EPRI Compressor and Instrument Air Maint Guide

EPRI TR-108147
Final Report
March 1998
Compressor and Instrument Air

System Maintenance Guide
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Compressor and Instrument Air
System Maintenance Guide
Revision to NP-7079
TR-108147
Final Report
March 1998
Prepared by
EPRI
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304
EPRI
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, North Carolina 28262
EPRI Project Manager

Vic Varma
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ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT
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Shalimar, Florida 32579
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REPORT SUMMARY
The instrument air system in most nuclear power plants is designated as a non-safety-
related system; however, instrument air is required for the operation of both safety-
related and non-safety-related systems. A failure of the instrument air system can result
in power reduction or even a reactor scram. A thorough understanding of the system by
plant operation and maintenance personnel can assist in eliminating related problems
presently experienced in power plants.
This guide provides descriptions of system layouts in power plants, as well as types of
available equipment, their characteristics, and the relative advantages and disadvan-
tages of each type. In addition, step-by-step maintenance troubleshooting guides are
included to provide insight into possible system difficulties and ways to avoid them.
Recommendations that will provide air quality that meets or exceeds the Instrument
Society of America standards are furnished for proactive maintenance of the system.
Background
In the past, NRC Generic Letter 88-14 and INPO SOER 88-1 raised serious questions
regarding the failure of instrument air systems to operate consistently within their
design parameters. NMAC published a guide in 1990 (NP-7079) to assist utility person-
nel in improving system maintenance. Since then, a number of utilities have decided to
replace their instrument air system equipment with newer models and types. This
revised guide addresses maintenance of the latest types of compressors and other in-
strument air system equipment currently in use in power plants.
Most of the problems with the instrument air system can be traced to inadequate system
understanding and maintenance. Voluminous amounts of information on compressors
and compressed air system components are available from vendors and other industry
sources. This guide condenses the available information and provides only what is
applicable to the power generation industry.
Objectives
To provide technical guidance to assist utility personnel in improving compressor and

instrument air system maintenance and operability.
iii
Compressor and Instrument Air System Maintenance Guide
Approach
Large amounts of information on compressors and other compressed air system compo-
nents are available; however, most of this information is not applicable to the power
generation industry. EPRI’s Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC) re-
viewed this extensive information and included here only that information pertaining
to the operation of an instrument air system in a power plant. Discussions were held
with equipment suppliers and with utility personnel responsible for maintenance of
instrument air systems, and the guide was reviewed by a number of NMAC member
utilities and other industry specialists for accuracy and completeness.
Results
This guide approaches the maintenance of instrument air on a system basis. Instrument
air problems due to various contaminants have been thoroughly investigated and
solutions recommended. Problems due to leaks and component failures have also been
addressed. Detailed recommendations have been made for air filters and dryer desic-
cants. Troubleshooting charts have been added in the appendices for quick diagnosis of
maintenance problems.
EPRI Perspective
The instrument air system is an important support system in any power generation
plant. Recently, there has been heightened awareness of the importance of this system,
especially in nuclear power plants. Regulatory bodies and industry organizations are
concerned that the maintenance of instrument air systems has not received enough
emphasis. This guide should assist the utilities in identifying system problems and
maintaining their system to the required standard.
TR-108147
Interest Categories
System engineers
Maintenance engineers
Training managers
Keywords
Compressor
Compressed air
Instrument air
Air filters
Air dryers
Maintenance
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared with contractor support from:
Mac Consulting Services

929 Shalimar Pointe Drive
Shalimar, Florida 32579
Principal Investigator:
Mr. David M. McCulloch
NMAC would also like to acknowledge the contribution of the following individuals
for providing information and reviewing the draft prior to publication. The time and
attention provided by each is greatly appreciated.
Andrew C. Taylor Entergy Operations, Inc.

Bill Myers Wisconsin Energy
Billy Day Entergy Operations, Inc.
Edward V. Chimahusky First Energy Corp.
Hal Ornstein USNRC
NMAC also acknowledges the contribution of The Compressed Air and Gas Institute
(CAGI), 1300 Sumner Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44115-2851 for allowing us to use techni-
cal material from their various publications. Finally, NMAC acknowledges the contribu-
tion of the various manufacturers and vendors who provided us with illustrations and
other information for this guide. The material received from CAGI and other sources
has been identified within the body of this guide.
v
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1-1
2 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 2-1
3 COMPRESSED AIR PRODUCTION (COMPRESSORS AND ACCESSORIES) ........................... 3-1

3.1 Reciprocating Air Compressors ........................................................................................ 3-2
3.1.1 Reciprocating Single-Acting Air Compressors ......................................................... 3-3
3.1.2 Reciprocating Double-Acting Air Compressors ....................................................... 3-4
3.2 Rotary-Type Air Compressors (adapted from The Compressed Air and Gas
Institute Rotary Air Compressor Selection Guide) .......................................................... 3-6
3.2.1 Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors.................................................................. 3-6
3.2.2 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Compressors ....................................................................... 3-8
3.2.3 Oil-Injected Single Screw Compressors ................................................................ 3-10
3.2.4 Oil-Injected Sliding Vane Compressors ................................................................. 3-12
3.2.5 Liquid Ring Rotary Compressors ........................................................................... 3-13
3.3 Capacity Controls for Displacement-Type Air Compressors ....................................... 3-14
3.3.1 Start/Stop Control .................................................................................................. 3-14
3.3.2 Constant Speed Control ........................................................................................ 3-15
3.3.3 Load/Unload Control .............................................................................................. 3-15
3.3.4 Inlet Valve Modulation ............................................................................................ 3-15
3.3.5 Dual Control ........................................................................................................... 3-16
3.3.6 Slide Valve, Spiral Valve, or Turn Valve .................................................................. 3-16
3.3.7 Step Control Valves ............................................................................................... 3-16
3.3.8 Automatic Dual Control .......................................................................................... 3-16
3.3.9 Variable Speed Control .......................................................................................... 3-16
3.3.10 Multiple Compressor Sequencing .......................................................................... 3-17
3.4 Instrumentation................................................................................................................. 3-17
3.5 Dynamic Air Compressors ............................................................................................... 3-17
3.6 Compressor Lubrication and Lubrication Systems ...................................................... 3-22
3.6.1 Lubricants .............................................................................................................. 3-23
3.7 Cost of Operation ............................................................................................................. 3-24
3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages ...................................................................................... 3-24
3.8.1 Single-Acting, Air-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors .................................... 3-24
3.8.2 Double-Acting, Water-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors .............................. 3-25
3.8.3 Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors................................................................ 3-25
3.8.4 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Air Compressors ............................................................... 3-26
3.8.5 Oil-Injected Single Screw Air Compressors ........................................................... 3-26
3.8.6 Oil-Injected Sliding Vane Air Compressors ............................................................ 3-26
3.8.7 Liquid Ring Type Air Compressors ......................................................................... 3-27
3.8.8 Centrifugal Air Compressors.................................................................................. 3-27
3.9 Compressor Selection ...................................................................................................... 3-27
vii
4 COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT (DRYERS AND FILTERS) ....................................................... 4-1

4.1 Compressed Air Dryers ...................................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.1 Refrigerant-Type Dryers ........................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.2 Regenerative-Desiccant-Type Dryers ...................................................................... 4-6
4.1.3 Deliquescent-Type Dryers ........................................................................................ 4-7
4.1.4 Heat Of Compression-Type Dryers .......................................................................... 4-8
4.1.5 Desiccants ............................................................................................................. 4-10
4.1.6 Membrane-Type Dryers ......................................................................................... 4-11
4.1.7 Dryer Selection ...................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2 Compressed Air Filters .................................................................................................... 4-12
4.2.1 Particulate Filters ................................................................................................... 4-13
4.2.2 Coalescing Filters .................................................................................................. 4-14
4.2.3 Adsorption Filters ................................................................................................... 4-15
4.3 Drain Traps ........................................................................................................................ 4-16
4.3.1 Float-Type Traps .................................................................................................... 4-16
4.3.2 Electrically Operated Solenoid Valves ................................................................... 4-18
4.4 Air Quality .......................................................................................................................... 4-20
5 COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ............................................................................. 5-1

5.1 Location of Air Compressors ............................................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Location of Compressed Air Dryers ................................................................................. 5-2
5.3 Location of Air Receivers .................................................................................................. 5-2
5.4 Location of Compressed Air Filters .................................................................................. 5-3
5.5 Piping and Valves ............................................................................................................... 5-3
6 APPLICATIONS (POINTS OF USE) ............................................................................................... 6-1

6.1 Instrument Air ..................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Pneumatic Tools .................................................................................................................. 6-2
6.3 Breathing Air ....................................................................................................................... 6-2
6.4 General ................................................................................................................................ 6-2
7 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM SAFETY: CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 7-1

7.1 Compressed Air Safety Check List ................................................................................... 7-3
7.1.1 Compressors and Compressed Air .......................................................................... 7-3
7.1.2 Compressed Air Receivers ...................................................................................... 7-4
8 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM MAINTENANCE ............................................................................ 8-1

8.1 Air Inlet and Filter ............................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2 Air Compressors ................................................................................................................. 8-3
8.3 Intercoolers and Aftercoolers ............................................................................................ 8-4
8.4 Moisture Separators and Drain Traps ............................................................................... 8-4
8.5 Air Receivers ....................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.6 Prefilters and Afterfilters .................................................................................................... 8-5
viii
8.7 Dryers .................................................................................................................................. 8-6

8.8 Blowdown Devices ............................................................................................................. 8-7
8.9 Distribution System ............................................................................................................ 8-8
8.9.1 Piping ....................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.9.2 Walkdown and Testing ............................................................................................. 8-8
9 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 9-1
10 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................................................................... 10-1
APPENDIX A: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REFRIGERANT-TYPE DRYERS ........................... A-1
APPENDIX B: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REGENERATIVE DESICCANT DRYERS ............. B-1
APPENDIX C: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR DOUBLE-ACTING RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSORS ............................................................................................................................ C-1
APPENDIX D: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR ROTARY COMPRESSORS ................................... D-1
APPENDIX E: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ........................ E-1

Control Panel Troubleshooting ..................................................................................................... E-9
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 A Typical Instrument Air System Layout for a Single Unit Station with Service Air
Backup .......................................................................................................................... 2-1
Figure 2-2 A Typical Instrument Air System Layout for a Multi-Unit Station with Shared
Compressor Bank ......................................................................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-3 A Typical Compressed Air System Layout Supplying Service Air and Instrument Air ... 2-3
Figure 2-4 A Typical Instrument Air System Layout with Service Air Backup ................................. 2-4
Figure 3-1 Types and Capacity Ranges of Compressors ............................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2 Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor ..................................................................... 3-4
Figure 3-3a Crosshead Assembly for a Non-Lubricated Double-Acting Compressor ...................... 3-5
Figure 3-3b Details of Oil Scraper Rings .......................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-4 Cross-Section of an Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor ........................................ 3-6
Figure 3-5 Compression Cycle of an Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor ................................ 3-7
Figure 3-6 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Compressor .............................................................................. 3-8
Figure 3-7 Water-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor .................................................................... 3-9
Figure 3-8 Operation of a Rotary Single Screw Compressor ....................................................... 3-11
Figure 3-9 Oil-Injected Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor ............................................................. 3-12
Figure 3-10 Liquid Ring Rotary Compressor .................................................................................. 3-14
Figure 3-11 Typical Multi-Stage Centrifugal Air Compressor .......................................................... 3-18
Figure 3-12 Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Air Compressor at 90°F ................................. 3-19
Figure 3-13 Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Air Compressor at 60°F ................................. 3-20
Figure 3-14 Centrifugal Air Compressor—Integrally Geared Multiple Impellers ............................. 3-21
Figure 3-15 Pressure Lubrication System for an Air Compressor .................................................. 3-23
Figure 4-1 Refrigerant Dryer ........................................................................................................... 4-4
xi
Figure 4-2 Atmospheric vs. Pressure Dew Point Conversion Chart ............................................... 4-5
Figure 4-3a Heat Regenerative Desiccant Dryer .............................................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-3b Heatless Regenerative Desiccant Dryer ....................................................................... 4-7
Figure 4-4 Deliquescent Dryer ........................................................................................................ 4-8
Figure 4-5 Heat of Compression-Type Dryers ................................................................................ 4-9
Figure 4-6 Membrane-Type Dryers ............................................................................................... 4-12
Figure 4-7 Mechanisms of Air/Gas Filtration ................................................................................ 4-14
Figure 4-8 Coalescing Filter ......................................................................................................... 4-15
Figure 4-9 Adsorption Filter .......................................................................................................... 4-16
Figure 4-10 Float-Type Drain Trap .................................................................................................. 4-17
Figure 4-11a Solenoid-Operated Drain Valve ................................................................................... 4-18
Figure 4-11b Electronically Controlled Drain Trap ............................................................................ 4-19
Figure 8-1 Flexible Coupling for a Compressor .............................................................................. 8-2
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1 Moisture Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 Standard Cubic Feet ............... 4-2
Table 4-2 Pressure and Temperature Correction Factors for Compressed Air Dryers .................. 4-3
Table 4-3 Desiccant Types and Application ................................................................................. 4-11
Table 4-4 Air Quality per ISO 8573.1 .......................................................................................... 4-21
xiii
1
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this report is to provide technical guidance to assist utility personnel in
improving compressor and instrument air system maintenance and operability. Section
2 of this report provides information about typical system layouts in U.S. nuclear power
plants.
Service air is the term used for compressed air that is used for a variety of purposes,
mainly for the operation of pneumatic tools, such as air drills, nut runners, grinders,
and sand blasters, and for paint spraying and general cleaning. Because there are no
national standards for service air, the quality of service air should not be specified, but
it is desirable to have relatively clean, dry air to prevent undue wear on tools from
washed out lubricant, condensate in paint, or other contaminants.
Instrument air is the term used for compressed air that is used for motive power for
valves, instrument and control functions, and breathing. Instrument air requires a
higher degree of cleanliness from contaminants. This document addresses the following
basic aspects of power plant instrument air systems:
• Compressed air production: The compressors producing the compressed air. Ad-
dressed in Section 3.
• Compressed air treatment: The dryers and filters that remove contaminants. Ad-
• Compressed air distribution: The piping, storage volume, and accessories to get the
compressed air to each point of use. Addressed in Section 5.
• Compressed air applications: The points of use and their requirements. Addressed
in Section 6.
• Compressed air system safety: Safety considerations and recommendations. Ad-
• Component and system maintenance: Maintenance considerations. Addressed in
Section 8.
A discussion on instrument air quality is included in Section 4.4, and relevant specifica-
tion references are provided in Section 9. A glossary of terms is included in Section 10.
1-1
Introduction
In a nuclear power plant, the instrument air system is typically classified as a non-
safety-related system. However, both non-safety-related and safety-related systems
require the use of instrument air for their operation; therefore, a failure of instrument
air can adversely affect plant operation. On loss of air, air-actuated valves fail in the
open, closed, or as-is condition. This can cause serious transients in operating systems
throughout the plant.
Some safety-related systems in a nuclear power plant are provided with backup accu-
mulators for a safe shutdown or system isolation, as required. These accumulators
require periodic inspection, maintenance, and testing to ensure proper functioning.
In an effort to enhance system reliability, a number of utilities are replacing the old
compressors, dryers, and ancillary equipment, or are installing additional ones. This
guide provides descriptions of available air system equipment and the characteristics,
application, advantages, and disadvantages of each. This information will assist plant
engineers in understanding the system requirements and in selecting the correct equip-
ment. Extensive information is included on selecting air dryers, desiccants, traps, and
filters. Finally, recommendations are provided for a proactive maintenance of the sys-
tem to provide air quality that meets or exceeds the Instrument Society of America (ISA)
standards.
1-2
2
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
This section provides information about typical instrument air system layouts in U.S.
nuclear power plants.
The system layout in Figure 2-1 shows the dryers, with pre-filters, located before the air
receivers. Pre-filters are necessary to prevent fouling of the dryer desiccant bed from
lubricant carryover from the compressor. After-filters prevent desiccant fines from
being carried downstream into instruments and controls. The receiver tanks located
after the dryers ensure that only the maximum air capacity of the compressors can pass
through the dryers, even in the event of a sudden demand for compressed air that
exceeds the rated capacity of the dryer. The extra capacity is drawn from the receivers,
which have clean, dried air stored in them. Duplicate pre-filters, dryers and, receivers
allow redundancy for maintenance.
Compressors
Pre-Filters Dryers Receivers
Possible
Service Air
Backup Possible
(Mode-1) Service Air
Backup
(Mode-2)
To
Instrument After-Filters
Air System
Notes:
1. Number, size and type of compressors vary.

2. Drawing does not contain details such as
drains, vents, check valves, etc.
3. Service air backup may be automatic on loss
of instrument air pressure.
Figure 2-1
A Typical Instrument Air System Layout for a Single Unit Station with Service Air Backup
2-1
Compressed Air Systems
Some power plants use the service air compressors to provide backup service for the
instrument air system in the event of a loss of pressure in the instrument air lines. This
layout shows two possible modes of hookup for service air backup compressors. Mode
1, which connects the service air compressors before the pre-filter, is the preferred mode
because it treats the air through filters and dryers prior to entering the system piping.
This protects the system piping and end-user equipment from moisture and other
contaminants usually found in the service air. The mode 2 option, which connects the
service air compressors after the receivers, is not recommended because it injects un-
treated moist air directly into the system piping.
The layout shown in Figure 2-2 is sometimes used in multi-unit power stations. A single
bank of compressors is used to supply instrument air to all units at the site. This layout
has definite economic advantages in terms of the initial investment and operating cost.
However, USNRC report NUREG 1275, Volume 2, “Operating Experience Feedback
Report—Air System Problems,” notes that “Losses of shared IA systems at multi-plant
stations have resulted in simultaneous transients. The recovery from some of those
events has been complex.”
To
Unit 1
After-Filters
Compressors
Pre-Filters Dryers
To
Unit 2
(Similar to Unit 1)
“A” Header
Receivers
Located
Throughout “B” Header
System
Notes: Backup Compressors

W/ Dryer Drains
2. Drawing does not contain details such as drains,
vents, check valves, etc.
Figure 2-2
A Typical Instrument Air System Layout for a Multi-Unit Station with Shared
Compressor Bank
This layout also has the air receivers located throughout the system. While this has the
advantage of storage volume close to points of use with varying demands and cycle
time, the compressor controls may experience far more fluctuation of pressure than
with a receiver closer to the compressor, as in Figure 2-1. Therefore, the compressor
may experience more starts and stops, increasing compressor wear and maintenance.
2-2
The backup compressor (with dryer) in this figure is shown with a closed manual valve.
This indicates that this service is designed only for use in an emergency, when an op-
erator will open the valve to allow the backup compressors to pressurize the instrument
air system. Since the backup compressor unit is provided with its own dryer, system
contamination is not a consideration during its use.
The layouts shown in Figures 2-3 and 2-4 generally are better suited to reciprocating-
type compressors, where the air receivers provide a buffer for discharge pressure pulsa-
tions. Receivers before the dryers also provide radiant cooling and removal of conden-
sate before the air reaches the dryers. These systems also have desiccant dryers for only
the instrument air. While service air does not need to be of the same quality as instru-
ment air, it is recommended that a dryer, such as a refrigerant-type dryer, be installed
for service air to protect the system piping from ingress of moisture. Untreated service
air should not be introduced into an instrument air system. If service air is to be used as
a backup for instrument air, then appropriate drying and filtration should be provided.
To
Instrument
Air System
Compressors
Pre-Filters Dryers
Receivers To
Service Air
System
(Simliar To Instrument Air)
After-Filters
Notes:
Figure 2-3
A Typical Compressed Air System Layout Supplying Service Air and Instrument Air
2-3
Compressors
Receivers Pre-Filters Dryers After-Filters
To
Instrument
Air System
To or From
Service Air
System
Notes:

2. Tie in to service air system may feed in either direction.
3. Service air backup may be automatic or manual.
Figure 2-4
A Typical Instrument Air System Layout with Service Air Backup
2-4
3
COMPRESSED AIR PRODUCTION
(COMPRESSORS AND ACCESSORIES)
There are various mechanisms used in the compression of air, resulting in a variety of
compressor types and sizes. Compressor types in common use are listed in Figure 3-1
with their ranges of horsepower (hp), size in cubic feet per minute (cfm), and pressure
capability. Only those stationary types and sizes common to instrument air systems are
discussed in the ensuing text. Normally, these operate in the 100–125 psig (6.9–8.62
bars) range.
3-1
Compressed Air Production (Compressors and Accessories)
Stationary
Compressors
Dynamic
Positive
Displacement
Reciprocating Rotary
Piston Type Piston Type Centrifugal

Single Stage Multi-Stage Axial
Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges

25-200 H.P. 10-10,000 H.P. 50-20,000 H.P.
80-125 PSIG 10-50,000 PSIG 2-2,000 PSIG
100-850 CFM 30-15,000 CFM 20-25,000 CFM
Rating Ranges
1,000-10,000 H.P.
40-400 PSIG
8,000-13,000,000 CFM
Liquid Sliding Rotary

Ring Lobe Vane Screw
Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges

5-400 H.P. 10-3,000 H.P. 10-500 H.P. 10-500 H.P.
2" HG-125 PSIG 5-250 PSIG 5-275 PSIG 10-250 PSIG
10-16,000 CFM 5-30,000 CFM 40-20,000 CFM 20-15,000 CFM
Figure 3-1
Types and Capacity Ranges of Compressors
Over the last decade, there has been a significant trend toward rotating machinery and,
in the case of compressors, to rotary screw and/or centrifugal types.
3.1 Reciprocating Air Compressors
A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement type of machine, which means

that a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a cylinder and the space that it occupies
is mechanically reduced by movement of the piston, causing a corresponding rise in
pressure prior to discharge. There are two basic types of reciprocating air compressors,
single-acting and double-acting.
3-2
3.1.1 Reciprocating Single-Acting Air Compressors

