles/print/volume-14/issue-9/features/performance-is-
everything-the-standards-for-10gbase-t.html>
 Sopto (n.d.) Differences of 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T and 1000BASE-T, Features, Related Products [Online] [Accessed
24th November 2018]. Available at: <http://www.sopto.com/learningcenter_learningcenter_34/differences_of_10base-
t,_100base-t_and_1000base-t.shtml>
P3: Discuss the operating principles of networking devices and server types.

network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch,

Router, Gateways and Brouter)
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted
over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When
the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port
device. 
2. Hub –  A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices.  In other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one.  Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage. 
 
Types of Hub 
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring centre. These are used to
extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply from active hub.
These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to
extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub :- It work like active hubs and include remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges 

 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration
of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge
learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and the
frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover frame by sending a special frame called
discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large number of
ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error
checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to correct port only.  In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts,
but broadcast domain remains same. 
  
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.
 
  
 
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may work upon
different networking models. They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret
it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network
layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
7. Brouter – It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both bridge and router. It
can work either at data link layer or at network layer. Working as router, it is capable of routing packets across
networks and working as bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic. 
  
References 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_%28telecommunications%29 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_%28computing%29 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch 
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-devices-hub-repeater-bridge-switch-router-gateways/

P4: Discuss the inter-dependence of workstation hardware with relevant networking software.
1. Workstation Hardware
Simply put, Workstation is a computer which built to adapt high-performance system, it can have one or more CPU, Graphic
card, its RAM can be until 1TB. It often uses in very high request like graphic rendering or big data process.

2. Networking software
This kind of software use to manage, configure or maintain network and its devices. Basically, we have following type of
networking software based on its tasks:
 Provisioning: enables network managers to provision new network devices in an environment.

 Mapping: enables the software to discover the features of a target network.

 Monitoring: enables the network management software to monitor the network for problems and to suggest
improvements

 Configuration: enables the software to ensure that the network configuration is as desired

 Regulatory compliance: enables the network management software to ensure that the network meets the regulatory
standards

 Change manages: enables the software to ensure that the network changes are issued in a controlled and coordinated
manner.
P5 Provide a logical/physical design of the networked system with clear explanation and addressing table
When it comes to maintaining and managing an IT infrastructure, network diagrams are critical to compliance,
security, troubleshooting, and minimizing downtime. Network diagrams, or maps, are visuals that use
symbols/icons/shapes to depict the different objects and connections in a network. Depending upon what you
need to document, you may will probably have different types of network diagrams. The two most common
network diagrams you’ll come across are physical and logical.
Logical network diagrams focus in on how traffic flows across the network, IP addresses, admin domains, how
domains are routed, control points, and so on. Within the OSI model of networking, logical diagrams are referred
to as ‘L2’.

A physical network diagram will, ideally, show the network topology exactly as it is: with all of the devices and the
connections between them. Because physical diagrams depict all of the physical aspects of the network, they will
likely include: ports, cables, racks, servers, specific models, and so on. Within the OSI model of networking,
physical diagrams are referred to as ‘L1’. So, a physical network diagram could be a network’s server diagram, a
network’s cabling diagram, racks diagram, or a mix of different types of diagram that is interactive and allows you
to view what you need to see (if you’re using automated mapping software).
Physical Network Diagrams: What’s In Them?
Because physical network diagrams depict the entire topology of the physical network, they can include a number
of different components:
 Connections:connections are critical to a physical network diagram.
Connectors (aka connections) depict the physical cabling that connects
physical devices in a network. The ends of each connection should be
labeled both with whichever port it connects to and where it
ends.Depending upon the level of detail required, you may use different
colors, thickness, and types of lines to represent differences in
connections: such as fiber, copper, and so on.
 Labels:Labels tell the viewer what they are looking at, especially when a
physical diagram uses generic icons. Everything that is active and
managed in the network should be labeled with the hostname and IP
address, including: switches, routers, firewalls, and so on. When a device
is active and being managed elsewhere, it should still be labeled in some
way (perhaps with a different font to differentiate it from the other
network devices).
 Diagram Legend: a diagram’s legends tells the viewer what the different
objects and connections mean. The legend translates the different
graphics, icons, colors, and gives it real-world meaning. If, for example,
you use double black lines to represent a type of fiber cabling — you would
include this in your legend.
 Switch Stacks: switch stacks, that function similar to a chassis switch, are
generally depicted as a single object/device.
Physical Network Diagrams: Shapes, Symbols, or Models?
How you depict the physical network and connections is up to you and the needs of your organization: you can be
as general (for example, using generic topology icons) or specific (use exact device models as icons) as needed.
Using generic topology icons can be more easily read by anyone; specific models of devices (exact models that
include fans, rack ears, and ports, for example) may require more familiarity with exactly what is in a given
network. If you are using DCIM or network documentation software, you may choose to use the generic icons for
higher-level layers and more specific icons/models as you drill down.
Physical Network Diagrams: How are they Created?
You can create physical network diagrams in a variety of ways: by hand, using software such as Visio, or with a
dedicated network diagramming or DCIM software. While Visio or hand-drawn network diagrams may work for
small networks, one of the keys to successful network documentation is ongoing documentation. If you are
managing a larger network with any complexity, you may want the ability to automatically generate network
diagrams with a few clicks, based on real-time data.
Bottomline? Without physical diagrams of the network, it’s hard to quickly plan for capacity, fix problems, avoid
zombie servers, and IT clutter. If you are trying to use spreadsheets or static Visio diagrams, it may be time to
look at upgrading to an enterprise-grade diagramming software specifically for network documentation.

