A nan- empty r F wih a binar pvnh * i s Jaid

b a70pit
a be & ab G (closur)
( (ob)* a 6)¥,b,c
=

ea (associahu)
y 3 o elwmnr e C calldidennry) h nat
A*e e o = a

(I) Cavn aa 3 an e l m n b= bla) sth Na

ba a¥b = e

T lnu bla) is also deuebd by a

1 axb- bxa
a,be4 hn he
9vop G, *) is
a
Lommuahve or abelian 0p.
Enampla4 qnPs
a 2 , +) a comwmunhva 2 u p

(R-io, ) Co ww.tah 9p.

- (t--3,) is
couav juf.
a: S a mxn nary
* b - atb

un )
(V) Ser alnxn non-Sgulav mancts
aybe ab
n
G,4) 1S a
non-abtlian mp

SugpssS1 ay non-pty s a
a ser o all ot-onR ona naP hom h i . b>ss
s
S Oe - on ond0,

a n-abtli an goup.
 n S

n ) abelin 9p l l pwah gp

The idnhy eleunen i i

Vury eleumtan ata haa umqne invws

ab (aab) b
axA a
xy AY le Pt Cantladsn

1gh caueellahon
Mambv disht eleumns in a
p i call i od
, way b hnr ar nhnite odr

Ss,,n,), {3,.) rn haih jpr whra

a+) R-3,) e. a
3
n , (,) E (? , t , [I, [L
n

[J,JÍ, +)
T Gis uih gp hu* b alt), a,a
a3
ar .
S-pps a oa)- N
Then h numb diuheelnny ;a
Sama N hwne or So wa
1nsN
De T leo +VL inhj th ha a"e
orel t Me elcune ofa)n

ht-.J
oLy , o(4)a , oi) - o(-)-
 i grP i i-hoik bu orvder d sene elmnh iAn
Iinhinh gnups Mr is n qua raure a t elemmh a r

nired
ais nh gounp u +ve lww p snds lhah a
ah.
Sub qof
l e h (,*) be a gvoup. A non-emety subst HSG
isa Subsroup t i(P, ) is
a3op
rivialTrial Jubgoups ar G,) aud (ft3,*

T Le ) bi a qoup. A nsn-upty Subse hs is a Sabgup

¥a,bEH, a*bEH
aeH, aEH
Prmo Nctssay pavt + IF H i a subg »vp hm

hee he condihoy aru obviouly sanshd

Suhcin pas
Closur 9iv se
holds in H s i e it hlds
in a
br 24 4.
Associahviby
hay invn
he jdnhhy elemu e. Evury elemut a e

a .
No qvn atH e
I H {3, wmi pa
IF af<, a eH mm aEH,
by closure a= ee H.

aiven aH, ae H
Thut
H, *) is sub a
w shsy
out Hs hnir h e w hav
ned w be haitu
only chan pof7
 t ) be gap ad HSG be a Auih on mpty Subs

Tu (H, *) is a Jubgvop i

a b EH a*beH

1 is
sulhim b shs ha atH 3a'eH
aH aea a e
L at, a eH.
alte). Consider ia, a a a
The numbw diuhn elnens in H i huia, say 1,ha
oY Some ign
a4-i

e
1H
Sinee a t n->o Hwi
.

a1 exprusd pousw
a av by closure prfr a
Thenore by pruio r a l , H, *) i Jnbj u p

Eramlay subgoups
.a(+)
H 2ae*, a- pn,n hnd
o , tn, tan, - 3

3
whred m. (m
Hy0H t13t24,. - 3

3 (R-foi,), H (f-,)
3 (t-io3,) H- (2-4,.)
4. (t-foi, ) , - (tLo,,) whun wE
 S. hea hon-mpty sek AS) is sF o all ent-one ou

AE be any Knd eluww

Consid e H
feA(4), Puns)-1,}

Th 4s subg
be subg oup o á. Tso e l n s
elLe a be aoup avd a

a ad b are said b be a m module H, w r n as aa b(nd H)

abH

The elahon ag b (mad H) is an e ivalenee nahon on elmeus

.
ro t ae , nu ae aund ea aae H sime H a

Subgo a a (Ra Hexi)

a b
abe
H
(ab eH Hsa Jubjmup
b EH bn a (Syw t )
C e r awb bc
abe H and ble H
abceHatceH
ace
H ac
H t aabmeod H)sm quivae
(TiKuiy)
naA
a , *+, Ha t*", £zn, t3n, --S
r a,b2,ab a-b E4
b odn)
 D h b
2f aud HSG b a
Jubg up. Thun a
rgh
casa ofH is dehnd a

Haitna| heH, athj

HC is Jubgo P a d b ay a e , [al is eqialuae

class o audw he nlahon a a b(med H) h Ha =[ J .

Tau hr a
tb f einuv Ha =4b Ha0
or
Hb 4
anel
UHa
aa

Tnur Miss buhww he

a ont- one
oupndemme clewnen
o dishun ors.
Ha Hl s.
Fha)= hb

S is ane- ov
H wy be Raih hni SubgmuP.
TH Anire hn numbur
dmens in any cos Ha
h ae is Sawme
In parhcalar SInee H He hernbre mumbur o lenuh iu
nub duneny in H.
agravgay horn ais
T a nih qop aud Hi
abgvp t hm oCH) ok).

The nunber ot diyhe ot sbgnup H is alld e iden

o me subgoop (i ).
oC
inden ( H) = H)=
nh oCH
nitt snbgmnp iu an uhuirg0np way a v hite l d A .
CaG(2,+), H ={ , t n ,t2r, 3 . i . ) - ' n . (oss ave l1li0, -. -ln-t3.
 abi a
haite qoop awd ae. Ten ola)lol1).
Tis Knite hen tae ,
a
D T is
2up and r somt e,a
e i^ ,-
sai be cycli a a qunuar of aud w wmt

(-ti,) ({L3,ca), tn, ti},)

La
1 ' - [22] [A

( au (33 ar
gmoabs bud [y ad [) arn
w zonuahd
n-
Adihon ad mulhpli can
or aY
Ci3+43 Cit [3 it ntY
CiJt53 (3 Cit3 iien

,+) (1 co3, to, C, y tJIJ},+)

Thn [j a an
zmenos in hd cot.

be a
Ru 7maf aud o(4) = P, b b apnne . Tay
ais cyclie.

l bu a
oup ard H ad k
HOLSs alsa ubs p
an
mbops d6. Tam
ha wll ay ad k
Hu ued b a Jub mP

, t3, t , t?,
 Hnd k bt ubops a o p 4. Then HK JS a sabop

i Hk EH
Th abu han qwnp hn hr any subgoupr H ad k ot4

Hk is aluo a ub oup a .

Le H ad k be i r subgrops . Tn
oCHk) oCH) ok)
oC HOK)

(e b a inih 7 0 aud H, kar dabpoups 44

ot H) > Jot) ,
olk)> Jota) . Tu
oCHAk) >1
i HOk#{t3
OC)> oCHK)
o 4)o) Jota) Jol)
oCtk)
oCHA)>|
Ce ola) = py whure p aud 1, a r pnmy a p>i. Thu
ol&)P
Ghns a ws one Subgonp t orderP:
ad aud an
Jnbj up ak
Supfose oCH) o(h) = P

Now P>P 0H) 2Jot4) aund OCK)> Jo(4))

ne

oHL) 1oCH) . oCHu) IP

oCHk) =
p a o HAK)>

Snilarly Hn=K
H k
Hwe 4 a
ws ene
subg ep o dur p.
te ol4)>l -3x 2