Reciprocating single-acting air compressors are so called because only one side of the piston
is used in the compression process. The connecting rod transmits the power and motion
from the crankshaft to the piston and is attached to the underside of the piston by means of
a pin. This sometimes is referred to as an automotive-type piston. These air compressors
generally are one stage for pressures from 70–100 psig (4.8–6.9 bars) or two stage for pres-
sures from 100–250 psig (6.9–17.24 bars) and range from fractional hp to 25 hp.
Cylinders and cylinder heads have external finning for radiant heat dissipation, and in
two stage designs, cooling between the stages is accomplished with a finned pipe inter-
cooler. Belt drive is most common, and the compressor sheaves/flywheel can also serve
as a cooling fan with suitably contoured spokes. A cross-section of a typical unit is
shown in Figure 3-2. An aftercooler of similar construction to the intercooler or a sepa-
rate aftercooler can be used. The location of the compressor must allow for unrestricted
cooling air flow.
Cylinders generally are lubricated by splash lubrication where a dipper on the connect-
ing rod dips into the oil in the crankcase and splashes it towards the cylinder. A pres-
sure lubrication system is used on some compressors of this type. Oil-free or oil-less,
single-acting air compressors also are available where oil is excluded from the compres-
sor cylinder. In this case PTFE (polytetra fluoro ethylene) or similar material can be
used for piston rings.
These compressors commonly are supplied as packages and mounted on an air receiver
or tank and are called tank-mounted compressors. The receiver tank also provides some
additional radiation cooling and requires that resulting condensate be drained regularly.
Generally, these packages are installed close to the point of use of the compressed air.
3-3
ASME-Code
Interstage
Safety Valves
Intake Unloaders
Cylinder and
Head Gaskets
Valve Design
High-Performance
Three-Piece Oil Rings
Cast Iron
Flywheel
Coalescing
Stainless Steel
Mesh Crankcase
Breather
Fin and Tube

Intercooler
(reduces interstage
air temperature) Connecting
Rods
Bearings
Counter-
Weighted
Crankshaft Oil Level
Bayonet
Oil Reservoir
Figure 3-2
Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor
(Source: Quincy Compressor Division, Coltec Industries, Inc.)
3.1.2 Reciprocating Double-Acting Air Compressors

Reciprocating double-acting air compressors use both sides of the piston for air com-
pression, doubling the capacity for a given cylinder size. A piston rod is attached to the
piston at one end and to a crosshead at the other end. The crosshead ensures that the
piston rod travels concentrically with the piston. These compressors may be single or
multi-stage, depending on discharge pressure and horsepower. These can range from
10 hp upwards with pressures from 50 psig (3.45 bars) to several thousand psig. Details
of typical construction features are shown in Figures 3-3a and 3-3b.
3-4
Oil Scraper 'NL' Distance Cross Head & Frame Port Outer Port
Assembly Piece Distance Piece Plate Plate
Frame Oil Stop Pressure Cylinder Outer Head

Distance Port Plate Packing
Guide
Figure 3-3a
Crosshead Assembly for a Non-Lubricated Double-Acting Compressor
(Source: Ingersoll-Rand Company)
Partition
Stuffing Ring
Box
Oil Oil Drain
Port
Oil Relief
Groove
Frame End Cylinder End
Cylinder Frame
End End
Partition
Scraper
Plate
Figure 3-3b
Details of Oil Scraper Rings
3-5
Cylinder lubrication generally is by means of a forced feed cylinder lubricator with a

feed rate of several drops per minute, depending on cylinder size and piston speed as
specified by the manufacturer. Oil-free versions also are available with PTFE or similar
materials for piston and glide rings and a distance piece between the crankcase and the
cylinders to ensure that no part of the piston rod that enters the lubricated crankcase
can enter the oil-free cylinder area.
Double-acting air compressors generally have cooling water jackets around the cylinder
body and in the cylinder head. This, combined with their relatively slow speed of op-
eration and water-cooled intercooling, results in excellent compression efficiency.
Single and two cylinder compressors of this type generally require a substantial founda-
tion due to unbalanced reciprocating forces.
3.2 Rotary-Type Air Compressors (adapted from The Compressed Air and Gas
Institute Rotary Air Compressor Selection Guide)
3.2.1 Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors

The oil-injected rotary screw compressor is a positive displacement type of compressor,
which means that a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber
and the space that it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in
pressure prior to discharge.
The oil-injected rotary screw compressor consists of two intermeshing rotors in a stator
housing that has an inlet port at one end and a discharge port at the other. The male
rotor has lobes formed helically along its length, and the female rotor has correspond-
ing helical grooves or flutes. A typical oil-injected rotary screw compressor is shown in
Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4
Cross-Section of an Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor
(Source: Sullair Corporation)
3-6
Air flowing in through the inlet port fills the spaces between the lobes on each rotor.
Rotation then causes the air to be trapped between the lobes and the stator as the
interlobe spaces pass beyond the inlet port. As rotation continues, a lobe on one rotor
rolls into a groove on the other rotor, and the point of intermeshing moves progres-
sively along the axial length of the rotors, which reduces the space occupied by the air,
resulting in increased pressure. Compression continues until the interlobe spaces are
exposed to the discharge port when the compressed air is discharged. This cycle is
illustrated in Figure 3-5.
Discharge Port Discharge Port Discharge Port

Secondary Secondary Secondary
Rotor Rotor Rotor
Main Main Main

Rotor Rotor Rotor
Inlet Inlet Inlet

A B C
Figure 3-5
Compression Cycle of an Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor
(Source: Sullair Corporation)
Oil is injected into the compression chamber during compression and serves three basic
functions:
• It lubricates the intermeshing rotors and associated bearings.
• It removes most of the heat caused by compression.
• It acts as a seal in the clearances between the meshing rotors and between the rotors
and stator.
The generic term oil has been used. Generally, this is understood to be a hydrocarbon
product, but most compressors now use cleaner and longer life synthetic lubricants,
including diesters, polyglycols, polyalphaolefins, and silicon-based fluids. These newer
products are suitable for a wider range of temperatures and have higher flash points.
However, compatibility of the lubricant and its volatile additives with downstream
components, especially elastomeric materials, should be checked.
A mixture of compressed air and injected oil leaves the air discharge end of the com-
pressor and is passed to a sump/separator where the oil is removed from the com-
pressed air. Directional and velocity changes are used to separate most of the liquid.
The remaining aerosols in the compressed air are separated by a coalescing filter, result-
ing in only a few parts per million (ppm) of oil carryover. Most oil-injected rotary screw
compressor packages use the air pressure in the oil sump/separator, after the discharge
of the air end, to circulate the oil through a filter and cooler prior to re-injection into the
compression chamber. Some designs use an oil pump.
3-7
Single stage, oil-injected rotary screw compressor packages are available from 3–900 hp
and with capacities from 8–5000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) (.2–141.6 cubic meters per
minute or cm/m), with discharge pressures from 50–200 psig (3.45–13.8 bars). Two
stage versions can improve the power required for a given rate of flow by up to 15%,
and some can achieve higher discharge pressures.
3.2.2 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Compressors

The oil-free rotary screw compressor also is a positive displacement type of compressor.
The principle of compression is similar to that of the oil-injected rotary screw compres-
sor but without oil being introduced into the compression chamber. Two distinct types
are available, the dry type and the water-injected type.
In the dry type, the intermeshing rotors are not allowed to touch, and their relative
positions are maintained by means of lubricated timing gears external to the compres-
sion chamber. Because there is no injected fluid to remove the heat of compression,
most designs use two stages of compression with an intercooler between the stages and
an aftercooler after the second stage. The lack of a sealing fluid also requires higher
rotational speeds than for the oil-injected type. A typical air end is shown in Figure 3-6.
Figure 3-6
Oil-Free Rotary Screw Compressor
(Source: Atlas Copco Compressors Inc.)
3-8
Dry-type, oil-free rotary screw compressors have a range from 50–4000 hp and capaci-
ties from 200–20,000 cubic feet per minute (5.6–566.3 cm/m). Single stage units can
operate up to 50 psig (3.45 bars), while two stage units generally can achieve 125 psig
(8.62 bars).
In the water-injected type, similar timing gear construction is used, but water is injected
into the compression chamber to act as a seal in internal clearances and to remove the
heat of compression. This allows pressures in the 100–150 psig (6.9–10.34 bars) range to
be accomplished with only one stage as illustrated in Figure 3-7. The injected water,
together with condensed moisture from the atmosphere, is removed from the dis-
charged compressed air by a conventional moisture separation device. Similar to the oil-
injected type, oil-free rotary screw compressors generally are packaged with all neces-
sary accessories.
Figure 3-7
Water-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor
(Source: Gardner Denver Machinery, Inc.)
3-9
3.2.3 Oil-Injected Single Screw Compressors

The name rotary screw compressor normally refers to a compressor that has two
intermeshing rotors with parallel axes as described below. The single screw compressor,
as its name implies, has only one helically grooved rotor, normally arranged with a
horizontal axis. Two meshing gate, or star, rotors are arranged so that one is on each
side of the helical rotor with their axes at right angles to it.
Similar to the standard rotary screw compressor, the single screw compressor is a dis-
placement type, which means that a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a com-
pression chamber and the space is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise
in pressure prior to discharge.
Air enters the compression chamber through an inlet port, and compression begins
when a tooth of a star rotor enters and seals the groove in the helical rotor. As rotation
continues, the tooth follows the path of the groove, reducing the space occupied by the
air with a corresponding rise in pressure. When the discharge port is reached, the com-
pressed air is discharged as illustrated in Figure 3-8. The two gate, or star, rotors allow
compression to take place simultaneously on both sides of the helical rotor and main-
tain axial balance of the helical rotor, but axial force is exerted on each gate rotor.
3-10
Star
Screw
Star
Screw
Star
Screw
Figure 3-8
Operation of a Rotary Single Screw Compressor
(Source: Grimmerschmidt Corporation)
3-11
As with the conventional rotary screw compressor, oil is injected into the compression
chamber to lubricate, seal, and take away the heat of compression. A mixture of com-
pressed air and injected oil leaves the air end of the compressor and is passed to a
sump/separator where the oil is removed from the compressed air. Directional and
velocity changes are used to separate most of the liquid. The remaining aerosols in the
compressed air then are separated by a coalescing filter, resulting in only a few parts
per million of oil carryover. Most oil-injected rotary screw compressor packages use the
air pressure in the oil sump/separator, after the discharge of the air end, to circulate the
oil through a filter and cooler prior to re-injection into the compression chamber. Some
designs use an oil pump.
Oil-injected rotary single screw compressor packages are available from 20–150 hp and
capacities from 62–700 cfm (1.8–19.8 cm/m) and pressures to 150 psig (10.34 bars).
3.2.4 Oil-Injected Sliding Vane Compressors

The oil-injected rotary sliding vane compressor is a positive displacement type, which
means that a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the
space that it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding pressure rise
prior to discharge as shown in Figure 3-9.
The basic design consists of a circular stator in which is housed a cylindrical rotor,
smaller than the stator bore and supported eccentrically in it. The rotor has radial
(sometimes off-set) slots in which vanes, or blades, slide. Rotation of the rotor exerts
centrifugal force on the vanes, causing them to slide out to contact the bore of the stator,
forming “cells” bounded by the rotor, adjacent vanes, and the stator bore. Some designs
have means of restraining the vanes so that a minimal clearance is maintained between
the vanes and the stator bore.
Inlet
Discharge
Figure 3-9
Oil-Injected Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
(Source: CAGI)
3-12
An inlet port is positioned to allow air to flow into each cell exposed to the port, filling
each cell by the time it reaches its maximum volume. After passing the inlet port, the
size of the cell is reduced as rotation continues, as each vane is pushed back into its slot
in the rotor. Compression continues until the discharge port is reached, when the com-
pressed air is discharged.
Similar to the oil-flooded rotary screw compressor, oil is injected into the compression
chamber to lubricate, seal, and take away the heat of compression. Single and two stage
versions are available with either in-line or over-under arrangement of the stages.
The oil-injected sliding vane compressor normally is sold as a completely pre-engi-

neered package in the range from 10–200 hp, with capacities from 40–800 cfm (1.1–22.7
cm/m) and discharge pressures from 80–125 psig (5.5–8.6 bars).
3.2.5 Liquid Ring Rotary Compressors

The liquid ring (or liquid piston) rotary compressor also is a positive displacement type
of compressor. The mode of compression is similar to that of the sliding vane rotary
compressor, but the vanes (or blades) are fixed on the rotor. The stator bore may be
circular with the rotor eccentric to it or elliptical with the rotor concentric to it. The
former provides one compression per revolution while the latter provides two.
A ring of liquid is swirled around the bore of the stator as the rotor turns. The depth of
penetration of each vane, or blade, into the liquid varies as rotation occurs. The space
between the rotor hub and the liquid ring therefore varies. Axial inlet porting allows air
to fill the space between adjacent vanes up to its maximum volume. Further rotation
then causes the space to be reduced and compression to occur until the discharge port is
reached when the compressed air is discharged. This is illustrated in Figure 3-10. The
liquid ring also serves to remove the heat of compression. The lubricated bearings are
external to the compression chamber and isolated from it, so oil-free compression is
obtained.
This type of design is used most commonly as a single stage vacuum pump to generate
up to 26 in. (66 cm) Hg. Two stage units can achieve higher vacuum levels. Capacities
range from 2–16,000 actual cubic feet per minute (acfm) (.06–450 cm/m). As a compres-
sor, it is limited to about 100 psig (6.9 bars) and is much less efficient than other rotary
positive displacement types due to the energy required to swirl the liquid in the stator.
3-13
Figure 3-10
Liquid Ring Rotary Compressor
3.3 Capacity Controls for Displacement-Type Air Compressors
Demand for compressed air seldom exactly matches the output from the compressor, so
some form of capacity control is essential. The type of capacity control is based on both
the type and size of air compressor, the application, and the number of compressors in
the system. Typical capacity control systems are described here.
3.3.1 Start/Stop Control

Start/stop control is the simplest form of control where a pressure switch that senses
system pressure at the discharge of the compressor sends a signal to the main motor
starter to stop the compressor when a preset pressure is reached. When pressure falls to
another preset pressure, the pressure switch sends a signal for the compressor to be
restarted. The pressure switch has an adjustable upper pressure setting and a fixed or
adjustable differential between the upper and lower pressure settings.
An air receiver is essential to prevent too frequent starting and stopping, which affects
the life of the motor insulation due to high inrush current at each start. This type of
control normally is limited to compressors in the 30 hp and under range. The advantage
of this type of control is that power is used only while the compressor is running, but
this is offset by having to compress to a higher receiver pressure to allow air to be
drawn from the receiver while the compressor is stopped.
3-14
3.3.2 Constant Speed Control

Constant speed control allows the compressor to continue to run, even when there is
reduced or no demand for compressed air. This term can be used with load/unload
control and/or with inlet valve modulation on rotary air compressors.
3.3.3 Load/Unload Control

On double-acting reciprocating air compressors, when the upper pressure setting is
reached, valve unloaders hold open the inlet valves so that air drawn into the cylinder
is expelled through the open inlet valves without any compression or delivery taking
place. When applied to only one end of the cylinder, delivered capacity drops to 50%. If
applied to both ends, capacity drops to zero.
On rotary air compressors, when the upper pressure setting is reached, the pressure
switch sends a signal to open a blowdown valve that is installed in a line coming from
the compressor discharge but prior to a discharge check valve. When the blowdown
valve is opened, the compressor discharge pressure is lowered, and the discharge check
valve prevents back flow from the system or receiver. The lower discharge pressure
reduces energy requirements.
At the same time, the signal from the pressure switch also is arranged to close a valve at
the inlet of the compressor, reducing the mass flow of air entering the compressor,
further reducing power requirements although the pressure ratio across the compressor
does increase. In the case of oil-injected rotary compressors, the rate of blowdown must
be limited to prevent foaming of the lubricant in the sump/separator. In oil-free rotary
compressors, this is the most common type of control, and it requires an adequate
receiver or system volume to prevent too frequent operation.
On liquid ring compressors, when the upper pressure setting is reached, the pressure
switch sends a signal to open a valve in the recirculation line from the moisture separa-
tor back to the compressor suction, which unloads the compressor. When this occurs,
the discharge check valve closes and isolates the system receiver from the moisture
separator. There is an orifice in the recirculation line that maintains moisture separator
pressure high enough to provide sufficient differential pressure across the seal water
heat exchanger and compressor to provide adequate seal water flow while in the un-
loaded condition for cooling.
3.3.4 Inlet Valve Modulation

Inlet valve modulation, used only on oil-injected rotary air compressors, allows com-
pressor capacity to be adjusted to match demand. A regulating valve senses system or
discharge pressure over a prescribed range (usually about 10 psi or 0.67 bars) and sends
a proportional pressure to operate the inlet valve. Closing (or throttling) the inlet valve
causes a pressure drop across the valve, reducing the inlet pressure at the compressor
and, hence, the mass flow of air.
3-15
Because the pressure at the compressor inlet is reduced while discharge pressure is
rising slightly, the compression ratios are increased so that energy savings are some-
what limited. Inlet valve modulation normally is limited to the range from 100% to
about 40% of rated capacity, at which point the discharge pressure has reached full load
pressure plus 10 psi (0.67 bars) and it is assumed that demand is insufficient to require
continued air discharge to the system. At this point, the compressor is unloaded as
previously described in Load/Unload Control.
3.3.5 Dual Control

Dual control is a term used to describe a small air compressor with a selector switch to
enable selection of either start/stop or load/unload capacity control. This arrangement
is suitable for locations where different shifts have substantially different compressed
air requirements.
3.3.6 Slide Valve, Spiral Valve, or Turn Valve

A slide valve, spiral valve, or turn valve is a device built in to the rotary screw air com-
pressor casing to control output to match demand. Rising discharge pressure causes the
valve to be repositioned progressively. This reduces the effective length of the rotors by
allowing some bypass at the inlet and delaying the start of compression. The inlet
pressure and compression ratio remain constant; therefore, part load power require-
ments are less than for inlet valve modulation. The normal capacity range is from 100%
to 40%, below which the compressor is unloaded.
3.3.7 Step Control Valves

Step control valves or poppet valves can be used on oil-injected rotary air compressors
to have a similar effect to slide, spiral, or turn valves but with discreet steps of percent
capacity rather than infinitely variable positioning.
3.3.8 Automatic Dual Control

Automatic dual control is a further refinement to each of the above systems. When a
compressor is unloaded, a timer is started. If compressed air demand does not lower
system pressure to the point where the compressor is required to be reloaded before the
preset time has expired, the compressor is stopped. The compressor starts again auto-
matically when system pressure falls to the predetermined setting.
3.3.9 Variable Speed Control

Variable speed control is gaining acceptance as the cost for these drives decreases. In a
positive displacement rotary compressor, the displacement is directly proportional to
the rotational speed of the input shaft of the air end. However, it is important to note
that with constant discharge pressure, if efficiency remained constant over the speed
range, the input torque requirement would remain constant, unlike the requirement of
dynamic compressors, fans or pumps. The actual efficiency also may fall at lower
3-16
speeds, requiring an increase in torque. Electric motors and controllers currently are
available to satisfy these needs but their efficiency and power factor at reduced speeds
must be taken into consideration. Steam turbines and engines also are variable speed
drivers but rarely are used in power plants.
3.3.10 Multiple Compressor Sequencing

Multiple compressor sequencing is desirable in larger installations so that the number
of compressors in operation is sufficient to meet current demand. Compressors are
started and stopped, loaded and unloaded as required to maintain current system
requirements. It is desirable to have only one compressor in the system at any given
time to be in a reduced capacity mode of operation. This optimizes energy require-
ments. Sequencing can be arranged to equalize the running hours of each compressor or
to operate the compressors in a specified sequence, particularly where there is a mix of
larger and smaller compressors. The sequence can be changed manually or automati-
cally, facilitated by software programming.
3.4 Instrumentation
Discharge pressure and temperature indicators are essential for monitoring operating
conditions, but additional indicators and safety feature also are required, including a
pressure relief valve prior to any shutoff valve or discharge check valve. Normally, on
rotary air compressors, this is part of the sump/separator design. A high temperature
shutdown device also is required at the discharge from the compressor air end.
Maintenance indicators also are desirable for the air inlet filter, air/oil separator, and oil
filter. Except on the smallest compressors, conventional pressure and temperature
gauges and electromechanical devices have been superseded by solid state or micropro-
cessor controls that offer several additional features and benefits. Generally, they have
an LCD or LED display with appropriate messages and a schematic diagram on the
panel so that components and status are readily identified. A communication port
(RS232 or RS485) allows two-way communication with other compressor panels or
computer systems.
3.5 Dynamic Air Compressors
A dynamic air compressor has a continuously flowing air stream that has velocity
energy, or kinetic energy, imparted to it by an impeller, or impellers, which rotate at
speeds that can exceed 50,000 rpm. Approximately half of the pressure energy is devel-
oped in the impeller with the other half achieved by converting the velocity energy to
pressure energy as the air speed is reduced in a diffuser and volute. The most common
is the centrifugal air compressor with from two to four stages for pressures in the 100–
125 psig (6.9–8.62 bars) range. A typical multi-stage dynamic air compressor is shown in
Figure 3-11. A water-cooled intercooler and separator between each stage returns the air
temperature to approximately ambient temperature and removes condensed moisture
before entering the next stage. An aftercooler and separator cools the air from the final
stage and removes more moisture prior to air delivery to distribution.
3-17
3-18

Control Panel
Stage 2
Compressor Air Discharge Drive Motor
Stage 3
Optional Lube Heater
(not shown)