https://graphicalnetworks.com/blog-physical-network-diagrams-explained/

P6 Evaluate the design to meet the requirements

 Defining Requirements and Design

Design is fundamentally an innovative process. The methods discussed in this chapter are intended
to support identification and exploration of design alternatives to meet the requirements revealed
by analyses of opportunity space and context of use. The methods are not a substitute for
creativity or inventiveness. Rather they provide a structure and context in which innovation can
take place. We begin with a discussion of the need for and the methods used to establish
requirements based on the concept of user-centered design. The types of methods included here
are work domain analysis, workload assessment, situation awareness assessment, participatory
design; contextual design; physical ergonomics; methods for analyzing and mitigating fatigue, and
the use of prototyping, scenarios, persona, and models and simulations. As with the descriptions
in Chapter 6, each type of method is described in terms of uses, shared representations,
contributions to the system design phases, and strengths, limitations, and gaps. These methods are
grouped under design because their major contributions are made in the design phase; however, it
is important to note that they are also used in defining the context of use and in evaluating design
outcomes as part of system operation. Figure 7-1 provides an overview.
Page 190
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Research Council. 2007. Human-System Integration in the System
Development Process: A New Look. Washington, DC: The National
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FIGURE 7-1 Representative methods and sample shared representations for defining requirements
and design.
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 USABILITY REQUIREMENTS
Overview
Inadequate user requirements are a major contributor to project failure. The most recent CHAOS
report by the Standish Group (2006), which analyzes the reasons for technology project failure in
the United States, found that only 34 percent of projects were successful; 15 percent completely
failed and 51 percent were only partially successful.
Five of the eight (highlighted below) most frequently cited causes of failure were poor user
requirements:
1. 13.1 percent, incomplete requirements
2. 12.4 percent, lack of user involvement
3. 10.6 percent, inadequate resources
4. 9.9 percent, unrealistic user expectations
5. 9.3 percent, lack of management support
6. 8.7 percent, requirements keep changing
7. 8.1 percent, inadequate planning
8. 7.5 percent, system no longer needed
Among the main reasons for poor user requirements are (1) an inadequate understanding of the
intended users and the context of use, and (2) vague usability requirements, such as “the system
must be intuitive to use.”
Figure 7-2 shows how usability requirements relate to other system requirements. Usability
requirements can be seen from two perspectives: characteristics designed into the product and the
extent to which the product meets user needs (quality in use requirements).
There are two types of usability requirements. Usability as a product quality characteristic is
primarily concerned with ease of use. ISO/IEC 9126-1 (International Organization for
Standardization, 2001) defines usability in terms of understandability, learnability, operability, and
attractiveness. There are numerous sources of guidance on designing user interface characteristics
that achieve these objectives (see the section on guidelines and style guides under usability
evaluation). While designing to conform to guidelines will generally improve an interface, usability
guidelines are not sufficiently specific to constitute requirements that can be easily verified. Style
guides are more precise and are valuable in achieving consistency across screen designs produced
by different developers. A style guide tailored to project needs should form part of the detailed
usability requirements.
At a more strategic level, usability is the extent to which the product
Page 192
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Development Process: A New Look. Washington, DC: The National
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FIGURE 7-2 Classification of requirements.