Compressor Air Inlet
Water Out
Water In
Oil Cooler
Motor Driven Oil Pump
Reservoir
Oil Filter
Intercoolers Stage 1
Guide Vanes
Figure 3-11
Typical Multi-Stage Centrifugal Air Compressor
(Source: Cooper Turbocompressor, Inc.)
The inherent characteristic of the centrifugal air compressor is that discharge pressure
falls as capacity increases, as shown in Figure 3-12. The steepness of the pressure head/
capacity curve is dependent upon the impeller design. The more the impeller blades
lean backward from the true radial position, the steeper the curve.
210.
190.
90˚F Day
170. (Rated Conditions)
150.
PSIG
130.
110.
90.
A
B
70.
C
50.
600. 800. 1000. 1200. 1400. 1600. 1800.
SCFM
A= Inlet pressure unthrottled at 14.4 psia

B= Inlet pressure throttled at 13.6 psia
C= Inlet pressure throttled at 12.8 psia
Figure 3-12
Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Air Compressor at 90°F
(Source: Cooper Turbocompressor)
3-19
Most standard centrifugal air compressor packages are designed for an ambient tem-
perature of 90°F (32.2°C) and near sea-level barometric pressure. The dynamic nature of
the centrifugal compressor results in the pressure head generated by each impeller
increasing as the air density increases. The compressor mass flow and actual cfm capac-
ity at a given discharge pressure increase as the ambient temperature decreases as
shown in Figure 3-13.
210.
60˚F Day
190.
170.
150. Maximum
60˚F Day
Capacity
Is 1380 SCFM
PSIG
130.
110.
90. A
C B
70.
50.
600. 800. 1000. 1200. 1400. 1600. 1800.
SCFM
A= Inlet pressure unthrottled at 14.4 psia

B= Inlet pressure throttled at 13.6 psia
C= Inlet pressure throttles at 12.8 psia
Figure 3-13
Characteristic Curves for a Centrifugal Air Compressor at 60°F
Typically, a capacity control system is provided with the compressor to maintain the
desired capacity and to operate within the motor horsepower limits. The control system
regulates the air flow by means of an inlet throttle valve or inlet guide vanes. The
amount of reduction in the flow rate is limited by a minimum point flow reversal phe-
nomenon known as “surge.” Control systems normally unload the compressor to avoid
this occurrence, which could result in excessive vibration and potential damage to the
compressor.
3-20
Centrifugal air compressors range from around 500 to over 100,000 acfm (14.1–2831.7
cm/m), but the more common instrument air compressors are from 1,000 to 5,000 acfm
(28.3–141.6 cm/m) with discharge pressures up to 125 psig (8.62 bars). These may have
several impellers in line on a single shaft or with separate impellers integrally geared as
shown in Figure 3-14.
3rd Stage
2nd Stage
1st Stage
Figure 3-14
Centrifugal Air Compressor—Integrally Geared Multiple Impellers
Centrifugal air compressors provide oil-free air delivery because there is no oil in the
compression chambers. Lubrication, for speed increasing gears and the special high-
speed shaft bearings, is kept away from the compression chambers by shaft seals that
may also have air purge and vent connections.
3-21
Centrifugal air compressors are high speed rotating machines, and as such, shaft vibration
monitoring is mandated to record operational trends and protect the equipment. Auto-
matic control of the compressors is typical and has been greatly improved by the use of
microprocessors that monitor the pressure/capacity/temperature characteristics as well
as main drive motor current draw. It is important that the manufacturer’s recommended
maintenance procedures be followed and that certain maintenance procedures be carried
out by factory-qualified staff. This is particularly true of attempts to remove an impeller
from its shaft because special procedures and tools may be involved.
3.6 Compressor Lubrication and Lubrication Systems
Most small, single-acting, air-cooled reciprocating compressors use a splash lubrication

system, where a dipper attached to the connecting rod dips into the oil in the crankcase
on each revolution and throws the oil to areas requiring lubrication. Some industrial
grade compressors use a pressure lubrication system with an oil pump driven off the
crankshaft. Some of the oil lubricates the cylinder and is carried over with the dis-
charged air. Relatively high discharge temperatures also can result in carbon deposits in
valves, discharge ports, and piping.
Double-acting water-cooled reciprocating compressors generally use an oil pump to

provide lubrication for crankshaft and connecting rod bearings and for the crosshead
and its guide. A separate forced-feed cylinder lubricator is used for cylinder lubrication,
and a different lubricant may be specified by the manufacturer.
Oil-injected rotary compressors generally use the pressure differential between dis-
charge and inlet to circulate the lubricant for the bearings, any gears, and for the com-
pression chamber. Some designs utilize an oil pump.
Centrifugal compressors use a pressure lubrication system similar to that shown in

Figure 3-15. The main oil pump can be driven from the gearbox input shaft with an
electric-motor-driven auxiliary oil pump for prelubrication prior to start-up and for
post-lubrication during a cooldown period.
3-22
(15)
Compressor
Gear Box
D
(5) (6) (8)

F
(11) (12) T Bearing
F
P
(4)
P (10)
(7)
(13)
(3)
Gravity
Return
(1) (2) (9) To Tank
(14)
Main Auxiliary
Power Power
Supply Supply
(1) Oil Tank (9) Auxiliary Oil Pump

(2) Electric Motor Driven Pump (10) Pressure Indicator
(3) Oil Cooler (11) De-Mister
(4) System Pressure Regulator (12) Fill Port
(5) Temperature Indicator (13) Sight Glass
(6) Duplex Filter (14) Tank Drain
(7) Pressure Indicator (15) Differential Pressure
(8) Bearing Pressure Regulator Indicator
Figure 3-15
Pressure Lubrication System for an Air Compressor
3.6.1 Lubricants
Lubricants vary from a straight hydrocarbon mineral oil to sophisticated synthetics. Oil
types should never be mixed or changed without the approval of the compressor manu-
facturer. A lubricant that meets the specifications of the compressor manufacturer
should be used at all times and changed at the specified intervals.
It is estimated that the useful life of a lubricating oil is halved for every 18°F above
200°F (10°C above 93°C) of operating temperature. Compressors operating in high
ambient conditions need to have the oil checked frequently, and a quarterly sampling
and analysis program is recommended. For additional details on compressor lubricants,
refer to the EPRI Lubrication Guide, NP-4916, Revision 2.
3-23
3.7 Cost of Operation
Taking the estimated full load brake horsepower (bhp) requirement of each compressor
type at 100 psig (6.89 bars) discharge pressure at the compressor, a main drive motor
typical efficiency of 92% and 0.746 kW/bhp, the following approximate costs of opera-
tion are obtained:
Single-acting, air-cooled reciprocating air 22-24 kW/100 cfm (7.8–8.5 kW/cm/m)

compressor
Double-acting, water-cooled reciprocating 15-16 kW/100 cfm (5.3–5.6 kW/cm/m)

air compressor
Oil-injected rotary screw air compressor 18 kW/100 cfm (6.4 kW/cm/m)
Oil-injected rotary vane air compressor 21 kW/100 cfm (7.4 kW/cm/m)
Liquid ring air compressor 24 kW/100 cfm (8.5 kW/cm/m)
Oil-free rotary screw air compressor 20 kW/100 cfm (7.1 kW/cm/m)
Centrifugal air compressor 16-18 kW/100 cfm (5.6–6.4 kW/cm/m)
These costs are based upon the discharge pressure at the compressor, not at the points
of use and are at full load operating conditions. In most cases, reduced capacity require-
ments result in operation at a reduced efficiency and increased power requirement.
3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages and disadvantages of any compressor are based on its characteristics and
application. Advantages and disadvantages listed below are for a typical instrument air
system application in a power plant.
3.8.1 Single-Acting, Air-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Small size and weight
• Generally can be located close to the point of use, avoiding lengthy piping runs and
pressure drops
• Do not require separate cooling systems
• Simple maintenance procedures
Disadvantages include:
• Oil carryover (which should be avoided in instrument air systems)
• Relatively high cost of compression
3-24
• Generally designed to run not more than 50% of the time

• Generally compress and store the air in a receiver at a pressure higher than required
at the point of use. The pressure then is reduced to the required operating pressure
but without recovery of the energy used to compress to the higher pressure.
3.8.2 Double-Acting, Water-Cooled Reciprocating Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Efficient compression, particularly with multi-stage compressors
• Three-step (0–50–100%) or five-step (0–25–50–75–100%) capacity controls, allowing
efficient part-load operation
• Relatively routine maintenance procedures
• Relatively high first cost compared with equivalent rotary air compressors
• Relatively high space requirements
• Seldom sold as complete independent package
• Relatively high vibrations require high foundation costs
• Require sufficient flywheel mass to overcome torque and current pulsations
3.8.3 Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressors

Advantages include.
• Compact size and complete package
• Economic first cost
• Vibration-free operation that does not require special foundation
• Part load capacity control systems that can match system demand
• Routine maintenance (includes oil and filter changes)
• Less efficient full and part load operation compared with water-cooled reciprocating
air compressors
• Oil carryover into delivered air requires proper maintenance of air/oil separator and
the oil itself.
3-25
3.8.4 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Completely packaged
• Designed to deliver oil-free air
• No special foundations required
• Significant premium over oil-injected type
• Less efficient than oil-injected type
• Limited to load/unload type capacity control
• Higher maintenance costs than oil-injected type
3.8.5 Oil-Injected Single Screw Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Less efficient at full and part load operation compared with water-cooled reciprocat-
ing air compressors
3.8.6 Oil-Injected Sliding Vane Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Less efficient full and part load operation compared with water-cooled reciprocating
air compressors
• Less efficient than equivalent oil-injected rotary screw type
3-26
3.8.7 Liquid Ring Type Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Oil-free air delivery
• Designed mainly for vacuum service. Very inefficient as an air compressor.
• Much less efficient than equivalent oil-injected rotary screw type
• Does not offer good part load capacity control
3.8.8 Centrifugal Air Compressors

Advantages include:
• Completely packaged for plant or instrument air up through 500 hp
• Relative first cost improves as size increases
• Designed to deliver oil-free air
• No special foundation required
• Limited capacity control modulation, requiring unloading for reduced capacities
• High rotational speeds require special bearings, sophisticated monitoring of vibra-
tions and clearances
• Specialized maintenance considerations
3.9 Compressor Selection
Selection of air compressors must take into account the requirements of the different
points of use, the air capacity for each when fully loaded, and the frequency of these
requirements. Demands often are intermittent but the “worst case scenario” also must
be considered. Standby compressor capacity also must be considered, taking into ac-
count the essential nature of an application and the cost of downtime compared with
the cost of a spare compressor.
The capacity required is a major factor in determining the type of compressor chosen. A
general rule is that centrifugal and rotary air compressors are better suited to continu-
ous base-load type of service. Reciprocating air compressors are better suited to swings
in loads. This means that a centrifugal or rotary air compressor can be sized for the
minimum or average demand, while a reciprocating air compressor then can handle the
swings in load from minimum or average to the peaks. The anticipated load swings also
are a determining factor in the selection of a single compressor and its type of capacity
control or multiple compressors with sequential controls.
3-27
The need for truly oil-free air also influences the type of compressors required. To
maintain the ISA standard of instrument air quality in a nuclear power station, it is
recommended that oil-free air compressors should be specified. If the air supply is
obtained from lubricated air compressors, it must be treated with coalescing filters and
rigorously monitored to achieve the required quality.
Breathing air must meet Occupation Safety and Health Act (OSHA) regulations and
specialized air treatment filtration packages are manufactured for this specific purpose.
These involve not only the contaminant levels of particulate, moisture, and oil but also
NOX (nitrogen oxides). In some cases, the air is supplied to the special filtration package
from the general plant compressed air system, while in others, a separate breathing air
supply is provided. See Section 6.3 for further details.
3-28
4
COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT
(DRYERS AND FILTERS)
(Adapted from text prepared on air dryers and filtration for The Compressed Air and
Gas Institute)
Compressed air leaving an air compressor is not normally of a quality suitable for the
intended use. This is due to several factors. Atmospheric air, particularly in an indus-
trial environment, contains pollutants that include moisture, particulate, and hydrocar-
bons. The air inlet filter on an air compressor is a particulate filter, designed to protect
the compressor rather than any downstream equipment, and it may not be sufficiently
fine for the equipment using the compressed air. The air compressor itself can contrib-
ute contaminants in the form of wear particles and the carryover of the compressor
lubricant. The discharge temperature from the compressor may be too high for distribu-
tion and use.
Cooling after compression results in condensation of moisture and saturated air leaving
the aftercooler. This can have a serious effect upon instruments, pneumatic tools, spray
painting, and other applications. Such cooling can occur not only in an aftercooler but in
the compressed air distribution system by radiation from air receivers and piping ex-
posed to relatively cold atmospheric conditions. Freezing of the condensate also can
occur.
Generally, it is not recognized how large a volume of water needs to be removed during
the process of compressing and cooling of air. The following example is used to give an
idea of the quantity of water handled through the intercoolers and aftercoolers during
the compression process. Table 4-1 shows the moisture content of saturated air in gal-
lons per 1000 cubic feet of air at various temperatures and pressures.
4-1
Compressed Air Treatment (Dryers and Filters)
Table 4-1
Moisture Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 Standard Cubic Feet
Temperature, °F
PSIG 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0 .0392 .0479 .0702 .1016 .1450 .2046 .2857 .3956 .5443 .7460
10 .0233 .0283 .0416 .0600 .0854 .1200 .1667 .2290 .3119 .4217
20 .0165 .0201 .0295 .0426 .0605 .0849 .1176 .1612 .2186 .2939
30 .0128 .0156 .0229 .0330 .0469 .0657 .0909 .1243 .1682 .2256
40 .0105 .0128 .0187 .0269 .0383 .0536 .0741 .1012 .1367 .1830
50 .0089 .0108 .0158 .0228 .0323 .0452 .0625 .0853 .1152 .1540
60 .0077 .0093 .0137 .0197 .0280 .0391 .0540 .0737 .0995 .1329
70 .0068 .0082 .0121 .0174 .0246 .0345 .0476 .0649 .0876 .1169
80 .0060 .0074 .0108 .0155 .0220 .0308 .0425 .0580 .0782 .1043
90 .0055 .0067 .0098 .0140 .0199 .0279 .0385 .0524 .0706 .0942
100 .0050 .0061 .0089 .0128 .0182 .0254 .0351 .0478 .0644 .0858
110 .0046 .0056 .0082 .0118 .0167 .0234 .0323 .0439 .0592 .0789
120 .0043 .0052 .0076 .0109 .0155 .0216 .0298 .0407 .0548 .0729
130 .0040 .0048 .0071 .0102 .0144 .0201 .0278 .0378 .0509 .0678
140 .0037 .0045 .0066 .0095 .0135 .0188 .0260 .0354 .0476 .0634
150 .0035 .0042 .0062 .0089 .0126 .0177 .0244 .0332 .0447 .0595
160 .0033 .0040 .0058 .0084 .0119 .0167 .0230 .0313 .0421 .0561
170 .0031 .0038 .0055 .0080 .0113 .0158 .0217 .0296 .0398 .0530
180 .0029 .0036 .0052 .0075 .0107 .0149 .0206 .0281 .0378 .0503
190 .0028 .0034 .0050 .0072 .0102 .0142 .0196 .0267 .0359 .0478
200 .0027 .0032 .0048 .0068 .0097 .0136 .0187 .0254 .0342 .0455
Notes:
To convert the above data into SI units, use the following conversion factors:
1.0 psi (lbs/sq. in.) = 0.06895 bars
°C = 5/9 x (°F - 32°)
1.0 U.S. gallon = 3.7854 liters
1000 cubic feet = 28.32 cubic meters
Let us assume that a compressor is operating at atmospheric inlet pressure with an

ambient temperature of 100°F and 80% relative humidity. From Table 4-1, it can be
noted that saturated air at atmospheric pressure and 100°F contains 0.3956 gallons of
water per 1000 ft3 of air. At 80% relative humidity, the moisture content is 0.3956 x 80/
100 = 0.3165 gallons. If this air is compressed to 100 psig and cooled to 80°F, the air is
saturated and the water content that the air can contain is only 0.0254 gallons per 1000
ft3 of air. This is equivalent to a removal of 0.2911 gallons (0.3165 - 0.0254) of water per
1000 cubic feet of air. This translates to 17.5 gallons of water per hour for a 1000 cfm
capacity air compressor.
4-2
From the foregoing, the need for removing moisture from the compressed air is obvi-
ous. All liquid must be removed before the compressed air enters the dryer. This can be
accomplished by installing a suitable moisture separator and/or a coalescing filter, each
with a drain trap. Moisture content in air more than doubles from 0°F to 20°F (-17.8 to
-6.7°C), and continues to double for each increase of 20°F or 10°C (see Table 4-1). A
refrigerant dryer can achieve a pressure point of 35°F to 40°F (1.7°C to 4.4°C) and cannot
maintain the quality of instrument air required in a power plant. Routine checks and
maintenance of dryers and drain traps are essential because a malfunctioning dryer of
any type and associated drain traps can allow moist air to enter the distribution system.
4.1 Compressed Air Dryers
Different types of compressed air dryers are available, each having different characteris-
tics and degrees of dew point suppression. Liquid moisture must be removed before the
air enters the dryer. This can be accomplished with a moisture separator and/or a
coalescing filter. Most dryers are rated at what is commonly referred to as the three
100s, that is, 100 psig, 100°F, and 100% relative humidity (saturated air). An increase in
operating pressure (within the capability of the dryer) increases the rated mass flow or
standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) capacity, while an increase in inlet temperature
(within the capability of the dryer) decreases the rated mass flow or scfm capacity due
to the higher moisture content at a saturated condition. Typical capacity correction
factors are given in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2
Pressure and Temperature Correction Factors for Compressed Air Dryers
Inlet Pressure psig 60 80 100 120 140

Percent Rated Capacity 89 95 100 104 107
Inlet Temperature deg. F 80 90 100 110 120
Percent Rated Capacity 157 123 100 82 64
4.1.1 Refrigerant-Type Dryers

Refrigerant-type dryers remove moisture from the compressed air by cooling the air in
a heat exchanger that uses the evaporation of a liquid refrigerant, causing condensate to
form and to be drained off by means of a separator and trap. To avoid freezing of the
condensate, the air passing through the dryer is cooled to around 35°F (1.7°C). Many
such dryers use the incoming air to reheat the outgoing dried air in another heat ex-
changer, also reducing the incoming air temperature and reducing the heat load on the
refrigeration system. See Figure 4-1.
4-3
Moist Air Inlet
Precoolers (A)
Dry Air Outlet
Dry Air
Moisture
Temperature Separator
Sensor Moist Air (C)
Moist Air
Evaporator (B)
Chiller Section
Temperature
Control Valve
Hot Gas
Bypass Valve
Unit
Fan Cooling
Coils
Refrigeration
Compressor
To Drain
Trap (D)
Figure 4-1
Refrigerant Dryer
The pressure dew point of this type of dryer, therefore, is 35°F (1.7°C). This is equiva-
lent to a dew point of -10°F (-23.3°C) at atmospheric conditions (see Figure 4-2). The
estimated operational cost, excluding the effect of pressure drop through the dryer, is
0.54 kW/100 cfm (0.2 kW/cm/m).
4-4
140
130
120
110
100
90
0
80
G
SI
80
,P
00
0
re
10
50
su
70
es
0
Pr
0
40
25
60
15
60
0
0
20
00
30
80 1
50
Dew Point at Pressure Indicated, ˚F

40
60
30
ere
20
40
ph
os 20
m
At
10
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-120 -100 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dew Point at Atmospheric Pressure, ˚F
To obtain the dew point temperature expected if the gas were expanded to a lower pressure
proceed as follows:
1. Using “dew point at pressure,” locate this temperature on the scale at the right side of the
chart. 2. Read horizontally to the intersection of the curve corresponding to the operating
pressure at which the gas was dried. 3. From that point, read vertically downward to the
curve corresponding to the expanded lower pressure. 4. From that point, read horizontally
to the scale on the right side of the chart to obtain dew point temperature at the expanded
lower pressure. 5. If dew point temperatures at atmospheric pressure are desired, after step
2 above, read vertically downward to the scale at the bottom of chart which gives “dew point
at atmospheric pressure.”
Figure 4-2
Atmospheric vs. Pressure Dew Point Conversion Chart
4-5
4.1.2 Regenerative-Desiccant-Type Dryers

Regenerative-desiccant-type dryers use a porous desiccant that adsorbs the moisture by
collecting it in its myriad pores, allowing large quantities of water to be retained by a
relatively small quantity of desiccant. Desiccant types include silica gel, activated alu-
mina, and molecular sieves. Use only the type specified by the manufacturer. In some
cases, more than one desiccant type can be used for special drying applications. In most
of these cases, a larger particle size [1/4” (6 mm) or more] is used as a buffer zone at the
inlet, while a smaller particle size desiccant [1/8” (3 mm) to 1/4” (6 mm)] is used for
final drying. Where very low effluent dewpoints are required, molecular sieve desiccant
is added as the final drying agent.
Normally the desiccant is contained in two separate towers as shown in Figures 4-3a
and 4-3b. Compressed air to be dried flows through one tower, while the desiccant in
the other is being regenerated. Regeneration is accomplished by reducing the pressure
in the tower and passing previously dried purge air through the desiccant bed. The
purge air may also be heated to reduce the amount of purge air required. Dryers of this
type normally have a built-in regeneration cycle, which can be based upon time, dew
point, or a combination of the two.
Moist Air Inlet
Reactivation Air Inlet Switching

Outlet Valves (E) Valve (A)
Orifice Orifice
Left Right
S S Tower
Tower
(B) (B)
Control
Panel
Temperature
Indicator
Left Moisture Right
Tower Indicator Tower
Heater Heater
(D) (D)
(C)
Figure 4-3a
Heat Regenerative Desiccant Dryer
Most standard regenerative-desiccant-type compressed air dryers provide a pressure

dewpoint of -40°F (-40°C), which is equivalent to -72°F (-57.8°C) at atmospheric condi-
tions. For heaterless dryers, purge air for regeneration is taken from the air already
dried. The amount of purge air required can vary from 10–15% of the air flow passing
4-6
through the dryer, reducing the air flow available to the system from the compressor by
this amount. Estimated operating cost, excluding pressure drop through the dryer, is
1.8–2.7 kW/100 cfm (.063–.095 kW/cm/m).
Purge Control Throttle Valve