SOURCE: Adapted from ISO/IEC 25030 (International Organization for Standardization, 2007).
meets user needs. ISO 9241-11 (International Organization for Standardization, 1998) defines this
as the extent to which a product is effective, efficient, and satisfying in a particular context of use.
This high-level requirement is referred to in ISO software quality standards as “quality in use.” It is
determined not only by the ease of use, but also by the extent to which the functional properties
and other quality characteristics meet user needs in a specific context of use.
In these terms, usability requirements are very closely linked to the success of the product.
 Effectiveness is a measure of how well users can perform the job accurately and completely.
 Efficiency is a measure of how quickly a user can perform work and is generally measured as
task time, which is critical for productivity.
 Satisfaction is the degree to which users like the product—a subjective response that
includes the perceived ease of use and usefulness. Satisfaction is a success factor for any products
with discretionary use, and essential to maintain workforce motivation.
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Uses of Methods
Measures of effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction provide a basis for specifying concrete
usability requirements.

Measure the Usability of an Existing System

If in doubt, the figures for an existing comparable system can be used as the minimum
requirements for the new system. Evaluate the usability of the current system when carrying out
key tasks, to obtain a baseline for the current system. The measures to be taken would typically
include
 success rate (percentage of tasks in which all business objectives are met).
 mean time taken for each task.
 mean satisfaction score using a questionnaire.

Specify Usability Requirements for the New System

Define the requirements for the new system, including the type of users, tasks, and working
environment. Use the baseline usability results as a basis for establishing usability requirements. A
simple requirement would be that when the same types of users carry out the same tasks, the
success rate, task time, and user satisfaction should be at least as good as for the current system.
It is useful to establish a range of values, such as
 the minimum to be achieved,
 a realistic objective, and
 the ideal objective (from a business or operational perspective).
It may also be appropriate to establish the usability objectives for learnability, for example, the
duration of a course (or use of training materials) and the user performance and satisfaction
expected both immediately after training and after a designated length of use.
It is also important to define any additional requirements for user performance and satisfaction
related to users with disabilities (accessibility), critical business functions (safety), and use in
different environments (universality).
Depending on the development environment, requirements may, for example, either be
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Development Process: A New Look. Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11893.
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 iteratively elaborated as more information is obtained from usability activities, such as paper
prototyping during development, or
 agreed by all parties before development commences and subsequently modified only by
mutual agreement.

Test Whether the Usability Requirements Have Been Achieved

Summative methods for measuring quality in use (see Chapter 8) can be used to evaluate whether
the usability objectives have been achieved. If any of the measures fall below the minimum
acceptable values, the potential risks associated with releasing the system before the usability has
been improved should be assessed. The results can be used to prioritize future usability work in
subsequent releases.
https://www.nap.edu/read/11893/chapter/9

P7 Implement a networked system based on a prepared design.

Implementing a Network Design (1.1)

Effective network design implementation requires a solid understanding of the current state of recommended network models and their
ability to scale as the network grows.

Hierarchical Network Design (1.1.1)

The hierarchical network model and the Cisco Enterprise Architecture are models to consider when designing a network. This section
reviews the importance of scalability and how these models can effectively address that need.

The Need to Scale the Network (1.1.1.1)

Businesses increasingly rely on their network infrastructure to provide mission-critical services. As businesses grow and evolve, they
hire more employees, open branch offices, and expand into global markets. These changes directly affect the requirements of a
network. A large business environment with many users, locations, and systems is referred to as an enterprise. The network that is used
to support the business enterprise is called an enterprise network.

In Figure 1-1, the following steps occur as the network grows from a small company to a global enterprise:

1. The company begins as a small, single-location company.

2. The company increases its number of employees.
3. The company grows to multiple locations in the same city.
4. The enterprise grows to multiple cities.
 5. The enterprise hires teleworkers.
6. The enterprise expands to other countries (not all enterprises are international).

7. The enterprise centralizes network management in a Network Operations Center (NOC).

Figure 1-1 Scaling the Network as the Business Grows

An enterprise network must support the exchange of various types of network traffic, including data files, email, IP telephony, and video
applications for multiple business units. All enterprise networks must

 Support critical applications

 Support converged network traffic
 Support diverse business needs
 Provide centralized administrative control

Enterprise Business Devices (1.1.1.2)

Users expect enterprise networks, such as the example shown in Figure 1-2, to be up 99.999 percent of the time. Outages in the
enterprise network prevent the business from performing normal activities, which can result in a loss of revenue, customers, data, and
opportunities.