Tower
Repressurization
Valve
Control Air
Isolation
Valve
Moisture Right
Left Indicator
Tower Dryer Tower
(B) Outlet (B)
(C)
Dryer
Control
Panel
Moisture Moisture
Probe (E) Probe (E)
Inlet Air
Switching
Valve (A)
Tower Tower
Depressurizing S S Depressurizing
Valve Valve
Purge
Muffler (D) Dryer
Inlet
Figure 4-3b
Heatless Regenerative Desiccant Dryer
4.1.3 Deliquescent-Type Dryers

Unlike desiccant-type dryers, the drying medium in deliquescent-type dryers absorbs,
rather than adsorbs, the moisture in the compressed air. This means that the desiccant
medium is used up as it changes from solid to liquid and cannot be regenerated. The most
common deliquescent chemicals for compressed air drying are salts of sodium, potas-
sium, calcium, and those with a urea base. Various compounds of these have been devel-
oped and sold under a variety of trade names. A dryer of this type is shown in Figure 4-4.
Deliquescent dryers normally have a design dew point suppression of 20–36°F (-6.7 to
+2.2°C) below an inlet temperature of 100°F (37.8°C), providing a pressure dew point at
100 psig (6.9 bars) of 80–64°F (26.7–17.8°C). Deliquescent dryers are sensitive to the
saturated air inlet temperature; the lower the inlet temperature, the lesser the dew point
suppression. They also are limited to a maximum inlet temperature of 100°F (37.8°C).
Because the drying medium is consumed and not regenerated, there is no requirement
for purge air; therefore, pressure drop through the dryer (and any associated filtration)
and loss of air volume during the drain cycle are the operating costs that are estimated
at 0.2 kW/100 cfm (0.07 kW/cm/m).
4-7
Dry
Air
Out
Wet
Air
In
Figure 4-4
Deliquescent Dryer
(Source: Hankison International)
4.1.4 Heat Of Compression-Type Dryers

Heat of compression-type dryers are regenerative desiccant dryers, which use the heat
generated during compression to accomplish desiccant regeneration. The most common
type has a rotating desiccant drum in a single pressure vessel divided into two separate
air streams. This is illustrated in Figure 4-5. Most of the air discharged from the air
compressor passes through the air aftercooler, where the air is cooled and condensed
moisture is separated and drained. The cooled air stream, saturated with moisture, then
passes through the drying section of the rotating desiccant bed (a) where it is dried and
where it exits from the dryer (b).
A portion of the hot air taken directly from the air compressor at its discharge, prior to
the aftercooler, flows through the opposite side of the dryer drum (c) to regenerate the
desiccant bed. The hot air, after being used for regeneration (d), passes through a regen-
eration cooler before being combined with the main air stream by means of an ejector
nozzle before entering the dryer. This means that there is no loss of purge air. Drying
and regeneration cycles are continuous as long as the air compressor is in operation.
This type of dryer requires air from the compressor at sufficiently high temperature to
accomplish regeneration. For this reason, it is used almost exclusively with oil-free
rotary screw compressors.
4-8
(b) Dry Air

(c) Hot Unsaturated Air for Regeneration
(from compressor)
Drum
Rotation
(a) Cold Saturated Air (d) Hot Saturated Air

(after regeneration)
Figure 4-5
Heat of Compression-Type Dryers
(Source: Atlas Copco Compressors Inc.)
Technically, there is no reduction of air capacity with this type of dryer. However, an
inefficient entrainment-type nozzle has to be used for the purge air, and an electric
motor also is used to rotate the dryer drum. Considering pressure drop and compressor
operating cost, it is estimated that the total power requirement is approximately 0.8
kW/100 cfm (0.3 kW/cm/m).
4-9
4.1.5 Desiccants
The most commonly used desiccants are:
• Silica gel
• Activated alumina
• Molecular sieve
Silica gel is available in both granular and beaded form. In beaded form, it has high
resistance to attrition and produces little or no fines. Silica gel’s ability to achieve -40°F
(-40°C) dew point at 100–125 psig (6.9–8.62 bars) line pressure and its low regeneration
temperatures make it an extremely cost-effective medium for instrument air drying
applications.
Lower dew points can be obtained at less cost using activated alumina; however, it is
susceptible to a greater percentage of fines and requires a slightly higher regeneration
temperature.
Molecular sieve has the capability to adsorb small molecules while excluding the large
ones. Therefore, it should be used only as a polishing or trimming agent in a mixed bed
operation. Use of molecular sieve as a primary agent may not remove sufficient mois-
ture in dryers with small desiccant capacities. Also, the regeneration temperature for
molecular sieve is higher than for silica gel or activated alumina. Table 4-3 shows the
various desiccant types available and the reason to use each type.
4-10
Table 4-3
Desiccant Types and Application
Dryer Type Preference Desiccant Type Reason To Use
Heated 1 Beaded silica gel Most resistant to attrition and

lower regeneration costs
regenerative
2 Beaded silica gel (water To be used with beaded silica gel
blocker) when in direct contact with water
to resist fracturing.
3 Activated alumina Lowest initial cost
4 Molecular sieve To be used in a mixed bed as a
trim or polishing desiccant only
Heatless 1 Activated alumina Most cost efficient for heatless
regenerative dryers
2 Beaded silica gel To be used to control attrition only
3 Beaded silica gel (water To be used with beaded silica gel
blocker) when in direct contact with water
to resist fracturing.
4 Molecular sieve To be used in a mixed bed as a
trim or polishing desiccant only
Deliquescent 1 Vendor-recommended Limited use
water soluble salts or
organic compounds
4.1.6 Membrane-Type Dryers

Membrane technology has advanced considerably in recent years. When used as a dryer
in a compressed air system, specially designed membranes allow water vapor (a gas) to
pass through the membrane pores faster than the other gases (air), which reduces the
amount of water vapor in the air stream at the outlet of the membrane dryer and sup-
presses the dew point as illustrated in Figure 4-6. The dew point achieved normally is
40°F (4.4°C), but lower dew points can be achieved at the expense of additional purge
air loss. Purge air, or sweep air, displaces the moisture that passes through the perme-
able membranes, and for comparable dew point depression with a refrigerant-type
dryer, this is in the range of 15–20% of the air capacity of the dryer. Therefore, 15–20%
should be added to the air compressor required capacity and power requirement. This
amounts to 2.7–3.6 kW/100 cfm (0.95–1.3 kW/cm/m).
4-11
Water Vapor
Out
Compressed Compressed
Air Out Air In
Sweep Air Water Vapor

Out
Figure 4-6
Membrane-Type Dryers
(Source: Hankison International)
4.1.7 Dryer Selection

The selection of a compressed air dryer should be based upon the required pressure
dew point and the estimated cost of operation. Where a pressure dew point of less than
35°F (1.7°C) is required, such as for instrument air, a refrigerant-type dryer cannot be
used. The required pressure dew point for the application at each point of use elimi-
nates certain types of dryers. Because dryer ratings are based upon saturated air at inlet,
the geographical location is not a concern. The dryer has a lower load in areas of lower
relative humidity, but the pressure dew point is not affected.
Typically, the pressure drop through a compressed air dryer is 3–5 psig (0.2–0.34 bars)
and should be taken into account in system requirements.
4.2 Compressed Air Filters
As previously stated, compressed air leaving an air compressor is not normally of a

quality suitable for the intended use. The air inlet filter for the air compressor is in-
tended to protect the compressor and often is inadequate to protect downstream equip-
ment. The compressor itself may add contaminants, including wear particles, carbon
deposits, and lubricant. These require filtration.
A refrigerant-type dryer does not require a filter before or after it, but a desiccant- or
deliquescent-type dryer requires a prefilter to protect the drying medium or desiccant
from contamination and from being rendered ineffective. An after-filter also is required
to catch desiccant fines from being carried downstream to sensitive equipment.
Filtration literature may refer to an “Absolute Rating” or a “Nominal Rating.” The

Absolute Rating refers to the diameter, in microns, of the largest particle that will pass
through the filter. This is theoretical because it requires a consistent pore size of the
filter medium, which is not always practical, and particle sizes are not always spherical.
The Nominal Rating is determined by the filter manufacturer and is an arbitrary value.
Usually it is a percentage retention by weight of a specified contaminant of a given size.
4-12
Glass beads are the normal test contaminant. The only known related standards are
MIL-E5504A and MIL-5504B, where the retention rate is based upon 10 microns and 10–
20 microns respectively. This is too large for instrument air quality.
The Beta Ratio is designed to give a more accurate comparison among filter media. It is
described in Note b under Table 4.4.
4.2.1 Particulate Filters

Particulate filter designs use different filtering mechanisms to achieve the desired de-
gree of contaminant removal. The higher the degree of contaminant removal, the higher
the pressure drop across the filter, the higher pressure required from the air compressor
and the higher the energy costs. The maximum allowable pressure drop before the filter
element is changed (usually 10 psig or 0.7 bars), must also be taken into account when
determining the pressure required at the air compressor discharge and downstream of
the drying and filtration equipment. A differential pressure gauge is recommended for
each filter. A particulate filter is recommended downstream of the air dryer, before any
operational equipment or process.
4-13
Mechanisms of Air/Gas
Filtration
Polluted Air Filter Element Clean Air
Mechanisms of Filtration
Direct impaction occurs when a particle collides with a fiber of the filter medium without
deviating out of the streamline flow. This mechanism tends to take place on the surface of
the filter material, affecting mainly the larger particles, over 1 micron in size.
Inertial impaction occurs when a particle traveling in the air stream through the maze of
filter fibers, is unable to stay within the air stream and collides with a fiber and adheres to
it. This occurs normally in particles from 0.3 to 1.0 microns in size.
Diffusion, or Brownian movement, occurs with the smallest particles below 0.3 microns,
which tend to wander through the filter medium within the gas stream, increasing their
chances of colliding with and adhering to a fiber.
Figure 4-7
Mechanisms of Air/Gas Filtration
(Source: domnick-hunter, inc.)
4.2.2 Coalescing Filters

Small droplets of moisture or oil are caught by the filter medium and coalesce into
larger liquid droplets. Air flow from the inside to the larger diameter outside of the
element allows a lower exit velocity and is illustrated in Figure 4-8. An optional anti-re-
entrainment barrier prevents droplets from being re-introduced into the air stream. The
coalesced liquid runs down by gravity to the bottom of the filter bowl and is drained,
usually by an automatic drain. The liquid may contain both oil and water.
Pressure drop increase in a coalescing filter is normally due to particulate matter foul-
ing the element. The coalescing filter should be preceded by a particulate filter.
The rated pressure drop should be the “wet” pressure drop after the element has be-
come saturated. A coalescing filter is recommended before any dryer whose drying
medium may be damaged by lubricant. Materials should be compatible with the type of
lubricant being used.
4-14
Pre-Filter
Medium
Coalescing
Filter
Medium
Figure 4-8
Coalescing Filter
4.2.3 Adsorption Filters

Particulate and coalescing filters are capable of removing particles down to 0.01 microns
but not oil vapors or odors. Adsorption involves the attraction and adhesion of gaseous
and liquid molecules to the surface of the medium. Most filter elements contain acti-
vated carbon granules having an extremely high surface area and dwell time. This
medium is for the adsorption of vapors only and is shown in Figure 4-9. An adsorption
filter must be protected by an upstream coalescing-type filter to prevent liquid oil
contamination and liquid condensate.
4-15
Figure 4-9
Adsorption Filter
4.3 Drain Traps

Various means are used to drain off separated or condensed moisture from dryers, air
receivers, filters, and header drop legs. The relatively common practice of leaving a
manual drain valve cracked open should not be tolerated because it wastes relatively
costly compressed air. For all types of drain traps, bypass piping is recommended to
facilitate proper maintenance.
4.3.1 Float-Type Traps

The traditional float-type drain trap was originally designed for steam applications, to
drain off condensate. The mechanical nature of float-type devices, combined with the
contaminants present in condensate, makes these devices, which often are neglected, an
ongoing maintenance item.
4-16
The amount of condensate will vary with geographic location and atmospheric condi-
tions of temperature and relative humidity. Drain traps should be sized for the antici-
pated rate of accumulated condensate and chosen for the specific location and antici-
pated contamination by lubricants being used.
The float is connected by linkage to a drain valve that opens when an upper level set-
ting is reached and closes when the drain is emptied. The float device varies from a
simple ball to an inverted bucket, but the basic principle is the same. An adequately
sized drain valve is essential for satisfactory operation and to prevent blockage. A float
that sticks in the closed position does not allow condensate to be drained, while a float
that sticks in the open position allows the costly loss of compressed air. A float-type
trap is shown in Figure 4-10.
Figure 4-10
Float-Type Drain Trap
(Source: Ultrafilter International)
Condensate enters through the trap inlet (1) and is collected in the vessel (2). The float (3)
rises with the level until the control valve (4) opens and pressurizes the surge chamber (5).
The air pressure on the diaphragm (6) moves the piston (7) to open the diaphragm (8).
Now the condensate drains through the outlet (11) via the passages (9) and (10).
4-17
4.3.2 Electrically Operated Solenoid Valves

This type of device (Figure 4-11a) may be referred to as “time cycle blowdown.” A
solenoid-operated drain valve has a timing device that can be set to open for a specified
time and at specified intervals. Again, the size of the valve and any associated orifices
must be adequate to prevent blockage.
The potential problem with this type of device, apart from an electrical malfunction, is
that the valve is set to operate without reference to the presence of condensate, or lack
of it. The period during which the valve is open may not be long enough for adequate
drainage of the amount of accumulated condensate. On the other hand, the valve can
operate even when little or no condensate is present, resulting in the expensive loss of
compressed air through the drain valve.
Figure 4-11a
Solenoid-Operated Drain Valve
(Source: Pneumatech, Inc.)
Some electrically operated drain valves use a magnetic reed switch or a capacitance
device to detect the level of condensate present and operate only when drainage is
called for. A drain valve of this type is shown in Figure 4-11b.
4-18
Outlet Connection
Solenoid
Discharge
Valve
Inlet Connection
Weir to prevent target

dirt particles from
blocking the drain outlet
HOW IT WORKS:
Condensate enters the drain collection bowl under pressure
through one of the three inlet ports. At this stage, a pilot supply
line ensures that the air pressure above the valve diaphragm 3
(3) retains the valve in the closed position.
After the condensate has filled the collection bowl to the upper
level probe sensor (2), it will signal the solenoid to open the pilot
supply line. This enables the air pressure above the valve
diaphragm to vent, allowing the diaphragm to lift from the valve
seat. The pressure in the drain collection bowl discharges the
condensate up to the dip tube (5) past the diaphragm and out
through one of the two outlet ports.
As condensate discharges from the drain collection bowl, the 2
lower level probe sensor (1) will signal the solenoid to close the 1
pilot line before any compressed air can escape from the system.
At the bottom of the drain collection bowl, the weir (4) prevents 5
large dirt particles from entering the dip tube and blocking the
drain outlet. 4
Figure 4-11b
Electronically Controlled Drain Trap
4-19
From the example of moisture content of compressed air given earlier in this section, it
is easy to see why it is vital to maintain traps and drains in good operating condition. If
the drains and traps are clogged, the cooler shells fill up with condensate in a short
period of time, and the condensate is carried over into the system in the form of liquid
water droplets. These droplets may:
• Deposit in the receiver and cause corrosion of the tank walls and bottom.
• Prematurely exhaust the capacities of prefilters and desiccant dryers.
• Overload refrigerant-type dryers.
• Cause moisture accumulation in the system piping, resulting in corrosion. Some of
the system piping may be installed outdoors and exposed to varying ambient tem-
peratures. Accumulated water may freeze during winter and cause damage to
piping and instruments.
• Cause malfunction of air-operated valves (sluggish or erratic). Wash away lubricants
from operating cylinders of air-operated valves or other similar equipment.
• Cause some of the lubricants used on solenoid valve O-rings to become sticky or
gummed up, causing the solenoid valve to become inoperable.
ANSI/ISA-S7.0.01-1996 states that a monitored alarm on drain traps is preferred; how-

ever, if a monitored alarm is unavailable, monitoring the traps in each shift is recom-
mended. Similar alarming and monitoring is recommended to maintain the established
dew point of instrument air from the air dryers.
4.4 Air Quality
Air quality better than the atmospheric air entering the air compressor can be obtained
with a combination of all three filter types. Instrument air quality specified by the
American National Standards Institute and the Instrument Society of America in Stan-
dard ANSI/ISA-S7.0.01-1996 is summarized below. This may be cited or changed by
different manufacturers.
Particulate - no particles larger then 40 microns (met by ISO 8573.1 Class 5). Pneumatic
devices that require instrument air with less than 40 micrometer particle sizes shall have
additional filtration to meet the particulate size limit for the device.
Dew Point - at line pressure at least 18°F below the lowest expected ambient tempera-
ture and in no case higher than 39°F (met by ISO 8573.1 Class 4 and for low ambient
temperatures by Class 2).
Hydrocarbons - less than 1 ppm hydrocarbon contamination (met by ISO 8573.1 Class 3).
ISO 8573.1 Class 5.4.3 combines the requirement of all the above classes.
Air quality classes have been established in an International Standard ISO 8573-1 and
are shown in Table 4-4.
4-20
Table 4-4
Air Quality per ISO 8573.1
Classa Max. Max. Particle Max. Pressure Maximum Oil

Particle Concentrationc Dew Point Concentrationd
Size,b
microns
mg/cu. m oz/cu. ft. Deg. C Deg. F mg/cu. me oz/cu. ft.
1 0.1 0.1 0.1 -70 -94 0.01 0.01
2 1 1 1 -40 -40 0.1 0.1
3 5 5 5 -20 -4 1.0 1.0
4 15 8 8 +3 +37.4 5.0 5.0
5 40 10 10 +7 +44.6 25.0 25.0
6 - - - +10 +50 - -
7 - - - Not Not - -
Specified Specified
Notes:
a Number of air classes for each contaminant is not the same due to widely varied requirements of
compressed air applications.
b Particle size based on a filtration ratio βµ=20. The so called “Beta Ratio” is the ratio of the number of
particles larger than a given micron size upstream of the filter to the number of particles larger than the
given size downstream of the filter. The higher the Beta Ratio, the more particles are retained by the filter
and, hence, the higher the efficiency.
c At 1 bar (14.5 psia), 20 °C (68°F) and a relative humidity of 60%.
d Oil concentration at 1.0 bar (14.5 psia), 20 °C (68°F) and a relative humidity of 60%.
e 1.0 mg by weight of oil in 1.0 cu. m volume of air is approximately equal to 0.83 ppm by weight.
Air quality is a total system issue and is affected by:

• Air quality entering the compressor
• Type of compressor and lubricant or injected fluid, and by wear particles
• Condensate and method of its removal
• Type and condition of distribution piping, receivers and valves
• Type and condition of air dryers
• Type and maintenance of filters
• Plant maintenance procedures
Air samples can be analyzed to determine the air quality in regard to moisture, oil, and
other foreign particles. Also analysis of particles from downstream filters can be used to
determine the nature and source of these particles. Microscopic comparison can be
made with particles displayed on wall charts. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analy-
sis can be used to compare with spectra of bonding found in typical materials.
4-21
5
COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The basic purpose of a compressed air distribution system is to transport the com-
pressed air from its point of production (compressors), through treatment (dryers and
filters), to its points of use (applications) in sufficient quantity and quality and at ad-
equate pressure for efficient operation of each application.
5.1 Location of Air Compressors
Ideally, the air compressor should be located as close as possible to the point of use of
the compressed air. This is not always feasible and other factors must be considered.
The location of the compressors chosen must take into account the type of cooling
required. Air cooled compressors eliminate the need for expensive cooling water and
drainage costs. Large radiator-type coolers located outdoors in cold climates also can
present the problems of oil temperature, oil viscosity at start-up when the compressor is
idle overnight, and freezing of condensate from the compressed air aftercooler. Immer-
sion heaters and frost-free traps are readily available. It is recommended that outside
radiators be located adjacent to a North-facing wall to minimize the heating effect of
direct sunlight. The compressor room should be well ventilated.
The location of the point at which air is drawn in from outside is extremely important.
This should avoid the potential of exhaust fumes from other sources, including, but not
limited to, emergency diesel engines. Inlet air to the compressor from the compressor
room may be using air that has been air conditioned at a significant cost. The tempera-
ture within a compressor room may also be higher than the outside ambient tempera-
ture and will reduce the mass flow of air through the compressor. Air drawn from
outside the compressor room should be from a location where contaminants from an
industrial atmosphere will not be a problem. The compressor air inlet filter also must be
readily accessible for regular routine maintenance.
When the air compressor inlet filter is mounted remotely from the compressor, the
piping from the air inlet filter to the compressor inlet must be clean and non-corrosive
and may be of plastic material. As previously stated, the air compressor inlet filter is for
the protection of the compressor and not for any equipment downstream.
5-1
Compressed Air Distribution System
5.2 Location of Compressed Air Dryers
The location of a compressed air dryer is an important consideration. An air receiver,

located between an air compressor and a dryer, provides dampening of pressure pulsa-
tions from a reciprocating air compressor, radiant cooling, and moisture separation,
reducing the load on the dryer. However, the capacity of a compressed air dryer gener-
ally is selected to match the capacity of the air compressor. If the dryer is located after
the air receiver, a sudden demand for compressed air that exceeds the rated capacity of
the air compressor and dryer results in an overloading of the dryer and a deterioration
of its pressure dew point capability. If, on the other hand, the dryer is located as soon as
possible after the compressor aftercooler and before any air receiver, the demand is met
from the air receiver, which has been charged with dried compressed air. The air flow
through the dryer cannot exceed the output from the compressor, and the dryer can
maintain its rated pressure dew point.
5.3 Location of Air Receivers
This has been mentioned relative to the location of the air dryer. Other factors also must
be considered. It is common for an air receiver to be close to the air compressor. This
has the advantage of allowing the air receiver to act as a buffer against pressure pulsa-
tions from a reciprocating air compressor and provides a close location for measure-
ment of pressure for the compressor capacity control system. It also provides some
radiant cooling (unless in direct sunlight) and condensate separation due to reduced
velocities and directional changes.
The downside of this location is that it may be far removed from the points of use with
fluctuating and transient demands. A long length of piping from the air receiver to the
point of use with related valves, dryers, and filters results in pressure losses and a
significantly lower pressure at the point of use than what the compressor’s control
system is sensing at the air receiver. The pressure at the point of use may not be suffi-
cient for efficient operation.
One solution is to have primary and secondary air receivers, particularly where there
are intermittent large demands for air with a substantial recovery time between de-
mands. The secondary air receivers should be close to the point of use that has the high
intermittent demand. Compressed air management systems with intermediate pressure
regulation are available.
A general rule for an air receiver following a reciprocating air compressor has been a
volume size equivalent to three minutes of the compressor delivery volume. This means
that for an air compressor with a capacity of 1000 acfm (28.32 cm/m) at an inlet pres-
sure of 1.0 atmosphere (14.7 psia) and delivering to an air receiver at 100 psig or 114.7
psia (6.9 bars), the recommended receiver size would be: 1000 x 3 x 14.7/114.7 = 384 cu.
ft. (10.87 cu. m). The nearest standard size receiver then would be specified. This also
may be applied to an air receiver following a compressor having a start/stop or load/
5-2
unload capacity control; with a compressor having modulating control, one third of this
size should be adequate.
All air receivers should meet the ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code and be stamped
accordingly. This also requires a suitable pressure relief valve. Federal, state, and local
codes also must be met.
5.4 Location of Compressed Air Filters
Desiccant-type dryers downstream of a lubricated air compressor require a coalescing

prefilter to protect the desiccant bed from contamination by the compressor lubricant. A
particulate filter before the coalescing prefilter will protect both the prefilter and the
dryer from any particulate matter that might have passed through the compressor inlet
air filter and any wear particles or decomposed lubricant from the compressor. A par-
ticulate after-filter catches any abrasive desiccant fines and protects downstream valves,
orifices, and equipment.
Certain pieces of equipment may require a higher quality of compressed air than others.
A filter specific to the application should be installed immediately before the equip-
ment. By specifying the required air quality classes from ISO 8573.1, the supplier can
provide the necessary degree of drying and filtration.
Filters should be located where they are readily accessible for reading of differential pres-
sure and for changing of elements as necessary. Excessive pressure drop is costly in terms
of air production and can cause damage to the filter element. A very low differential pres-
sure across the filter can indicate a damaged element or improperly installed filter.
5.5 Piping and Valves
A useful rule of thumb for a typical 100 psig (6.9 bars) compressed air system is that for
every additional one psi (0.07 bars) at the compressor discharge, the power required is
increased by one-half of 1%. This means that if 100 psig( 6.9 bars) is required at the
points of use and that dryers and the piping system between the compressor and the
points of use result in a 10 psi (0.69 bars) pressure drop, the compressor discharge
pressure will rise to 110 psig (7.59 bars), and its power will rise to 105%.
The cross-sectional area of piping increases as the square of the diameter. Doubling the
diameter gives four times the area, one-fourth the velocity and one-sixteenth the pres-
sure drop. Installation of properly sized distribution piping pays ongoing dividends by
reducing pipe friction and pressure drop in the system. In addition, making the distri-
bution piping into a loop provides alternate flow directions for varying demands and
reduces pressure drop.
Distribution header piping should be arranged with a slight slope away from the com-
pressor and the air receiver. The header connection from the air receiver should be suffi-
ciently high to be above any potential liquid level in the air receiver should it not have
5-3
been properly drained. Drop legs from headers should be included with traps for conden-
sate removal. Properly located and maintained compressed air dryers can prevent con-
densate in headers. Piping from the header to points of use should connect to the top or
side of the header to avoid being filled with condensate and should be kept as short as
possible. Pressure drop from the header to the point of use should not exceed 1 psi (50
mm Hg) during the duty cycle. An ample number of tapped connections in the headers
and piping also allows evaluation of air pressure at points throughout the system.
Some plants have their air distribution piping near the roof of buildings, which exposes
the piping and associated valves to increased heat in summer conditions. On the other
hand, distribution piping may run between buildings and be exposed to direct sunlight
in the summer and extreme cold in the winter. Piping must be adequately supported
and must allow for thermal expansion.
Ideally, piping should be corrosion free to eliminate corrosion particles that can block
orifices, instruments, and valves and to avoid deterioration of the pipe itself. Stainless
steel obviously has its advantages but can be very costly to install. Galvanized steel pipe
is a common compromise. Copper tubing has been used, but joints may have pressure
limitations, and the maximum possible pressure and temperature conditions must be
taken into consideration. Copper also has a relatively high rate of thermal expansion.
While corrosion-resistant piping is very desirable to prevent corrosion particles in the

air stream, plastic piping is not recommended for compressed air systems. This type of
piping generally is rated at 80°F (26.7°C), and its pressure rating may fall off rapidly as
temperature increases. Plastic piping and its joint and sealing compounds may not be
compatible with synthetic lubricants. Acrylic filter bowls have been found to crack
when exposed to diesters and similar lubricants.
As previously stated, air piping from the header to the point of use should be taken
from the top of the header to prevent the inclusion of condensate.
5-4
6
APPLICATIONS (POINTS OF USE)
Compressed air has applications in almost all industries from ore mining through
sophisticated finished products, from aircraft to automobiles. It also is used widely in
producing food and beverages, in pharmaceutical and electronic applications, and in
processing and packaging. It is used for motive power, process functions, and control
functions. It also is used widely in plant maintenance. Its uses keep growing.
Fossil power plants use compressed air for pneumatic conveying, for soot blowing of
boilers, and for instruments and controls. Nuclear power plants use compressed air for
motive power for valves, instrument and control functions, pneumatic tools, and gen-
eral maintenance.
6.1 Instrument Air
Control air supplied to transmitters, relays, integrators, converters, recorders, indica-

tors, or gauges is required to be clean and dry. A small amount of moisture passing
through an orifice can cause malfunction of the instrument and the process it controls.
Pneumatic thermostats, which control the heating and air conditioning cycles in large
and small buildings, also require clean, dry air. Instruments and pneumatic controllers
in power plants need clean, dry air for efficient operation.
Clean, dry compressed air results in lower operating costs. Water, oil, and dirt en-
trained in air deposit inside pipes, fittings, and orifices, causing an increase in pressure
drop and an increase in energy used to compress the air. A reduced pressure at the
point of use results in a loss of performance efficiency.
Liquid water accelerates corrosion and can cause malfunction of valves, pressure regu-
lators, and positioners. In addition, it can shorten the useful life of equipment.
Carryover of corrosion particles can plug valves, orifices, fittings, pressure regulators,
positioners, and instrument control lines and result in their malfunctioning. Water also
can freeze in these components with similar results.
Some of the largest users of instrument air in a nuclear plant are air-operated valves
(AOVs) held open by compressed air, including main steam isolation valves and tur-
bine bypass valves.
6-1
Applications (Points of Use)
6.2 Pneumatic Tools
Dirty, wet air can result in sluggish operation, frequent repair, and replacement of parts
due to sticking, jamming, and rusting of wearing parts. Water can also wash out the
required lubricants, resulting in excessive wear. A decrease in pressure at the tool
causes a reduction in the efficiency of the tool. Clean, dry air at the required pressure
can help to maintain productivity and prolong tool life.
Pneumatic tools should be powered by service air. The use of instrument air to power
pneumatic tools should be avoided in order to prevent sudden air demands that can
cause a drop in instrument air pressure and adversely impact instrument and control
operation, affecting the nuclear plant.
6.3 Breathing Air
The air coming from an air compressor, whether a lubricated or oil-free type, is not
suitable for breathing. Additional conditioning or purification of the air is required
before the air can be considered suitable for breathing, and certain health and safety
standards must be met. In industrial plants, air may be supplied to respirators, hoods,
and helmets and for applications such as sandblasting. The Occupation Safety and
Health Act (OSHA) requires filtration and treatment to meet specific levels, including
carbon monoxide, with an alarm system. Special filtration and treatment packages are
available for this purpose and should be used whether the air supply is taken from the
general plant air system or from an air compressor dedicated to the supply of the air for
breathing. Other related standards for breathing air are The American National Stan-
dards Institute/compressed gas association standard ANSI/CGA-7 and the Canadian
Standards Association (CSA) standard CAN3-Z180.1-M85.
Some plants may have no air headers, except for breathing air, inside the reactor con-
tainment building. In such cases, the breathing air system will be used for service air
(for refueling tools, etc.) during a refueling outage, even if no respirators are used.
6.4 General
The optimum pressure for the efficient operation of the equipment at each point of use
should be maintained. This may vary among the various points of use and applications.
The pressure drop between the air compressor and the point of use should be taken into
account, including dryers, filters, piping, and valves.
The quality of the air for each application should also be considered. This includes
particulate matter, moisture, and oil content.
Applications having intermittent but high air flow requirements should have adequate
compressed air storage located close to the point of use to prevent an undesirable drop
in pressure.
6-2
7
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM SAFETY:
CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Manufacturers have become very conscious of safety considerations, and this is re-
flected in operator’s manuals, parts lists, and warning decals applied to the machinery.
OSHA also legislates certain safety requirements for the work place, which are the
responsibility of the owner and operator rather than the manufacturer.
1. Equipment should be installed and operated in full compliance with all pertinent
OSHA, federal, state, and local regulations, codes, and standards. Each operator of
compressed air equipment should have been trained to follow the appropriate
regulations, codes, and standards and should have a copy of the operator’s manual
for each air compressor and dryer and their accessories. Each operator should read
and understand the manual and operate the equipment in accordance with it.
2. A compressor should not be started unless it is safe to do so. A compressor consid-
ered to have an unsafe condition should be tagged and rendered inoperative by
disconnecting and locking out all power to the compressor at its source until the
unsafe condition has been rectified.
3. The safety shutdown features incorporated in the compressor or dryer package
should be tested periodically for proper functioning, as specified in the operator’s
manual.
4. The maximum pressure rating of any piece of pneumatic equipment should not be
exceeded at any time. Pressure relief valves installed to safeguard against excessive
pressure build-up should be tested at specified intervals. All internal pressure
should be vented prior to opening any air line, fitting, hose, valve, drain plug, con-
nection, or component in the system.
5. Modifications to air compressors, controls, and other pneumatic equipment should
not be made without the written approval of the manufacturer.
6. The area around air compressors should be kept clean. Spills of lubricant or other
combustible or volatile substances such as cleaning fluid, paint, or solvent should be
cleaned up immediately.
7-1
Compressed Air System Safety: Considerrations and Recommendations
7. Electrical equipment should be properly grounded. Electrical wiring and terminals

should be kept in good condition and replaced when cracked, cut, abraded, worn, or
discolored. People and handheld tools or other conductive materials should be kept
at a safe distance from exposed live electrical components.
8. Some air compressors have an automatic starting feature. This may or may not be
indicated at the instrument panel. It is essential to make sure that both the main
driver power and the control system power (if different) are switched off prior to the
start of any maintenance work.
9. Moving parts should be properly guarded in accordance with OSHA requirements.
Equipment should not be operated with guards removed. Limbs and other body
parts and clothing should be kept at a safe distance from moving parts, including
shafts, couplings, belts, and fans.
10. Personnel should be kept out of line with, and away from, the discharge opening of
valves, hoses, tools, or other compressed air discharge. Air at pressures under 30
psig (2.1 bars) should be used for cleaning and then only with appropriate guarding.
Protective equipment should be in accordance with OSHA Standard 29 CFR
1910.242 (b), including a flow-limiting valve. When an air hose exceeds 1/2” (1.27
cm) inside diameter, additional equipment is necessary to protect against hose
failure.
11. Some air compressor enclosures are relatively large, so it is essential to be sure that
all personnel are out of the enclosure before the doors or panels are closed and
latched and before power to the compressor is switched on.
12. It is recommended that the manufacturers’ repair parts or parts meeting the manu-
facturers’ specifications be used for repairs. Some “look alike” parts may not meet
specifications, may void the warranty, may result in malfunction, and may be un-
safe.
13. Only the manufacturers’ recommended lubricants or an approved equivalent should
be used and changed at the specified intervals. The change-out interval may be
extended, based upon lubricant sampling and plant predictive maintenance history,
with the approval of the manufacturer. Different lubricants should never be mixed.
A synthetic lubricant having an 8,000 hour specified life does not mean that the
lubricant filter or air/oil separator also has an 8,000 hour life. As stated in Section
3.6.1, it is estimated that the useful life of a lubricant is halved for every 18°F or 10°C
above 200°F (93°C) operating temperature. For compressors operating in high ambi-
ent conditions, a quarterly sampling and analysis program is recommended.
14. Air receivers should be checked periodically for corrosion, cracks, or dents and
should be checked by a qualified inspector annually or at each refueling outage. The
test should include the pressure relief valve and pressure gauge. Pressure testing
should be with water and never with compressed air. The receiver must be isolated
from the remainder of the system for testing, and proper draining after the test is
essential. For older receivers, it is recommended that the shell thickness of the bot-
tom of the receiver be checked with an ultrasonic device.
7-2
15. Each location should have a formalized program of safety checks at specified inter-
vals and with appropriate responsibilities assigned for carrying out the procedure,
recording data, and monitoring safety operations.
7.1 Compressed Air Safety Check List
The following questions are designed to aid power plant personnel in determining if
proper safety measures have been taken in the installation and operation of their com-
pressed air systems. If the answer to any of the following questions is No, the work
conditions should be thoroughly reviewed from the work safety point of view. They are
based on California/OSHA standards and are general in nature.
7.1.1 Compressors and Compressed Air

• Are compressors equipped with automatic, temperature-activated shutoff mecha-
nisms or with fusible plugs installed as near the compressor as possible in the com-
pressor discharge lines?
• Are compressors equipped with automatic pressure relief valves, pressure gages,
and drain valves?
• Are compressor air inlets installed and equipped so as to ensure that only clean,
uncontaminated air enters the compressor?
• Are air filters installed on the compressor inlet?
• Are compressors operated and lubricated in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations?
• Are safety devices on compressed air systems checked frequently?
• Before any repair work is done on the pressure-containing system of a compressor,
is the pressure released and the system locked out?
• Are signs posted to warn of the automatic starting feature of the compressors?
• Is the belt drive system totally enclosed to provide protection for the front, back, top,
and sides?
• Are employees prohibited from using compressed air above 30 psig (2.1 bars) for
cleaning purposes?
• If compressed air is used for cleaning off clothing, is the pressure reduced to less
than 10 psi (0.69 bars)?
• When using compressed air for cleaning, do employees wear protective chip guards
and personal protective equipment for eyes, hands, and feet?
• Are safety chains or other suitable locking devices used at couplings of all high-
pressure hose lines of 3/4” (19 mm) inside diameter or larger and lines of smaller
size where a hose or connection failure would create a hazard?
7-3
• Before compressed air is used to empty containers of liquid, is the safe working
pressure of the container checked?
• When compressed air is used with abrasive blast cleaning equipment, is the operat-
ing valve of a type that must be held open manually?
• When compressed air is used to inflate auto tires, are a clip-on chuck and an in-line
regulator preset to 40 psi (2.76 bars) required?
• Is it prohibited to use compressed air to clean up or move combustible dust if such
action could cause the dust to be suspended in the air and cause a fire or explosion
hazard?
7.1.2 Compressed Air Receivers

• Is every receiver equipped with a pressure gauge and with one or more automatic
pressure-relief valves?
• Is the total relieving capacity of the safety valve capable of preventing pressure in
the receiver from exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure of the re-
ceiver by more than 10%?
• Is every air receiver provided with a drain pipe and valve at the lowest point for the
removal of accumulated oil and water?
• Are compressed air receivers periodically drained of moisture and oil?
• Does each compressed air receiver have an opening for internal inspections?
• Are all air receivers periodically inspected externally for corrosion, dents, etc.? For
older receivers, it is recommended that the shell thickness at the bottom of the vessel
be tested using an ultrasonic testing device to confirm that the vessel meets mini-
mum wall thickness requirements.
• Are the external surfaces of air receivers kept free of oil and dust accumulation?
• Is each compressed air receiver inspected internally at specified intervals by a quali-
fied inspector?
• Are all safety valves tested frequently and at regular intervals to determine whether
they are in good operating condition?
• Are the inlets of air receivers and piping systems kept free of accumulated oil and
carbonaceous materials?
• Have the following safety precautions been incorporated into the procedures for the
internal inspection of air receivers?
– Starting and control equipment is tagged and locked out.
– Vessel is depressurized.
– Externally bolted manhole covers are first pried loose from their seats before all
of the bolts or nuts are entirely removed.
– All manhole covers are fully removed to improve ventilation.
7-4
– Before workers are permitted to enter the tank, the tank atmosphere is tested for
(a) oxygen, carbon dioxide concentrations, and (b) toxic, flammable, or combus-
tible gases and vapors.
– Respiratory equipment is required to be used (supplied-air type) if a hazardous
atmosphere is present.
– Workers entering the tank are required to be equipped with a lifeline, and a
safety watch is positioned at the tank opening.
– Workers are required to wear proper footwear, eye and face protection, and
work gloves to prevent injuries.
– Portable electric lamps or tools used inside the tank are explosion-proof and
grounded.
– After cleaning, the inside is inspected for removal of loose scale, wiping rags,
tools, or pieces of lint.
– New gaskets are placed on the manhole covers.
• Has a record been maintained of all discrepancies and have corrective actions been
taken?
7-5
8
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
Instrument air system reliability is of utmost importance for the continued reliability
and operation of power generation facilities—whether they are fossil or nuclear. Opera-
tion of instrument air systems has a tremendous impact on the operation of a plant.
Virtually every piping system in a power plant has pneumatically operated valves or
controls associated with it. Degradation or failure of an instrument air system could
have an adverse effect on the operation of many of the plant operating systems and
might also affect plant safety and the availability factor.
To improve instrument air system reliability and, consequently, overall plant safety and
reliability, the instrument air system and its components should be capable of providing
compressed air at a quality that meets or exceeds the ANSI/ISA S7.0.01-1996 specifica-
tion. The instrument air system should then be maintained to operate at optimum
efficiency. This may require some plants to change from a “reactive“ or “corrective“
maintenance mode to a “proactive“ or “preventive“ maintenance mode.
An aggressive valve testing program detects air valves that leak. Repair or replacement
of these valves should be placed on a prioritized maintenance schedule to be accom-
plished as required, based on operational decisions. Predictive maintenance and trend-
ing techniques should be employed that assist in establishing preventive maintenance
periods for such tasks as desiccant change out, filter replacement, and system
blowdowns.
All maintenance recommendations for instrument air system components in this guide
are general suggestions to assist in setting up a proactive or preventive maintenance
program, which helps to combat problems that are inherent to instrument air systems.
These problems, as discussed in earlier sections, may be caused by particulate, hydro-
carbon, or water incursion into the system. These problems can sometimes be attributed
to lack of adequate maintenance in the past. However, the object of this guide is not to
change the past; it is to make personnel aware of what caused the problems and to help
prevent them from recurring in the future.
Recommended maintenance activities and frequencies suggested are not designed for
any particular installation, but are generic in nature. They will differ with types of
equipment, manufacturer, and installation. Individual facilities should research their
own pieces of equipment and determine their maintenance requirements, methods, and
frequencies.
8-1
Compressed Air System Maintenance
Troubleshooting charts are provided in Appendices A through E for different types of

compressors and dryers as an aid in diagnosing system problems. Reliability-centered
maintenance (RCM) programs have been found to be effective in determining the fre-
quency of monitoring and maintenance activities. EPRI has developed a typical preven-
tive maintenance program for reciprocating compressors (TR-106857-V20) and for
rotary screw compressors (TR-106857-V22). Members of the EPRI Energy Conversion
Division can order the complete documents from the EPRI Distribution Center.
8.1 Air Inlet and Filter
Conduct a visual examination of all internal and external areas of filter housing and
silencer surfaces for coating condition and hydrocarbon impingement. Rusty interior
surfaces require immediate correction to prevent compressor damage. External corro-
sion should be corrected as time permits to protect the equipment. A walkdown should
be conducted semiannually.
Verify inlet filter differential pressure. If a differential pressure indicator is not included
by the manufacturer, check with a U-tube manometer or a differential pressure gauge
set. An initial reading should be taken on each new filter element installed as baseline
operating data (BOD). An increase of 4–5” (100–125 mm) of water over the initial read-
ing indicates the filter needs replacing or cleaning. A sudden drop in differential pres-
sure may indicate a failed or torn element and need for replacement. Cleanable intake
filters can be cleaned either by blowing low-pressure air in a counterflow direction or
by soaking and agitating them in warm (140–150°F/60–65°C) water containing a non-
volatile cleaning solution. Air dry the washed elements for 24 hours before reuse. After
two or three cleanings, filters should be replaced, regardless of their condition.
The flexible coupling on the inlet piping (see Figure 8-1) should be checked for tightness
and material condition. A cracked surface or signs of boundary penetration indicate a
need for replacement.
1/4” Minimum Gap Hose Clamps
Compressor
Hard Rubber Inlet
Hose Cover
Figure 8-1
Flexible Coupling for a Compressor
8-2
8.2 Air Compressors
Visually inspect the external surfaces of the air compressor for leaks, loose connections,
belt conditions, paint condition, hot spots, etc. This inspection may provide indicators
of serious operating problems, such as high vibration, oil leaks, or inadequate cooling.
Conduct vibration and bearing temperature monitoring. This can simply be done using
a vibration meter and a handheld pyrometer. Because of the differences in construction,
typical vibration levels are not available. The manufacturer should be asked to provide
suitable vibration levels for each compressor.
On belt-driven machines, the drive belts should be checked for evidence of deteriora-
tion, excessive wear, and improper tightness. A proper fit is indicated by the V belts
saddling the sheave groove so that the top surface rides above the highest point of the
sheave. Stresses are then evenly distributed. A low riding belt can cause slipping and a
high riding belt loses contact.
Belt guards are required for safety. Be sure that the guards are replaced after any main-
tenance work.
Verify compressor operation by checking compressor load and unload times against
BOD. Observe load and unload pressure set points while checking load and unload
frequencies.
The compressor oil pressure and reservoir level should be monitored each shift and the
results recorded for reference and comparison with the next set of readings.
Calibrate all pressure gauges, pressure switches, temperature switches, and alarms. All
indicators serving a single component or machine should be calibrated as a group to
establish BOD.
Oil filters should be changed in accordance with the manufacturers’ recommendations.