Figure 1-2 Large Enterprise Network Design

To obtain this level of reliability, high-end, enterprise-class equipment is commonly installed in the enterprise network. Designed and
manufactured to more stringent standards than lower-end devices, enterprise equipment moves large volumes of network traffic.
Enterprise-class equipment is designed for reliability, with features such as redundant power supplies and failover capabilities. Failover
capability refers to the ability of a device to switch from a nonfunctioning module, service, or device to a functioning one with little or no
break in service.

Purchasing and installing enterprise-class equipment does not eliminate the need for proper network design.

Hierarchical Network Design (1.1.1.3)

To optimize bandwidth on an enterprise network, the network must be organized so that traffic stays local and is not propagated
unnecessarily onto other portions of the network. Using the three-layer hierarchical design model helps organize the network.

This model divides the network functionality into three distinct layers, as shown in Figure 1-3:

 Access layer
 Distribution layer

 Core layer

Figure 1-3 Hierarchical Design Model

Each layer is designed to meet specific functions.

The access layer provides connectivity for the users. The distribution layer is used to forward traffic from one local network to
another. Finally, the core layer represents a high-speed backbone layer between dispersed networks. User traffic is initiated at the
access layer and passes through the other layers if the functionality of those layers is required.

Even though the hierarchical model has three layers, some smaller enterprise networks might implement a two-tier hierarchical design.
In a two-tier hierarchical design, the core and distribution layers are collapsed into one layer, reducing cost and complexity, as shown
in Figure 1-4.
Figure 1-4 Collapsed Core

Cisco Enterprise Architecture (1.1.1.4)

The Cisco Enterprise Architecture divides the network into functional components while still maintaining the core, distribution, and
access layers. As Figure 1-5 shows, the primary Cisco Enterprise Architecture modules include

 Enterprise Campus
 Enterprise Edge
 Service Provider Edge

 Remote

Figure 1-5 Enterprise Architecture

Enterprise Campus

The Enterprise Campus consists of the entire campus infrastructure, to include the access, distribution, and core layers. The access
layer module contains Layer 2 or Layer 3 switches to provide the required port density. Implementation of VLANs and trunk links to the
building distribution layer occurs here. Redundancy to the building distribution switches is important. The distribution layer module
aggregates building access using Layer 3 devices. Routing, access control, and QoS are performed at this distribution layer module.
The core layer module provides high-speed interconnectivity between the distribution layer modules, data center server farms, and the
enterprise edge. Redundancy, fast convergence, and fault tolerance are the focus of the design in this module.
In addition to these modules, the Enterprise Campus can include other submodules such as

 Server Farm and Data Center Module: This area provides high-speed connectivity and protection for servers. It is critical to
provide security, redundancy, and fault tolerance. The network management systems monitor performance by monitoring
device and network availability.
 Services Module: This area provides access to all services, such as IP Telephony services, wireless controller services, and
unified services.

Enterprise Edge

The Enterprise Edge consists of the Internet, VPN, and WAN modules connecting the enterprise with the service provider’s network.
This module extends the enterprise services to remote sites and enables the enterprise to use Internet and partner resources. It
provides QoS, policy reinforcement, service levels, and security.

Service Provider Edge

The Service Provider Edge provides Internet, Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and WAN services.

All data that enters or exits the Enterprise Composite Network Model (ECNM) passes through an edge device. This is the point where
all packets can be examined and a decision made whether the packet should be allowed on the enterprise network. Intrusion detection
systems (IDS) and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) can also be configured at the enterprise edge to protect against malicious activity.

Failure Domains (1.1.1.5)

A well-designed network not only controls traffic but also limits the size of failure domains. A failure domain is the area of a network
that is impacted when a critical device or network service experiences problems.

The function of the device that initially fails determines the impact of a failure domain. For example, a malfunctioning switch on a
network segment normally affects only the hosts on that segment. However, if the router that connects this segment to others fails, the
impact is much greater.

The use of redundant links and reliable enterprise-class equipment minimizes the chance of disruption in a network. Smaller failure
domains reduce the impact of a failure on company productivity. They also simplify the troubleshooting process, thereby shortening the
downtime for all users.