A low oil pressure cutout switch could be installed. The oil filter should be changed
well before low the pressure trip point is reached.
Frames and fittings should be lubricated according to the manufacturer’s technical

manual. If no technical manuals are available, consult the equipment vendor, or lubri-
cate in accordance with the guidelines discussed in an earlier section.
Conduct a visual examination of all internal components for wear. Bearing clearances,
piston clearances, rod alignments, cylinder bore sizes, etc. should be recorded for BOD.
A similar inspection should be conducted for helical screw compressors. With oil-
injected rotary compressors, the condition of the oil is extremely important, and an oil
sampling procedure is recommended. Hydrocarbon lubricants need to be changed
every 1,000 hours of operation. Synthetic lubricants usually have a longer life and
should be changed at the recommended intervals. The oil filter should be changed
when the oil is changed and sooner if the pressure differential gauge indicates the need.
8-3
The air/oil separator element should be changed on the same basis. The air inlet filter
element should be changed when the differential pressure indicates the need or every
six months if there is no indicator. Pressure and temperature indicators and shutdown
devices should be checked at least every month. Newer rotary compressors equipped
with microprocessor controls generally indicate the need for specific maintenance items.
Centrifugal compressors generally have sophisticated monitoring devices and instru-

ments that indicate required maintenance. Maintenance procedures called for in the
operator’s manual from the manufacturer should be followed at all times.
8.3 Intercoolers and Aftercoolers
Monitor and record cooling water inlet, outlet, and approach temperatures. This provides
baseline data to identify indications of reduced heat transfer in the heat exchanger due to
corrosion buildup or reduced flow. It is common for the approach temperature (the
difference between the water supply temperature and the air outlet temperature) to be
15°F or 8°C. Where desirable, it is possible to have coolers with a much smaller approach
temperature, down to 2°F or 1°C, but with a significant increase in size and cost.
Inspect and clean the intercooler and aftercooler heat exchanger tubes in accordance
with the manufacturers’ recommendations. The most common cause of intercooler and
aftercooler inefficiency is a buildup of scale deposits on the heat exchanger surfaces.
Where no manufacturers’ recommendations are available, the scale deposits can be
removed by using a stiff brush or a strong blast of steam or air. In heavily fouled tube
nests, the units should be boiled for half an hour in a cleaning solution using 4 ounces
(120 ml) of trisodium phosphate per gallon (4 l) of water, followed by a thorough flush-
ing with plain water. Scale inside the tubes can be removed by using a mild citric acid
soak, followed by brushing and water flushing.
Closed cooling water and makeup water chemistry should be closely monitored to
ensure that all rust inhibitors, biocides, and antifoaming agents are present in the
proper concentrations.
8.4 Moisture Separators and Drain Traps
Drain traps should have bypass piping and valves to facilitate required maintenance.
Inspect operation of drain traps and valves to prevent condensate accumulation in the
moisture separators and subsequent carryover into the air receiver and distribution
system. Open and inspect separator internals for wear and corrosion. Remove any
corrosion or debris by wiping with a wiping cloth. The wiping cloth should be moist-
ened with the lubricant being used to help retard corrosion of the metal surfaces. If the
lubrication is required for separator internals, the specified lubricant should be used.
Drain traps should be checked to ensure that they are functioning and that drain flow is
free. If clogged, the traps should be disassembled and cleaned to restore free flow. Most
drain traps do not require priming, but the manufacturer’s instructions should be
checked for this requirement.
8-4
8.5 Air Receivers
Conduct an internal and external visual inspection of all receiver tank surfaces, includ-
ing bolted and welded connections, for physical damage, pitting, erosion, and corro-
sion. If there are areas of severe pitting or if cracks are detected, a nondestructive test
with ultrasound or radiography should be performed. Photographs should be taken so
that the extent of damage can be recorded as baseline operating data (BOD).
Plant documents should be consulted to determine minimum wall thickness. For the
first inspection after BOD and succeeding maintenance cycles, the wall thickness should
be measured so that the minimum wall thickness requirement is maintained.
Clean the receiver inside with a hot water-soaked wiping cloth. Do not leave surface
moisture. Do not wire brush, needle gun, or sandblast because these methods expose
new metal and lead to accelerated corrosion of the tank walls.
ASME pressure tests and inspections should be performed in accordance with the code
requirements (ASME Section VIII; Unfired Pressure Vessels) In addition to the system
safety valve, a safety valve should be installed between the hydra pump and the vessel
to prevent over pressure of the pump and vessel during the hydrostatic test.
Set the receiver and system safety valves. Gauges should be calibrated prior to the
setting of the safety valves.
Note: Some QA requirements specify gauge ranges and accuracies. Typically, a pressure
test gauge with accuracy of ±0.5% and a total range of approximately two times the
system pressure is used.
8.6 Prefilters and Afterfilters
Check prefilter automatic drain valves for proper operation. These valves often stick
open and cause costly air losses.
Perform air quality tests to check for compliance with ANSI/ISA-S7.0.01-1996 require-
ments. Dew points can be checked using in-line hygrometers or portable measuring
equipment. Particulate can be measured by using a laser-based particle counter or by
blowing air through a paper filter for one minute and sending it to a lab for analysis.
Hydrocarbon or oil contamination can be measured by blowing an air sample into a
Tedlar bag and shipping it to a lab for analysis or by using an oil stick that uses a dye to
indicate hydrocarbon concentration. Each of these methods has its own advantages and
disadvantages that must be addressed for each plant’s application. The particular
equipment mentioned in this paragraph is not the only equipment available to do these
tests; it is mentioned here as an example of the various methods currently available.
Check the pressure drop across the prefilters and afterfilters to determine available filter
capacity. This can be accomplished by using a differential pressure gauge or subtracting
the outlet pressure from the inlet pressure. Allowable pressure drop at which the filter
8-5
elements are to be replaced should be determined for each installation, based on its size
and vendor recommendations. Old elements should be tagged and marked for cleaning
as they are removed, or they should be destroyed. New elements should be color coded
and tagged by size and type if stored in a common area.
8.7 Dryers
Check the outlet dew point by using an in-line hygrometer, a portable handheld hy-
grometer, or a moisture indicator. A silica gel moisture indicator does not produce an
accurate dew point reading, but starts changing color from blue to pink or red at a dew
point of approximately 0°F (-17.8°C).
Check the operation of the inlet switching valve on desiccant dryers. This valve, if not
properly maintained, can cause the dryer towers to either not switch over or get stuck in
between towers. Depending on the manufacturer, the dryer may vent to atmosphere or
may block flow. Either way, instrument air supply pressure is lost to the downstream
piping. Repair or replace the inlet switching valve as necessary to ensure that the dryer
operates properly.
Note: Some of the switching valves on older model dryers require frequent grease lubrica-
tion and a complete overhaul once a year. Excessive grease has been found on some
occasions to be a source of air system degradation.
Check the operation of automatic drain valves and traps on refrigerant dryers. Repair or
replace as necessary to ensure that condensate does not accumulate in the dryer.
Pressure drop across the air dryer should be tested periodically to ensure a free air path
through the dryer. On desiccant-type dryers, a high differential pressure may indicate a
breakdown of the desiccant and its subsequent compaction. On a refrigerant dryer, a
high differential pressure indicates blocked or fouled tubing. A zero differential pres-
sure may indicate a torn or incorrectly installed filter.
On desiccant dryers, the purge air flow rate should be checked to ensure proper flow
for efficient regeneration.
Desiccant levels in the towers should be checked to ensure that proper amounts of
desiccant are installed. Low desiccant levels may be an indication of desiccant break-
down and the need for replacement. This may also indicate desiccant carryover. Desic-
cant should be replaced in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. If the
dryer manufacturer permits, the recommendations in Table 4-3 and the following can
be used as a guide in desiccant selection:
• On heat regenerative dryers, silica gel beads can be used to conserve power. Silica
gel beads regenerate at lower temperatures than activated alumina.
8-6
• On heated or heatless regenerative dryers, if desiccant fines are causing particulate

problems, silica gel beads may mitigate this situation. Double sieving of the dryer
desiccant compartment will also aid in resolving this problem. Silica gel beads have
a high fracture point.
• On heatless regenerative dryers that are not experiencing problems with fines, use of
activated alumina beads will be economical due to their ability to retain a greater
amount of moisture at a lower cost than silica beads.
• On systems experiencing water intrusion into the dryers, use of ordinary silica gel
beads is not recommended. In fact, regenerated silica gel beads are likely to shatter if
they come in contact with water droplets. In such situations, specially processed
water-resistant beads (water blockers) can be used as a layer of buffer desiccant near
the point of air inlet. However, it is important to eliminate the source of water intru-
sion into the dryer as soon as possible. Major manufacturers of silica gel beads
provide assistance in selecting desiccant for mixed bed applications.
If cost is the only consideration in desiccant selection, the following prices can be used
as a guide. These are approximate costs of desiccant purchased in large quantities at the
time of printing of this guide (1998).
Activated Alumina $1.30 per pound
Granular Silica Gel $5.95 per pound
Silica Gel Beads $5.95 per pound
Silica Gel Beads (water blockers) $6.25 per pound
Molecular Sieve $3.85 per pound
It is highly recommended that prior to selection of a desiccant, both the dryer vendor
and a desiccant manufacturer be contacted to recommend the best possible desiccant
available for the particular application. Recent developments in desiccant manufactur-
ing have made new products available that might not have existed when the original
dryers were purchased. It should also be considered that in a heated regenerative sys-
tem, frequency of regeneration influences the aging of the desiccant. Therefore, if fre-
quent regenerations occur either due to system leaks or low capacity dryer trains, desic-
cants may have to be replaced earlier than their recommended life.
8.8 Blowdown Devices
Check the blowdown devices (automatic drain valves and traps) for blowby and proper
operation. Repair or replace as necessary to ensure that condensate and particulate do
not accumulate in the air lines.
Periodically blow down line filters to ensure that they are not clogged with particulate
or desiccant fines, which can damage the end-use component they serve.
8-7
8.9 Distribution System
Compressed air distribution systems generally use piping made of carbon steel, stain-
less steel, or copper. As expected, stainless steel piping experiences the fewest failures
due to corrosion or physical damage. However, a stainless steel distribution system is
quite expensive. A carbon steel piping system provides satisfactory service as long as
the dew point of air is maintained at or below that required by ISA standard. Corrosion
and leaks in carbon steel piping are quite common where the moisture content of air
remains consistently high. It is recommended that all distribution systems be provided
with blowdown points to eliminate corrosion products that can accumulate due to
occasional moisture intrusion.
8.9.1 Piping
When installing new or additional headers or piping:
• Carbon steel piping should be in accordance with ASTM-A106.
• Stainless steel piping should be in accordance with ASTM-A213.
• Steel tubing should be in accordance with ANSI B93.
All piping installations should be in accordance with the standard originally used for
plant design (ANSI/ASME B31.1 for most U.S. plants) or any later revision that may
have been adopted by the plant.
Copper piping is easily damaged with physical impact or misuse. Also, the joints in a
copper pipe are soldered or brazed. Soldered joints can fail due to poor joint insertion,
inadequate solder penetration, or external stress. There are no national codes or specifi-
cations for soldering. The American Welding Society (AWS) considers a 70% filled joint
to be adequate if the voids are small and discreetly dispersed. ASME Code provides
specifications for brazing of copper piping. Brazing is preferred to soldering, particu-
larly for copper pipes above 1" (2.5 cm) in diameter, to ensure that a joint has sufficient
strength under pressure.
8.9.2 Walkdown and Testing

Walkdown inspection of all headers, distribution piping, and joints should be carried
out on a regularly scheduled basis. Particular care should be taken with piping located
close to passageways and other equipment because physical damage can occur from
forklift trucks, from movement of equipment, and from being climbed on. Where dam-
age is observed, the piping should be checked for leaks.
A frequently used, reliable method for locating air leaks is to systematically apply a
soap solution to the piping joints and connections. Ultrasonic leak detection devices can
also be used, depending on the location of the leak and the background noise level. In
some cases, tracer gases have been used to test the distribution system for leaks.
8-8
To ensure piping integrity, questionable piping sections and joints can be tested with
ultrasonic equipment that can provide information on pipe wall thickness and joint
insertion (especially for soldered/brazed joints). However, the effectiveness of the
ultrasonic equipment depends on the knowledge and experience of the technician
interpreting the data obtained.
Another method of testing questionable joints is with real-time x-ray. The x-ray picture
of the joint can be evaluated for its integrity. The disadvantage of this system is that the
image quality may sometimes be poor for proper evaluation. Also, due to ALARA
considerations, strict administrative procedures must be in place for personnel safety
during operation of the x-ray equipment.
All valves should be cycled periodically to ensure proper operation and freedom of
movement. Solenoid valves should also be cycled and inspected for indication of physi-
cal damage that might affect proper operation (bent or pinched vent lines, etc.). In
addition, solenoids should be checked for blowby or seat leakage.
Blowdowns should be performed on all air lines to end-use components to remove any
desiccant fines or spalled particulate from the system. Air lines should be blown down
through a clean white blowdown cloth such as a cloth diaper. The lines should be
blown until all visible particulate is removed. During blowdown, ensure that adequate
safety precautions are followed.
Pressure decay testing should be performed on all accumulators and associated check
valves to detect back leakage into the system.
If compressor loading indicates excessive system leakage, perform pressure decay tests
or flow measurement tests or soap test the headers to identify the location of leaks.
8-9
9
REFERENCES
Aging Assessment of Instrument Air Systems in Nuclear Power Plants. NUREG/CR-5419.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Aging Control and Service Air Compressors and Dryers used in Nuclear Power Plants.
NUREG/CR-5519, Volume 1. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Air Operated Valve Maintenance Guide. NMAC, NP-7412, Revision 1. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
July 1992.
Application and Maintenance of Steam Traps, NMAC, TR-105853, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
December 1996.
Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, Fifth Edition, Compressed Air and Gas Institute, 1989.
Compressed Air Dryers—Specification and Testing, First Edition. ISO-7183-1986. Interna-

tional Organization for Standards. 1986.
Gas Purification, Fourth Edition, Arthur Kohl and Fred Riesenfeld, 1985.
Generic Letter 88-14. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Lubrication Guide. NMAC, NP-4916, Revision 2. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: February 1995.
Maintaining Operability of Nuclear Plant Air Systems. NSAC-137, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
February 1990.
Operating Experience Feedback Report - Air Systems Problems. NUREG-1275, Volume 2.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. December 1987.
Operating Experience Feedback Report - Solenoid Operated Valve Problems. NUREG-1275,

Volume 6. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. February 1991.
Pneumatic Systems and Nuclear Plant Safety. NSAC-128, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
October 1988.
Preoperational Testing of Instrument and Control Air Systems. Regulatory Guide 1.68.3. U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission. April 1982.
9-1
References
Quality Standard for Instrument Air. ANSI/ISA S7.0.01-1996. November 1996.
Report of the Instrument Air Working Group. TR-103595, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: April 1994.
Self-Inspection Check Lists. SCIF#17813. State Compensation Insurance Fund. San Fran-
cisco, CA. May 1983.
Significant Operating Experience Report, SOER 88-1. Institute of Nuclear Power Op-
erations. May 1988.
Solenoid Valve Maintenance and Application Guide. NMAC, NP-7414, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
April 1992.
Three Mile Island Unit 2 Accident. Case Study Materials 88-008. Institute of Nuclear
Power Operations.
9-2
10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
absorption. The chemical process by which a hygroscopic desiccant, having a high

affinity with water, melts and becomes a liquid by absorbing the condensed moisture.
adiabatic compression. See compression, adiabatic.
adsorption. The process by which a desiccant with a highly porous surface attracts and
holds the moisture in compressed air. The desiccant is capable of being regenerated.
aftercooler. A heat exchanger for cooling air or gas discharged from a compressor. The
resulting condensate can be removed by a moisture separator following the aftercooler.
air-cooled compressor. A compressor having its compressed air and oil cooled by
atmospheric air flowing across radiator type heat exchangers.
air receiver. See receiver.
atmospheric dew point. The dew point at atmospheric pressure. (See dew point.)
base plate. A metallic structure on which a compressor and its accessories are mounted.
BOD. Baseline operating data.
capacity. The actual volume flow rate of air or gas compressed and delivered from a
compressor package but measured at conditions of pressure, temperature, and composi-
tion prevailing at the inlet to the compressor.
capacity, actual. The actual volume flow rate of air or gas compressed and delivered
from a compressor running at its rated operating conditions of speed, pressures, and
temperatures. Actual capacity generally is expressed in actual cubic feet per minute
(acfm) at conditions prevailing at the compressor inlet.
capacity controls. The means of adjusting the actual volume flow rate from a compres-
sor to match the demands from the compressed air system.
casing. The pressure-containing stationary element (stator) that encloses the rotors and
associated internal components of a compressor and includes the inlet and discharge
connections or nozzles.
10-1
Glossary of Terms
check valve. A valve that permits flow in only one direction.
compression adiabatic (isentropic). A compression process in which there is no heat

transfer to or from the gas during compression. It is represented by the equation PV = a
constant.
compression, isothermal. A compression process in which the temperature of the gas

remains constant. For perfect gases, it is represented by the equation PV = a constant.
compression, polytropic. A compression process between adiabatic and isothermal,

represented by the equation PV = a constant. Most compressors operate in this mode.
compression ratio. The ratio of absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pres-
sure.
cylinder. The compression chamber of a reciprocating piston type compressor.
deliquescent. A substance that absorbs moisture and becomes a liquid.
desiccant. A material that has a large proportion of surface pores and is capable of
attracting and retaining water vapor from the air.
dew point. The temperature at which moisture in the air will begin to condense if the
air is cooled at constant pressure. At this point, the relative humidity is 100%.
displacement. The displacement of a compressor is the swept volume per unit of time,
usually expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm). It may also be considered as the
theoretical capacity if the volumetric efficiency is 100%.
dynamic compressor. A compressor in which velocity or kinetic energy is imparted to

the air or gas by impellers, rotating at high speed. The velocity energy then is translated
to pressure energy in a volute or diffuser.
efficiency, isothermal. The ratio of the work calculated on an isothermal basis to the
actual work transferred to the gas during compression.
efficiency, mechanical. The ratio of thermodynamic work requirement in the compres-

sor to actual brake horsepower requirement.
efficiency, polytropic. The ratio of polytropic compression energy transferred to the gas
during compression to the actual energy transferred to the gas.
efficiency, volumetric. The ratio of actual capacity to displacement, expressed as a

percentage.
filter. A device for removing particulate and/or liquid from the air stream. The liquid
may be water or oil.
10-2
Glossary of Terms
flange connection (inlet or discharge). The means of connecting the compressor to the
piping system.
free air. Air at atmospheric conditions at any specified location and unaffected by the
compressor.
gas. Gas is one of the three basic phases of matter; thus, air is a gas. However, in com-
pressor practice, the term gas normally is applied to a gas other than air.
horsepower, brake. Horsepower is a rate of doing work and brake horsepower is the
horsepower input to the machine (compressor) drive shaft.
horsepower, theoretical, or ideal. The horsepower required to compress isothermally

the air or gas delivered by the compressor at specified conditions.
humidity, relative. The relative humidity of a gas (or air) vapor mixture is the ratio of
the partial pressure of the vapor to the vapor saturation pressure at the dry bulb tem-
perature of the mixture.
humidity, specific. The weight of water vapor in an air vapor mixture per pound of dry
air.
intercooler. A heat exchanger for removing the heat of compression between the stages
of a multi-stage compressor. Normally, this also results in the removal of a substantial
amount of moisture.
intercooling, perfect. When the temperature of the air or gas leaving the intercooler is
equal to the temperature of the air or gas entering the compressor inlet.
isentropic compression. See compression, adiabatic (isentropic).
isothermal compression. See compression, isothermal.
liquid piston (or liquid ring) compressor. A rotary compressor in which a fixed vane
rotor revolves in an elliptical stator and carries with it a ring of liquid within the stator.
The space between vanes varies with depth of penetration of the vanes into the liquid
ring.
load factor. The ratio of the average compressor load during a given period of time to
the maximum rated load of the compressor. In the case of air tools, it is the ratio of the
time actually working to the total time available.
moisture separator. A device that separates liquid moisture from the air stream by
means of velocity and/or directional changes, impaction, or centrifugal force.
multi-casing compressor. Two or more compressors or stages, each having a separate

stator but with a common driver.
10-3
Glossary of Terms
performance curve. A plot of expected, or tested, operating characteristics, for example,

discharge pressure and bhp plotted against capacity, or capacity and bhp plotted
against rotating speed.
piston. The component that reciprocates within the cylinder of a reciprocating type
compressor to displace and compress the air or gas in the cylinder.
polytropic compression. See compression, polytropic.
positive displacement compressor. A compressor in which successive volumes of air or

gas are trapped in a confined space and the space reduced mechanically, resulting in
compression.
power, theoretical (polytropic). The mechanical power required to compress

polytropically and to deliver, through the specified range of pressures, the air or gas
delivered by the compressor.
pressure, absolute. The total pressure measured from absolute zero (perfect vacuum).
pressure, discharge. The total pressure at the specified discharge connection (of the
compressor package). This can be expressed as an absolute or gauge pressure.
pressure, inlet. The total pressure at the specified inlet point (of the compressor pack-
age).
pressure dew point. The dew point at the prevailing pressure.(See dew point).
pressure ratio. See compression ratio.
pressure rise. The difference between discharge pressure and inlet pressure.
pressure, static. The pressure measured in a flowing stream in such a way that the
velocity of the stream has no effect on the measurement.
pressure, total. The pressure that would be obtained by stopping a moving stream of
gas or liquid. It is the pressure measured by an impact tube.
pressure, velocity. The total pressure minus the static pressure in an air or gas stream.
receiver. A vessel (or tank) used for the storage of air or gas discharged from a com-
pressor. In a large compressed air system, there can be primary and secondary storage
locations.
rotors. The rotating elements of a machine such as a compressor. This may include shaft
sleeves and a thrust balancing device.
rotary displacement type compressor. A compressor in which successive volumes of air

or gas are trapped in a confined space and the space reduced mechanically by rotation
of the rotors, resulting in compression.
10-4
Glossary of Terms
rotating speed. The number of revolutions per unit of time of the compressor drive
shaft, normally expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm).
rotor tip speed. The distance traveled per unit of time of a point on the outside diameter
of a rotor. For rotary screw compressors, this refers to the male rotor (drive rotor) and is
expressed in meters per second.
seal. A device used between a rotating and a stationary part of a compressor to separate
them and minimize leakage between areas of unequal pressure.
shaft. The part of the rotating element on which bearings and seals are normally located
and through which energy is transmitted from the prime mover.
single-stage compressor. A compressor in which full compression is achieved in a

single cylinder or stator.
single-stage centrifugal compressor.- Dynamic compressor that has only one impeller.
sliding vane compressor. A compressor in which vanes slide in radial slots in a rotor
mounted eccentrically in a stator.
specific gravity. The ratio of the specific weight of air or gas to that of dry air at the
same pressure and temperature.
specific power. The power required to drive the compressor per unit of flow rate. This
often is expressed as bhp/100 cfm.
specific weight. The weight of air or gas per unit volume. Unless otherwise specified, in
compressor practice it is the weight per unit volume at conditions of total pressure, total
temperature, and composition that prevail at the inlet to the compressor.
stages. A series of steps in the compression process, normally requiring separate pistons
and cylinders or rotors and stators and with intercooling between them.
standard air. The Compressed Air and Gas Institute (CAGI) and Pneurop have adopted
the definition used in ISO standards. This is air at a pressure of 1 bar (14.5 psia), 20°C
(68°F), and 0% relative humidity.
In the past, the U.S. compressor industry defined standard air as air at 14.7 psia, 68°F,
and 36% humidity. The process gas industries normally use 14.7 psia; 60°F (15.55°C),
and dry air as definition of standard air. Some process companies may have their own
standard. When standard air or SCFM is specified, it is best to confirm which standard
is being used.
stator. The casing in which a rotor or rotors are housed and in which compression takes
place.
10-5
Glossary of Terms
surge. A phenomenon in centrifugal compressors where a reduced flow rate results in a

flow reversal and unstable operation.
swept volume. The theoretical amount of air or gas displaced by the pistons or rotors
per unit of time assuming 100% volumetric efficiency. This is normally expressed in
cubic feet per minute (cfm).
Tedlar bag. A type of bag for collecting air samples.
temperature, absolute. The temperature of the air or gas measured from absolute zero.
The absolute temperature is the Fahrenheit temperature plus 459.6 and is known as the
Rankine temperature. In the metric system, the absolute temperature is the Centigrade
temperature plus 273 and is known as the Kelvin temperature.
temperature, discharge. The total temperature at the discharge connection of the com-
pressor.
temperature, inlet. The absolute temperature at the inlet connection of the compressor.
temperature rise ratio. The ratio of the computed isentropic temperature rise to the
measured total temperature rise during compression. For a perfect gas, this is equal to
the ratio of the isentropic enthalpy rise to the actual enthalpy rise.
temperature, static. The actual temperature of a moving gas stream. It is the tempera-
ture indicated by a thermometer moving in the stream and at the same velocity.
temperature, total. The temperature that would be measured at the stagnation point if a
gas stream were stopped with adiabatic compression from the flow condition to the
stagnation pressure.
thrust balancing device (balance piston). Part of a rotating element arranged to coun-
teract any inherent thrust developed by the rotors during compression.
torque. A torsional moment or couple. Normally, it refers to the driving couple of a

machine or motor.
valve. A device with passages for controlling or stopping flow.
water-cooled compressor. A compressor that uses water to remove the heat of compres-
sion by means of shell and tube heat exchangers. See also water-injected compressor.
water-injected compressor. A compressor in which water is injected into the compres-

sion chamber to remove the heat of compression.
10-6
APPENDIX A
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REFRIGERANT-
TYPE DRYERS
The dryer consists of three basic systems: air, refrigerant, and electrical. An air leak at
100 psig provides an audible signal, indicating where there is a problem. R-22 has no
color or odor; therefore, a small refrigerant leak is difficult to find. However, it can be
detected by a bubble test, halide torch (with a flame that changes from red-orange to
blue on contact with refrigerant), or an electronic detector.
The electrical system consists of transformers, starter, switches, relays, etc. The use of a
volt-ohm meter or similar equipment is required for checking continuity, amperage,
and voltage.
This table is provided as an aid for troubleshooting a refrigerant-type dryer.
A-1
Appendix A
SYMPTOM PROBABLE CAUSE SOLUTION

Unit does not run No line voltage Follow the wiring diagram
and check the voltage from
the compressor terminal to
the power source to find
where the circuit was
interrupted.
Improperly wired Inspect the electrical
components such as
switches, controls, motors,
and transformers.
Blown fuse or tripped circuit Supply power voltage,
breaker frequency, and phase must
coincide with the nameplate.
Refrigerant compressor head Refrigerant overcharge Excess refrigerant. Check the
pressure too high unit's nameplate for the total
refrigerant charge.
Refrigerant overcharge may
cause the system not to
perform properly and
efficiently.
Condenser fouled and dirty Dismantle and clean
condenser. Clogged fins in
the air-cooled condenser
reduce the heat transfer
efficiency.
Defective fan control switch Replace. The fan control cuts
in at 215 psig and out at 170
psig.
Defective fan motor Replace.
Dryer location too hot (high Cool ambient or relocate the
ambient) unit.
Compressed air leaks to Evacuate. Repair the leak
refrigerant system and recharge with refrigerant.
Repair or replace the
evaporator.
Refrigerant compressor head Low ambient temperature Increase the ambient
pressure too low temperature. If too low, dryer
freeze-up is possible. Add
head pressure control.
Refrigerant shortage Check for leaks in the
system; repair and recharge
with the correct amount of
charge.
Defective fan control switch Replace the switch. The fan
should cut out at 170 psig.
A-2
Appendix A

Refrigerant compressor Hot gas bypass valve out of Adjust or replace. Turn
suction pressure too low adjustment or defective clockwise to increase the
suction pressure. See the
vendor manual for normal
conditions.
Refrigerant shortage Add enough refrigerant to
maintain the desired suction
pressure. Also check the
amperage draw.
Excessive pressure drop on Check for any restriction
high side (plugged filter dryer). Suction
pressure should be steady
and vary only 1 to 3 psi from
high to low at this condition.
Head pressure too low due to Replace the switch.
defective fan control switch
Refrigerant compressor Hot gas bypass valve out of Turn counterclockwise to
suction pressure too high adjustment or defective lower the suction pressure to
the desired reading.
Compressed air dew point
rises as the suction pressure
increases (see Note below).
Refrigerant overcharge Excess refrigerant. Check the
unit's nameplate for the total
system refrigerant charge.
Refrigerant overcharge may
cause the system not to
perform properly and
efficiently.
Water in the compressed air Drain traps clogged Disassemble and clean the
system traps to restore free flow of
drainage.
Check the drain lines.
Automatic ball-float-type
drain traps do not need
priming but should be
disassembled and cleaned
after two weeks of operation.
Air by-pass system open Close air bypass valve. See
the vendor’s manual for the
initial start-up procedure.
Improperly set or This is indicated by suction
malfunctioning hot gas by- pressure being too high.
pass valve, or fan switch Adjust or replace.
cycling
Ambient temperature too Cool ambient or improve
high ventilation.
Note:
An increase in refrigerant suction pressure causes an increase in refrigerant evaporator
temperature. This in turn raises the dew point of the compressed air delivered into the
system.
A-3
APPENDIX B
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REGENERATIVE
DESICCANT DRYERS
This table is provided as an aid for troubleshooting a regenerative desiccant-type dryer.

Prior to detailed investigation, do the following:
1. Check for loose wiring.
2. Check for damaged piping.
3. Check for parts damaged by heat or an electrical short circuit. This is usually appar-
ent from the discoloration.
B-1
Appendix B

Poor dew point suppression Entrained water Check the moisture
separator.
Too little purge volume Check the purge flow needle
valve for proper setting.
Inlet pressure below design Check the pressure and reset
the purge valve.
Inlet flow rate too high Check the flow rate and reset
the purge valve.
Inlet temperature above Check the compressor
100°F aftercooler operation.
Desiccant soaked with Replace desiccant and check
compressor lubricant the filter elements.
High pressure drop across Excessive inlet flow Check the flow rate.
dryer
Inlet pressure below Check the pressure.
minimum design (80 psig)
Switching failure No input power Check the fuse, timer, and
On/Off switch.
No pilot air Check the pilot air lines and
control air filter.
Faulty switching solenoid Check the inlet solenoid
valve valve.
Dryer fails to pressurize Purge exhaust valve fails to Check the timer, solenoid,
close and purge exhaust valve.
Failure to purge Purge flow control needle Open and properly set the
valve closed purge control needle valve.
Purge exhaust valve fails to Check the timer solenoid and
open. purge exhaust valve.
Excessive tower back Clogged muffler disseminator Replace the disseminator.
pressure element
Purge exhaust piping of Increase the pipe and fitting
excessive length for line size size.
One tower has low pressure Defective check valve(s) Repair or replace the
defective check valve(s).
Dryer fails to repressurize Improperly set purge needle Open the purge needle valve
purged tower to line pressure valve until repressurization occurs
before switchover properly.
B-2
APPENDIX C
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR DOUBLE-ACTING
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
This table provides symptoms and probable causes for double-acting reciprocating
compressor problems. This table is provided as an aid for troubleshooting commonly
occurring problems in this type of compressor.
C-1
Appendix C
SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSE SOLUTION

Low or no oil pressure Defective gauge Check the oil pressure gauge
calibration.
Crankcase oil level too low Add oil to the proper level as
indicated on the sight gauge.
Also see the nameplate for
quantity.
Oil is too light Check the oil specifications.
Plugged oil strainer Clean the oil strainer as
outlined in the vendor’s
manual.
Leak in oil pump suction or Check for line leakage and
pressure line tighten the fittings.
Oil pressure relief valve out of Adjust the oil pressure relief
adjustment valve per the vendor’s
instructions.
Dirt on oil pressure relief valve Remove the relief valve.
seat Clean the valve and seat.
Use a magnet to remove
foreign metal particles.
Broken oil pressure relief Replace the relief valve
valve spring spring.
Crankcase oil pump defective Repair or replace the pump.
Defective oil pump drive If gear-driven, check the gear
alignment and security. A
direct-driven pump may
require a new oiler pin and
bushing.
Improper direction of rotation See the vendor’s manual for
of the oil pump instructions
Worn crankpin or wristpin Replace the crankpin or
bearings wristpin bearings per the
vendor's manual.
High oil pressure Defective gauge Check the oil gauge
calibration.
Relief valve improperly Adjust as outlined under “Oil
adjusted Pressure Adjustment” in the
vendor’s manual.
Oil too heavy See the oil specification in the
vendor’s manual.
Plugged oil pressure line Remove the pump discharge
piping and ensure that it is
cleared.
Defective or clogged oil filter Replace or clean the element
as needed.
Plugged oil return to sump Remove the obstruction from
the passage.
Erratic oil pressure Crankpin bearing inserts worn Replace the crankpin bearing
or defective inserts per the vendor's
manual.
C-2
Appendix C

Does not deliver air Controls inoperative Check the vendor’s manual
for control settings.
Restricted suction line Service the inlet filter. Ensure
that protective screens are
removed and remove the
obstruction from the inlet line.
Unit running “unloaded” Verify that control switch is
properly set per vendor
instructions for compressor
loading.
Suction and/or discharge Replace the valves per the
Valves missing instructions in the vendor’s
manual.
Low capacity Restricted suction line Clear the suction line.
Dirty air intake filter Clean or replace the filter.
Loose suction or discharge Tighten the screw(s) holding
valve assembly the assembly in place.
Worn or broken valve Recondition valves as
assembly parts described in the vendor’s
manual.
Suction or discharge valve Re-assemble as per the
improperly assembled vendor’s manual. Check if the
suction and discharge valves
have been assembled for
proper flow direction.
Defective inlet valve Service as described in the
unloaders vendor’s manual.
Defective or improperly Adjust or service per the
adjusted controls instructions in the vendor’s
manual.
Suction or discharge valve Align the valve cap to cage
cages misaligned as shown in the vendor’s
manual. Misalignment will
cause valves to leak.
Worn piston rings Replace per the instructions
in the vendor’s manual.
Leakage at piston rod Tighten or replace the
packing packing.
Low compressor speed. Vee- Check speed as shown on
belts slipping the compressor nameplate.
Tighten or replace the belts.
C-3
Appendix C

Low operating pressure Defective gauge Check the pressure gauge
calibration.
Excessive service line Check the service lines for
leakage open or leaking connections.
Suction/discharge valve Service the valve assemblies
loose, worn, or defective per the instructions in the
vendor’s manual.
System demand greater than Reduce demand. Detect and
compressor capacity repair system leaks.
Inlet valve unloaders Service the unloaders per the
defective instructions in the vendor’s
manual.
Improperly adjusted pressure Adjust per the instructions in
control the vendor’s manual.
Worn piston rings Replace per the instructions
Low compressor speed. Check speed on compressor
Loose drive belts. nameplate. Check drive belts
for tightness and/or damage.
Replace if required.
Overheated cylinder No cooling water Check the cooling water
supply and controls.
Insufficient cooling water Increase the water flow.
Scored piston or liner Repair or replace.
Worn or broken valve Repair or replace. Check the
assembly or parts discharge valves first.
Piston rod packing too tight Loosen or replace the
packing as necessary.
Discharge pressure too high Adjust the air pressure switch
setting.
Suction/discharge valve cage Align the valve cap to cage
not aligned per the instructions in the
vendor’s manual.
Cylinder cooling jackets Clean the water passages of
clogged with deposits, rust, or the cylinder cooling jackets.
scale
Excessive carbon deposits on Disassemble and clean.
valve assemblies (for Check the lubrication rate.
lubricated compressors)
Insufficient lubrication (for Correct the lubrication rate.
lubricated compressors)
Broken high pressure relief Repair or replace the valves
valve or check valves as necessary.
C-4
Appendix C

Water in cylinders Cooling water temperature Cooling water inlet
too low causing condensate temperature should be above
ambient air temperature.
Adjust the cooling water
discharge temperature to
100–120°F. (38–49°C)
Leak in head gasket Replace the head gasket.
Cracked cylinder head Replace the cylinder head.
Air discharge piping pitched Pitch the discharge piping
toward compressor away from the compressor.
Leak in aftercooler Check the aftercooler tube
nest and repair leaks.
Moisture separator not Drain and check the
drained operation of the drain trap.
Leak in intercooler Check the intercooler tube
nest and repair leaks.
Condensate in intercooler Drain and check the drain
trap.
Scored cylinder liner and Foreign material getting into Clean the air intake filter.
piston cylinder Replace filter, if necessary.
Overheated cylinder See “Overheated cylinder” in
this table.
Broken valves or valve Replace as needed.
springs
Water in cylinder See “Water in cylinders” in
this table.
Excessively worn or broken Replace as needed per the
piston rings instructions in the vendor’s
manual.
Insufficient lubrication (for Correct the lubrication rate as
lubricated compressor) specified in the vendor's
manual.
Erratic or inoperative Improper control adjustment Adjust the controls as
compressor control needed.
Defective control components Check the control
components. Repair or
replace as needed.
Clogged, pinched, or Clean the control air tubing to
improperly connected control the unloaders. Replace if
piping damaged.
Clogged control air filter Drain and clean the element.
Defective inlet valve Check the yoke, spring, and
unloaders diaphragm. Replace parts as
necessary.
Inadequate supply of control Check the installation and
air to unloaders and control control panel drawing for
pressure switch respectively proper piping details. Control
(air supply lines from air air must be free of surging
receiver too small) and of ample volume while
unloading.
Voltage drop, incorrect Restore proper power supply.
voltage, or loss of power
C-5
Appendix C

Compressor continues to Broken unloader diaphragm Replace the inlet valve
pump after unloading unloaders.
Broken unloader yoke Replace the inlet valve
unloaders.
Total closure valve fails to See “Total Closure Control” in
close the vendor’s manual.
Broken suction or discharge Incorrect re-assembly of See “Valve Assemblies” in the
valve and/or valve springs valves vendor’s manual and ensure
the proper spring tension with
the proper number of springs.
Condensation and rust due to Cooling water inlet
cooling water too cold temperature should be above
ambient temperature.
Maintain 100–120°F (38–
49°C) cooling water discharge
temperature.
Overheated cylinder See “Overheated cylinder” in
this table.
Over lubrication Clean and remove the carbon
(for lubricated compressors) deposits from the valves.
Reduce the lubrication per
the instructions in the
vendor’s manual.
Insufficient lubrication Increase the lubrication to the
(for lubricated compressors) rate specified in the vendor’s
manual.
Air receiver pressure too high Defective pressure gauge Check the pressure gauge
calibration. Recalibrate or
replace gauge.
Pressure control set too high Adjust the pressure control to
a lower setting.
Restriction in pressure Remove any restrictions.
sensing line
Defective unloader. Remove, inspect, and replace
the valve unloaders per the
vendor’s instructions.
Defective control or unloader Clean, repair, or replace.
Discharge air temperature too Overheated cylinder See “Overheated cylinder” in
high this table.
Cylinder cooling water Regulate the water
temperature too high temperature control to
maintain 100–120°F (38–
49°C) water discharge
temperature.
Discharge pressure too high Lower the discharge
pressure.
Insufficient cylinder lubrication Correct the lubrication rate
(for lubricated compressors) per the specification.
C-6
Appendix C

Compressor stops A protective logic initiates the Check all safety devices (oil
unexpectedly drive motor trip. pressure, water temperature,
discharge air temperature,
etc.) to determine the reason
for shutdown.
Power failure NOTE: In the event that the
compressor is stopped
unexpectedly or by safety
devices, perform “Normal
Stopping” per the instructions
in the vendor’s manual to
avoid start-up under load.
Place the selector switch in
the Off position before
resetting the circuit. For units
with total closure control, see
“Start-up After Abnormal
Shutdown” in the vendor’s
manual.
Compressor knocks Foreign material in cylinder Inspect the inside of the
cylinder through the valve
ports.
Incorrect head clearance Adjust the piston head
clearance per specifications.
Loose piston on piston rod Tighten the piston nut.
Worn connecting rod See “Connecting Rod” in the
bearings vendor’s manual.
Worn crosshead See “Crosshead and Guide”
Loose valve assembly or Check the valve installation
valve cage per the instructions in the
vendor’s manual.
Loose or defective main Replace the bearing if
bearings defective. Check for proper
bearing fit in the bearing bore
and on the crankshaft.
Frozen piston rings Remove and replace as
necessary. Reinstall after
cleaning the ring grooves to
ensure free movement.
Bent connecting rod Check the rod for alignment.
Replace if necessary. See
“Connecting Rod” in the
vendor’s manual.
V-belts or sheave loose Check the belt tension and
tighten the sheave hub.
Piping vibration Check all piping. Provide
additional support, if required.
Loose counterweights in Tighten the counterweights.
crankshaft
C-7
Appendix C

Motor fails to start Motor overload relay on Reset the overload relay after
motor starter tripped. determining the cause for the
overload.
Improper wiring. Check motor circuit wiring.
Power disconnected Reconnect the power supply.
Motor trips after start Low oil pressure. Oil switch See “Low or no oil pressure” in
not holding. this table.
Other safety device tripped Check all safety devices.
Determine the cause for the trip
before resetting.
Motor overheats Voltage incorrect Restore the correct voltage.
Excitation incorrect Restore the correct voltage.
Dirty motor Blow off with clean air or
disassemble and clean.
Poor lubrication Lubricate per specifications.
Motor overloaded Correct the compressor operating
pressure or speed. Ensure that
compressor is running “free.”
High intercooler pressure Defective pressure gauge Replace as necessary.
Broken inlet or discharge Repair as outlined in the vendor’s
valves or valve springs in the manual.
succeeding cylinder
Damaged head gasket in Replace the gasket.
succeeding cylinder
Broken H.P. check valve Repair or replace.
Unloader yoke holding See “Inlet Valve Unloaders” in the
valves open in succeeding vendor’s manual.
cylinder
Low intercooler pressure Defective pressure gauge Replace as necessary.
Broken inlet or discharge Repair as outlined in the vendor’s
valves in preceding cylinder manual under “Valves.”
Leak in intercooler Check the intercooler tube
bundle.
Leaking intercooler drain Check the drain and trap.
Piston rod packing leaking Adjust or replace as needed.
Unloader yoke holding Re-assemble the inlet valve
valves open in preceding unloaders per instructions in the
cylinder vendor’s manual.
Oil leaking past piston rod Scraper rings worn out Replace the worn rings.
oil scraper rings
Dirt between rings Remove the rings and clean.
Scratched or scored rod Clean or replace the rod.
Stretched springs Replace the springs.
Nicks on bottom surface of Refinish the surface. Maintain
stuffing box clearance per next item.
Incorrect ring clearance in Proper clearance is 0.002"
piston rod packing box. (0.05 mm) per ring or total of
0.004" (0.1 mm) for a two ring set
and 0.006" (0.15 mm) for a three
ring set. (0.0015" min., 0.003"
max. per ring) (0.038 mm min.,
0.076 mm max.). Rings must be
able to float.
C-8
APPENDIX D
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR ROTARY
COMPRESSORS
The table in this appendix provides symptoms and probable causes for rotary screw-
type compressor problems. This table is provided as an aid for troubleshooting com-
monly occurring problems in this type of compressor.
D-1
Appendix D