Failure domains often include other, smaller failure domains. For example, Figure 1-6 shows the following failure domains:

1. If the Edge Router fails, it will impact every device connected to it.
2. If S1 fails, it will impact H1, H2, H3, and AP1.
3. If S2 fails, it will impact S3, H4, H5, and H6.
4. If AP1 fails, it will impact H1.

5. If S3 fails, it will impact H5 and H6.

 Figure 1-6 Failure Domain Examples

Limiting the Size of Failure Domains

Because a failure at the core layer of a network can have a potentially large impact, the network designer often concentrates on efforts
to prevent failures. These efforts can greatly increase the cost of implementing the network. In the hierarchical design model, it is
easiest and usually least expensive to control the size of a failure domain in the distribution layer. In the distribution layer, network errors
can be contained to a smaller area, thus affecting fewer users. When using Layer 3 devices at the distribution layer, every router
functions as a gateway for a limited number of access layer users.

Switch Block Deployment

Routers, or multilayer switches, are usually deployed in pairs, with access layer switches evenly divided between them. This
configuration is referred to as a building, or departmental, switch block. Each switch block acts independently of the others. As a result,
the failure of a single device does not cause the network to go down. Even the failure of an entire switch block does not affect a
significant number of end users.

Activity 1.1.1.6: Identify Cisco Enterprise Architecture Modules

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Expanding the Network (1.1.2)

A solid network design is not all that is needed for network expansion. This section reviews the features necessary to ensure that the
network scales well as the company grows.

Design for Scalability (1.1.2.1)

To support an enterprise network, the network designer must develop a strategy to enable the network to be available and to scale
effectively and easily. Included in a basic network design strategy are the following recommendations:

 Use expandable, modular equipment or clustered devices that can be easily upgraded to increase capabilities. Device modules
can be added to the existing equipment to support new features and devices without requiring major equipment upgrades.
Some devices can be integrated in a cluster to act as one device to simplify management and configuration.
 Design a hierarchical network to include modules that can be added, upgraded, and modified, as necessary, without affecting
the design of the other functional areas of the network. For example, you can create a separate access layer that can be
expanded without affecting the distribution and core layers of the campus network.
  Create an IPv4 or IPv6 address strategy that is hierarchical. Careful address planning eliminates the need to re-address the
network to support additional users and services.
 Choose routers or multilayer switches to limit broadcasts and filter other undesirable traffic from the network. Use Layer 3
devices to filter and reduce traffic to the network core.

Figure 1-7 shows examples of some more advanced network requirements.

Figure 1-7 Design for Scalability

Advanced network design requirements shown in Figure 1-7 include

 Implementing redundant links in the network between critical devices and between access layer and core layer devices.
 Implementing multiple links between equipment, with either link aggregation (EtherChannel) or equal-cost load balancing, to
increase bandwidth. Combining multiple Ethernet links into a single, load-balanced EtherChannel configuration increases
available bandwidth. EtherChannel implementations can be used when budget restrictions prohibit purchasing high-speed
interfaces and fiber runs.
 Implementing wireless connectivity to allow for mobility and expansion.
 Using a scalable routing protocol and implementing features within that routing protocol to isolate routing updates and minimize
the size of the routing table.

Planning for Redundancy (1.1.2.2)

Redundancy is a critical design feature for most company networks.

Implementing Redundancy

For many organizations, the availability of the network is essential to supporting business needs. Redundancy is an important part of
network design for preventing disruption of network services by minimizing the possibility of a single point of failure. One method of
implementing redundancy is by installing duplicate equipment and providing failover services for critical devices.

Another method of implementing redundancy is using redundant paths, as shown in Figure 1-8.
Figure 1-8 LAN Redundancy

Redundant paths offer alternate physical paths for data to traverse the network. Redundant paths in a switched network support high
availability. However, because of the operation of switches, redundant paths in a switched Ethernet network can cause logical Layer 2
loops. For this reason, Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is required.

STP allows for the redundancy required for reliability but eliminates the switching loops. It does this by providing a mechanism for
disabling redundant paths in a switched network until the path is necessary, such as when failures occur. STP is an open standard
protocol, used in a switched environment to create a loop-free logical topology.

More details about LAN redundancy and the operation of STP are covered in Chapter 2, “LAN Redundancy.”

Increasing Bandwidth (1.1.2.3)

Bandwidth demand continues to grow as users increasingly access video content and migrate to IP phones. EtherChannel can quickly
add more bandwidth.

Implementing EtherChannel

In hierarchical network design, some links between access and distribution switches might need to process a greater amount of traffic
than other links. As traffic from multiple links converges onto a single, outgoing link, it is possible for that link to become a
bottleneck. Link aggregation allows an administrator to increase the amount of bandwidth between devices by creating one logical link
made up of several physical links. EtherChannel is a form of link aggregation used in switched networks, as shown in Figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9 Advantages of EtherChannel

EtherChannel uses the existing switch ports; therefore, additional costs to upgrade the link to a faster and more expensive connection
are not necessary. The Ether-Channel is seen as one logical link using an EtherChannel interface. Most configuration tasks are done on
the EtherChannel interface, instead of on each individual port, ensuring configuration consistency throughout the links. Finally, the
EtherChannel configuration takes advantage of load balancing between links that are part of the same EtherChannel, and depending on
the hardware platform, one or more load-balancing methods can be implemented.

EtherChannel operation and configuration will be covered in more detail in Chapter 3, “LAN Aggregation.”

Expanding the Access Layer (1.1.2.4)

Except in the most secure setting, today’s users expect wireless access to the networks.

Implementing Wireless Connectivity

The network must be designed to be able to expand network access to individuals and devices, as needed. An increasingly important
aspect of extending access layer connectivity is through wireless connectivity. Providing wireless connectivity offers many advantages,
such as increased flexibility, reduced costs, and the ability to grow and adapt to changing network and business requirements.

To communicate wirelessly, end devices require a wireless NIC that incorporates a radio transmitter/receiver and the required software
driver to make it operational. Additionally, a wireless router or a wireless access point (AP) is required for users to connect, as shown
in Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10 Wireless LANs

There are many considerations when implementing a wireless network, such as the types of wireless devices to use, wireless coverage
requirements, interference considerations, and security considerations.

Wireless operation and implementation will be covered in more detail in Chapter 4, “Wireless LANs.”

Fine-tuning Routing Protocols (1.1.2.5)

Routing protocol configuration is usually rather straightforward. However, to take full advantage of a protocol’s feature set, it is often
necessary to modify the configuration.

Managing the Routed Network

Enterprise networks and ISPs often use more advanced protocols, such as link-state protocols, because of their hierarchical design and
ability to scale for large networks.

Link-state routing protocols such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), as shown in Figure 1-11, work well for larger hierarchical
networks, where fast convergence is important.
Figure 1-11 Single-Area OSPF

OSPF routers establish and maintain neighbor adjacency or adjacencies with other connected OSPF routers. When routers initiate an
adjacency with neighbors, an exchange of link-state updates begins. Routers reach a FULL state of adjacency when they have
synchronized views on their link-state database. With OSPF, link-state updates are sent when network changes occur.

OSPF is a popular link-state routing protocol that can be fine-tuned in many ways. Chapter 5, “Adjust and Troubleshoot Single-Area
OSPF,” will cover some of the more advanced features of OSPF configuration and troubleshooting.

Additionally, OSPF supports a two-layer hierarchical design, or multiarea OSPF, as shown in Figure 1-12.

Figure 1-12 Multiarea OSPF

All OSPF networks begin with Area 0, also called the backbone area. As the network is expanded, other nonbackbone areas can be
created. All nonbackbone areas must directly connect to area 0. Chapter 6, “Multiarea OSPF,” introduces the benefits, operation, and
configuration of multiarea OSPF.

Another popular routing protocol for larger networks is Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP). Cisco developed
EIGRP as a proprietary distance vector routing protocol with enhanced capabilities. Although configuring EIGRP is relatively simple,
the underlying features and options of EIGRP are extensive and robust. For example, EIGRP uses multiple tables to manage the routing
process using Protocol Dependent Modules (PDM), as shown in Figure 1-13.
Figure 1-13 EIGRP Protocol Dependent Modules (PDM)

EIGRP contains many features that are not found in any other routing protocols. It is an excellent choice for large, multiprotocol
networks that employ primarily Cisco devices.

Chapter 7, “EIGRP,” introduces the operation and configuration of the EIGRP routing protocol, while Chapter 8, “EIGRP Advanced
Configurations and Troubleshooting,” covers some of the more advanced configuration options of EIGRP.

https://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=2189637&seqNum=4
P8 Document and analyze test results against expected results.

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