Compressor will not start Main disconnect switch open Close the switch.
Line fuse blown Replace the fuse.
Control transformer fuse blown Replace the fuse.
Motor starter overloads tripped Reset. If trouble persists, check
whether the motor starter
contacts are functioning
properly.
Compressor shuts down with air Low incoming line voltage Check the voltage. If low, check
demand present the incoming power supply.
Loss of control voltage Reset. If trouble persists, check
that the line pressure does not
exceed the compressor
nameplate maximum operating
pressure.
Excessive operating pressure Defective pressure sensing
switch. Check the pressure at
which the contact points open.
Air/oil separator requires
maintenance. Check the
differential pressure under full
load conditions.
High pressure shut-down switch
setting is too low. Correct the
setting.
Defective control air solenoid
valve. The solenoid valve
should cause the inlet valve
control lever to move to the
unload stop when the pressure
switch contacts open. Repair or
replace if defective.
Defective blowdown valve. The
blowdown valve should exhaust
the sump pressure to 35 psig
(2.4 bars) or lower when the
maximum operating pressure is
reached. Repair if defective.
D-2
Appendix D

Discharge temperature switch Cooling water temperature is
open too high. Increase the water
flow (if water-cooled).
Cooling water flow is
insufficient. Check the water
lines and valves.
Cooler is plugged. Clean the
tubes. If water-cooled, install a
water conditioner.
Cooling air flow is restricted.
Clean the cooler and check for
proper ventilation (if air-cooled).
Ambient temperature is too
high. Provide sufficient
ventilation.
Low oil level. Add oil.
Clogged oil filter. Change if the
differential pressure is high.
Cooler bypass thermal valve is
not functioning properly.
Replace the thermal sensing
element (air-cooled).
Water flow regulating valve is
not functioning properly.
Replace the valve.
Defective discharge
temperature switch. Check for a
short or open circuit to the
temperature probe; correct
wiring.
Compressor will not build up full Air demand too great Check the service lines for leaks
discharge pressure or open valves.
Dirty air inlet filter Check the filter indicator and
change the element if needed.
Pressure regulator out of Adjust as directed in the
adjustment compressor manual.
Defective or dirty inlet valve Check that the inlet valve fully
opens when full air demand is
present. Repair or clean as
needed.
D-3
Appendix D

Line pressure rises above cut- Leak in control system causing Check for leaks.
out setting on pressure switch low pressure signal
Defective pressure switch Repair or replace as necessary.
Defective unloader solenoid Repair or replace as necessary.
valve
Defective blowdown valve Check that the sump pressure
is exhausted to the atmosphere
when the pressure switch
contacts open. Repair or
replace if necessary.
High pressure shutdown switch Adjust or replace as necessary.
defective or adjustment
incorrect
Excessive compressor oil Clogged oil return line from Clean the strainer. Clean the
consumption (for oil-injected air/oil separator orifice.
compressors)
Air/oil separator element Change the element.
damaged or not functioning
properly
Leak in lubrication system Check all pipes, connections,
and components.
Excessive oil foaming Drain and change the oil.
Oil level too high Drain to the correct level.
Pressure relief valve opens High pressure shutdown switch Readjust the pressure relief
repeatedly defective or out of adjustment valve setting or replace.
Defective pressure relief valve Replace the valve.
Air/oil separator plugged Check the air/oil separator
differential pressure.
D-4
APPENDIX E
TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
After a brief period, compressor operators should become accustomed to the sound of a
smooth running machine. Any change in the noise or vibration level should become
immediately noticeable. Often, this variation in sound indicates a potential malfunction
or failure.
This table is provided as an aid for troubleshooting a centrifugal-type of compressor

with a microprocessor control panel.
E-1
Appendix E

Compressor fails to start
No display on control panel No power to the control Turn the panel power on. See
panel Control Panel Troubleshooting at
the end of this appendix.
Ready to Start LED not lit Control system not reset Press Control Reset.
after a shutdown
PERMISSIVE START Drive motor switchgear Main breakers are not racked in.
message appears but the not engaged Rack in and close the drive motor
compressor will not start. breakers.
Drive motor switchgear Check and repair the drive motor
malfunction switchgear.
Drive motor switchgear Allow the motor drive to cool down.
temperature overload If the motor does not start, replace
or repair the overload devices.
No power to the control Check the control transformer
transformer in the power source. The control
switchgear transformer may need replacement.
Blown or overloaded Check the fuse rating and plant
fuses in the switchgear voltage condition. Replace the fuse
as required.
Loose or broken control Troubleshoot and repair the wiring.
wiring between current
transformer, motor starter,
and compressor control
panel
Emergency Stop button Reset the emergency stop by
on control panel pulling the button out.
depressed
Drive motor problems
Motor overheats Incorrect voltage Check and compare the motor
voltage rating to the switchgear
rating. Refer to the nameplates
Incorrect voltage is applied to the
motor. Check the switchgear
voltage level for a possible
undervoltage condition.
Motor overload controls Check the motor amps when the
improperly set or not compressor is fully loaded.
working
Motor bearings improperly Refer to the motor literature.
lubricated
Motor windings shorted See the manufacturer’s literature.
out
Seized motor Check for free shaft movement. Be
sure that the power is off.
Unusual motor noise Motor bearings not Refer to the motor literature.
correctly lubricated
Dirty motor. The windings Consult a motor service shop.
are fouled so that the
rotor and stator are in
contact.
Damaged drive coupling Inspect the coupling. It may require
repair or replacement.
E-2
Appendix E

Unusual motor vibration Loose motor hold down Tighten the bolts.
bolts
Damaged motor bearings Refer to the motor literature.
Worn drive coupling Inspect the coupling. It may require
replacement.
Misaligned motor and Check the alignment and realign.
compressor
Oil leaks
Oil pump leaks Worn or damaged pump Replace the seal assembly.
seal
Loose pipe connections Tighten the connections.
to pump
Oil lines leak Loose connections in Check the piping and threading for
piping any damage. Tighten as required.
Oil filter leaks Loose bolts on filter Tighten the bolts.
housing
Damaged filter O-ring or Replace the O-ring or the filter as
O-ring housing required.
Pinion oil seals leak Damaged O-ring on the Lift the cover to replace the O-ring.
pinion seal
Buffer air to pinion seals Seals should not be reused.
out of adjustment Replace from the vendor's parts list.
Seal installed incorrectly Lift the cover to check the arrow on
the seal for shaft rotation.
Bullgear oil seal leaks Malfunctioning air ejector Increase the ejector air flow rate.
Pressure inside the Check and clean the reservoir vent
gearbox and reservoir is filters. Decrease the buffer air
too high because the pressure.
buffer air pressure is out
of adjustment or the
reservoir vent filters are
plugged.
Worn seal Replace the seal.
Gearbox leaking at splitline Gearbox splitline bolts not Re-torque per the vendor’s
fully torqued instructions.
Damaged or broken Lift the cover and replace the
splitline gasket gasket.
Buffer air pressure too Adjust the buffer air pressure per
high the vendor’s instructions.
Clogged reservoir vent Clean or replace the vent filters.
filters
Ejector/filter inoperative. Oil Plugged filter elements Replace the element and restore
mist exiting from the filter the vapor lock in the drain line.
canister.
E-3
Appendix E

Poor aerodynamics
performance
Low discharge air pressure Air discharge pressure Check the discharge pressure
setpoint incorrectly set setpoint and increase within the
specified maximum setting.
Inlet filter dirty or Clean or clear the filter as
otherwise restricted (for necessary.
example, ice, snow, inlet
start-up screen still in
place, etc.)
Dirty impellers Clean the impellers.
Air system demand Reduce the demand. Check for
beyond the compressor system leaks.
rating
Maximum amp setpoint Check the specified maximum amp
too low setting and adjust as necessary.
Inlet guide vanes not Check the lubrication of the drive
operating properly screw.
Bypass valve or Check the stroke of the valve
modulating blow off valve actuator to ensure that the valve
not closing completely closes completely.
High inter-stage air Cooling water valves Open and adjust the valves for the
temperature partially closed cooling water flow.
High water temperature Reduce the cooling water
temperature. Cooling systems are
designed for a maximum water
temperature of 95°F.
Dirt or scale buildup on air Check the intercoolers and clean
or water side of the tube bundles as required.
intercooler
Hot air or water bypassing Remove the bundles and inspect
around intercoolers the seals and gaskets.
Compressor surge
Compressor surges during Dirty inlet filter Clean or change the filter elements.
normal operation (see
Note below).
High interstage air Low cooling water flow Open the cooling water valves fully.
temperatures Check the water flow rate.
High water temperature Reduce the cooling water
temperature. Cooling systems are
designed for a maximum water
temperature of 95°F.
Plugged or fouled Inspect and clean both the air and
intercoolers water side of the intercoolers.
High discharge air pressure Air pressure setpoint too Adjust the discharge pressure
high controller.
Faulty pressure Bench test and replace the
transducer transducer if required.
Minimum amp setpoint Adjust the minimum amp setpoint
below recommended to the setting recommended in the
setting manual.
Discharge check valve not Remove and inspect the valve seat
operating properly and disc. Replace if worn.
E-4
Appendix E

Inlet guide vane (IGV) No control panel power to Restore the control panel power.
functioning improperly the IGV motor Place the control panel in Manual.
Cycle the IGV open/closed.
Binding or broken Check the lubrication of the drive
mechanical linkage of the screw.
IGV
Malfunctioning IGV motor Bench test the operation of the
IGV. Repair or replace.
Incorrect IGV sensor Verify the sensor rating against the
motor nameplate (Full load amps
plus a service factor. See the
vendor’s manual).
Faulty solid-state relay or Troubleshoot. Replace as required.
fuse
Bypass valve (BPV) not No control power to the Test with a multimeter. Replace if
functioning (if included) BPV solenoid valve defective.
Mechanical failure of the Inspect the seals and piston for
BPV wear. Replace or lubricate per the
vendor’s instructions.
Faulty solid-state relay or Troubleshoot. Replace as required.
fuse
Modulating blow-off valve No control power to the Restore the power. Place the
(MBOV) not functioning modulating blow-off valve MBOV control switch in Manual
(MBOV) mode and cycle the blow-off valve
open/closed. Verify that the MBOV
opens and closes fully.
NOTE:
Compressor surging is acceptable when setting or adjusting the controls. However, repeated
surging during normal compressor operation is undesirable.
E-5
Appendix E

Oil pressure problems
Main oil pressure low Lube oil pump not The lube pump motor starter has
running. No power to blown or faulty fuses. Replace the
pump motor. fuses.
The motor starter overload heaters
are tripped or defective. Allow the
motor to cool, then reset or replace
the heaters.
Check for broken, loose, or faulty
wiring to the motor or starter.
Pump motor rotation Bump the motor. Check the pump
incorrect rotation per the vendor’s manual.
Correct if required.
Pump does not turn Remove the pump coupling to
freely determine if the pump or motor is
seized. Inspect for damaged
bushings or pump rotors.
Pump or motor turns The oil pump coupling is damaged.
freely with no resistance Inspect and replace as necessary.
Restriction in oil suction Drain the tank. Remove and
line inspect the pump suction line and
clear the restriction.
Pressure transducer Remove and bench test. Replace
inoperative or not as necessary.
functioning
Faulty wiring to control Troubleshoot. Correct the wiring as
panel required.
Incorrect voltage to Check the voltage. Normally a +24
pressure transducer volt supply is required. See the
vendor’s manual.
Pressure regulator (relief Disassemble and inspect. Replace
valve) not functioning as necessary.
Dirty or clogged oil filter Remove and replace the oil filter.
element
Oil system check valve Remove the check valve and
stuck open inspect for binding or damage.
Replace if necessary.
Low oil level Fill reservoir to proper level. Correct
any leaks.
LOW MAIN OIL Check the oil pump, solid-state
PRESSURE message on relay, and fuse.
control panel
Main oil pressure high Incorrect pressure Adjust to the proper pressure per
regulator setting the vendor’s manual.
malfunctioning as necessary.
panel required.
vendor’s manual.
E-6
Appendix E

Bearing oil pressure low Main oil pump not See Probable Causes and
operating Solutions for "Main oil pressure
low" in this table.
Clogged bearing oil filter Replace the filter element.
Faulty bearing pressure Remove and bench test. Replace
transducer as necessary.
Pressure regulator not Adjust to the proper pressure per
functioning vendor manual.
Pressure regulator Replace the regulator.
diaphragm failed
High oil temperature. Disassemble the mixing valve, and
Thermal mixing valve out test the thermostat for the
of adjustment. recommended temperature.
Verify the operation of the oil
cooler. Clean the tubes if
necessary.
Damaged high pressure Rotate the compressor shaft
pump or coupling manually and observe the free
operation of the pump.
Disassemble the pump for
inspection. Repair or replace as
necessary.
None of the above, but Remove the gearbox cover and
pressure still low inspect the internal oil lines for
loose fittings.
Inspect the bearing oil feed lines
for loose connections.
panel required.
vendor’s manual.
Bearing oil pressure high Incorrect pressure Adjust the proper pressure per the
regulator setting vendor’s instructions.
Regulator diaphragm Replace the regulator.
failed
Oil filter pressure drop high Clogged filter element Replace the filter element.
Pressure transducers Remove and bench test. Replace
panel required.
vendor’s manual.
E-7
Appendix E

Low oil temperature No flow or restricted water Open the throttle or block valves
flow to oil cooler completely.
Verify the water flow through the oil
cooler by measuring the water
temperature in and out of the
cooler.
Verify that the water supply pump is
operating if applicable.
Oil temperature RTD Bench test the RTD. Replace if
malfunctioning necessary.
panel required.
Faulty oil heater Check the heater thermostat for the
proper setting (80–100°F/27–38°C).
Recalibrate the thermostat or
replace the heater.
Faulty thermal mixing Disassemble the mixing valve, and
valve test the thermostat for the
recommended temperature.
Replace the thermostat if necessary
Fouled oil cooler Remove the cooler water headers
and clean the tubes.
High inlet air temperature Low or no water flow to Open the throttle or block valves
intercoolers completely. Ensure an adequate
water supply. Verify the in-out water
differential temperature (usually
95°F or 53°C).
RTD malfunctioning Bench test the RTD. Replace if
necessary.
panel required.
High temperature The water side of the cooler is
differential across cooler. possibly fouled. Clean the tubes.
Measure air temperature
in and out of cooler with
loaded compressor to
verify this symptom.
The intercooler seals or Remove the tube bundles and
gaskets are damaged. replace as necessary.
Hot air is bypassing.
E-8
Appendix E

High vibration warning on Faulty vibration channel Check the connections at the
control panel. Vibration vibration transmitter and probe.
measurements are within
limits.
Adjust the probe gap.
Check the wiring from the panel to
the vibration transmitter.
Check the fuse and power supply
(+ 24V) to the control panel.
Check the extension cable.
Replace if damaged.
Check the vibration probe. Replace
if damaged.
Check the vibration transmitter.
Replace if defective.
High vibration Most motor, coupling, or Concentrate the investigation at
bullgear problems are the specific stage that indicates a
shown by a significant vibration problem.
increase in the first stage
vibration level.
Oil temperature too high Open the cooling water valves
completely. Check the cooling
water inlet temperature.
Oil temperature too low The nominal minimum temperature
is 100–110°F (38–43°C). The
minimum for startup is 60°F (15°C).
Refer to “Low oil temperature” in
this table.
Bearing oil pressure too The optimum pressure should be
low 500–550 psig (34–38 bars). Refer
to “Low bearing oil pressure” in this
table.
Impellers dirty or Inspect and clean the impellers.
damaged
Drive coupling faulty Inspect the drive coupling.
Reassemble and lubricate per
specification. Replace if worn or
damaged.
Misalignment between Verify that the alignment is per
compressor and motor specification. Realign as necessary
shafts
Excessive drive motor See the specifications for
vibration acceptable limits.
Bearings fouled or Inspect per instructions in the
damaged vendor’s manual.
Gearing damaged Inspect per instructions in the
vendor’s manual.
E-9
Appendix E
Control Panel Troubleshooting
The next level of panel troubleshooting involves the use of a multimeter and the control
panel schematic drawing that will allow a step-by-step search for any problem.
NOTE: Troubleshooting at this level is intended for the more electronically sophisticated
operator. Some basic problems are discussed below. Other difficulties can be diagnosed
using the same logic. Consult the vendor’s manual and, if in doubt, contact the vendor’s
service department.
CAUTION: Be careful when adjusting the control panel. Errors can lead to greater problems
or even equipment damage.

Control panel “dead.” (No No power to control panel Verify that the main power
display, display backlight, supply to the panel is on and
sentry, or keypad LEDs on.) that the switch is closed.
Check the main power fuse in
control panel.
Check the panel control power
supplies.
If no voltage, check the control
power supply fuses.
Panel functions, but sensors Shorted or improperly wired Troubleshoot and correct the
do not operate sensors wiring problems.
False alarm on panel Incorrect control power Readjust the control power
supply voltage to panel supply.
Check the wiring.
Check the control power
supply fuses.
Incorrect pressure reading Faulty transducer Verify the actual measurement
by installing a gauge.
Remove the transducer and
bench test. Replace as
necessary.
Check for faulty transducer
wiring to the control panel.
Incorrect temperature reading Faulty wiring to control Verify the actual measurement
panel from temperature with a thermometer.
sensor Troubleshoot for a wiring fault.
Repair the faulty wiring.
E-10
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EPRI TR-108147

Compressor and Instrument Air

SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

EPRI Project Manager

Important Notice Regarding This Document:

Use of this document is voluntary. It is not intended

To provide technical guidance to assist utility personnel in improving compressor and

This report was prepared with contractor support from:

Mac Consulting Services

Andrew C. Taylor Entergy Operations, Inc.

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1-1

2 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 2-1

3 COMPRESSED AIR PRODUCTION (COMPRESSORS AND ACCESSORIES) ........................... 3-1

4 COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT (DRYERS AND FILTERS) ....................................................... 4-1

5 COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ............................................................................. 5-1

6 APPLICATIONS (POINTS OF USE) ............................................................................................... 6-1

7 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM SAFETY: CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 7-1

8 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM MAINTENANCE ............................................................................ 8-1

8.7 Dryers .................................................................................................................................. 8-6

9 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 9-1

10 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................................................................... 10-1

APPENDIX A: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REFRIGERANT-TYPE DRYERS ........................... A-1

APPENDIX B: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR REGENERATIVE DESICCANT DRYERS ............. B-1

APPENDIX C: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR DOUBLE-ACTING RECIPROCATING

APPENDIX D: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR ROTARY COMPRESSORS ................................... D-1

APPENDIX E: TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ........................ E-1

Figure 3-1 Types and Capacity Ranges of Compressors ............................................................... 3-2

Figure 3-2 Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor ..................................................................... 3-4

Figure 3-3b Details of Oil Scraper Rings .......................................................................................... 3-5

Figure 3-4 Cross-Section of an Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor ........................................ 3-6

Figure 3-6 Oil-Free Rotary Screw Compressor .............................................................................. 3-8

Figure 3-7 Water-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor .................................................................... 3-9

Figure 3-8 Operation of a Rotary Single Screw Compressor ....................................................... 3-11

Figure 3-9 Oil-Injected Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor ............................................................. 3-12

Figure 3-10 Liquid Ring Rotary Compressor .................................................................................. 3-14

Figure 3-11 Typical Multi-Stage Centrifugal Air Compressor .......................................................... 3-18

Figure 4-1 Refrigerant Dryer ........................................................................................................... 4-4

Figure 4-3a Heat Regenerative Desiccant Dryer .............................................................................. 4-6

Figure 4-3b Heatless Regenerative Desiccant Dryer ....................................................................... 4-7

Figure 4-4 Deliquescent Dryer ........................................................................................................ 4-8

Figure 4-5 Heat of Compression-Type Dryers ................................................................................ 4-9

Figure 4-6 Membrane-Type Dryers ............................................................................................... 4-12

Figure 4-7 Mechanisms of Air/Gas Filtration ................................................................................ 4-14

Figure 4-8 Coalescing Filter ......................................................................................................... 4-15

Figure 4-9 Adsorption Filter .......................................................................................................... 4-16

Figure 4-10 Float-Type Drain Trap .................................................................................................. 4-17

Figure 4-11a Solenoid-Operated Drain Valve ................................................................................... 4-18

Figure 4-11b Electronically Controlled Drain Trap ............................................................................ 4-19

Figure 8-1 Flexible Coupling for a Compressor .............................................................................. 8-2

Table 4-3 Desiccant Types and Application ................................................................................. 4-11

Table 4-4 Air Quality per ISO 8573.1 .......................................................................................... 4-21

Pre-Filters Dryers Receivers

1. Number, size and type of compressors vary.

Notes: Backup Compressors

Receivers Pre-Filters Dryers After-Filters

1. Number, size and type of compressors vary.

Piston Type Piston Type Centrifugal

Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges

Liquid Sliding Rotary

Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges Rating Ranges

3.1 Reciprocating Air Compressors

A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement type of machine, which means

3.1.1 Reciprocating Single-Acting Air Compressors

Fin and Tube