Journal of Hydraulic Research

ISSN: 0022-1686 (Print) 1814-2079 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjhr20

Numerical simulation and prevention of water

freezing in outdoor penstocks

Ioan Sârbu & Francisc Kalmar

To cite this article: Ioan Sârbu & Francisc Kalmar (2001) Numerical simulation and prevention
of water freezing in outdoor penstocks, Journal of Hydraulic Research, 39:4, 437-443, DOI:
10.1080/00221680109499848

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221680109499848

Published online: 01 Feb 2010.

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Numerical simulation and prevention of water freezing in outdoor penstocks
Simulation numérique et prevention du gel de l'eau dans les conduites extérieures
sous pression

IOAN SARBU, Professor, Department of Building Equipments, "'Politehnica" University ofTimisoara, Romania.

FRANCISC KALMAR, Assistant Professor, Department of Building Equipments, "Politehnica" University ofTimisoara, Romania.

ABSTRACT
Pipes laid in open air and conveying water can freeze in winter times. A blockage due to freezing can be effectively prevented by providing a minimum
discharge. This precaution ensures the free flow of water through the pipe, but does not stop the forming of an ice layer on the inner pipe wall. In this
paper a mathematical model is developed to determine minimal protection discharge and simulation of variation in time along the pipe of ice layer
formed inside outdoor pipes during non-stationary atmospheric regime. The model allows the study of the pipe capacity to transport the normal
discharge in operation and minimal protection discharge without affecting the hydraulic characteristics of the flow. Also, it gives the possibility to adopt
economical solutions for the problem of protecting these pipes from frost. The performance of the developed model is illustrated using a numerical
example.

RÉSUMÉ
Les conduites situées a l'extérieur et l'eau que celles-ci transportent peuvent geler pendant l'hiver. Le blocage du au gel peut être prévenu efficacement
en assurant un débit minimal. Cette precaution assure l'écoulement libre de l'eau dans la conduite, mais ne stoppe pas la formation d'une couche de
glacé sur la paroi intérieure. L'article développe un modèle mathématique pour determiner le débit minimum de protection et pour simuler revolution,
dans le temps et le long de la conduite, du gel de l'eau a l'intérieur des conduites extérieures en charge, en régime atmosphérique non-stationnaire. Cela
permet d'étudier si la conduite est capable de transporter le débit normal d'exploitation, ainsi que le débit minimum de protection, sans affecter les
caractéristiques hydrauliques de l'écoulement. Aussi offre-t-il la possibilité d'adopter des solutions économiques de protection de ces conduites contre
le gel. La performance du model développe est illustrée par un exemple numérique.

1. Introduction
Using outdoor pipes in hydroelectric plants and water supply sys­
tems (penstocks, valley and river crossings [6] etc.) during cold
periods, severe difficulties can occur. They are due, either to wa­
ter freezing which may lead to the formation of an ice layer on
the inner pipe wall, affecting the flow due to hydraulic character­
istics desired, or to permanent deformations induced by this phe­
nomenon.
Therefore, if the water flow is interrupted in order to perform var­
ious maintenance operations in the system, or according to the
working program of the hydroelectric power station, and the pipe
is full of water, after some time the whole water mass in the pipe
will freeze. In order to prevent this phenomenon, in practice there
is a tendency to ensure a permanent minimum discharge through
the pipe. For resting atmospheric regime (wind velocity negligi­
ble), a relation to calculate the minimal discharge to prevent water
freezing [7] was determined.
This precaution, in most cases, ensures free flow in the pipe, but
does not stop the formation of an ice layer on the pipe inner wall,
as for a water temperature near 0 °C it is impossible to avoid wa­
ter freezing, even for flow velocities over 10 m/s.
Therefore, we must study if the pipe is able to transport the mini­
mal protection discharge for a non-stationary atmospheric regime,
without affecting the hydraulic characteristics of the flow. Also,
even in the case of a normal operation with a given discharge, it
is necessary to study the capacity of the pipe to transport the dis­
charge, considering the ice volume that can be formed inside. If
the pipe is not adequate, it must be protected through outside pro­
tective thermal covers.
This paper offers theory on ice layer formation in outdoor pen­
stocks in regions of frost endangered climate, and bring numerical
examples. The paper presents a mathematical model for simula­
tion of changes in time along the pipe of ice layer formed inside
outdoor pressurized pipes, under non-stationary atmospheric re­
gime. This model can be used for obtaining economical solutions
of the problem to protect these pipes from frost.
2. Statement of the problem and theoretical approach
2.1 Elements of thermal energy
In figure 1 are presented the longitudinal section of a frozen pipe
with elementary length dx, and its characteristic thermal features.
The direction of x-coordinate coincides with flow direction.
By examining the thermal phenomena inside the pipe, we con­
clude that the main terms of thermal energy to be considered in
calculating the thermal balance for a unit length pipe, are:
- Heat flow water, Qw [J/day]:
e H . = 86400GpH,cu/B, (1)
in which: G is the discharge through the pipe; pu, - water density;
cw- specific heat of water; tw - cross-section averaged water tem­
perature.

Revision received October 25, 2000. Open for discussion till February 28, 2002.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH. VOL. 39, 2001, NO. 4 437

 we can determine a fictitious radius Rf, which considers the dis
QpdxdS Pipe turbances of the external air flow:

aaaza ffAgggg^ ke
R, =Re" (7)
Water
dxd2 Introducing the relations for temperature f, = t =0 °C and tN+] =
ei
te, the formula (4) takes the form:
QwdS Qf dxdZ
Qww » - ^ - d x ) d ^
dx -8640O7tr
Ö22 iCtt 22 22a Q
-=— 7 (8)
dx

Fig. 1. Longitudinal section through a pipe with frozen layer in which: te is the external air temperature; t - ice melting tem­
perature.
- Heat developed by friction, Qf [J/(m day)]: - Solidification heat of water, QK [J/m]:

QK = KSg(R2-S)LK (9)
Q,=86400pggGJ=5460QBp-gr"V" (2)

in which: p ? is the ice density; Lw - specific solidification heat of

in which: g is the gravitational acceleration; 7 - hydraulic slope; water.
n - Manning roughness coefficient; r- radius of inside cross-sec­ - Heat transmitted by water to ice, Q, [J/(m day)]:
tion available to discharge.
- Heat transmitted by water to external air through pipe wall, Qp ö, = 86400 x27tra,-(f„-f s ) (10)
[J/(m day)]:
The coefficient of internal convection can be determined with the
86400x27t(f,-f w+ ,) relation:
%
l n
(3)
—+2^ +—
a. =416- (11)

in which: a,, a(, are the coefficients of internal and external con­ Ice melting temperature varies with water pressure head in the
vection; X, - thermal conductivity of material layer7' of the pipe; pipe[l]:
N- number of material layers.
The thermal resistance of convective heat transfer from water to t = -0.784 x 10 3 // (12)
pipe (a, has high values) and the thermal resistance of the pipe
wall, can be neglected due to their reduced influence on the ther­ in which H is the water pressure head.
mal flow: Introducing (11) and (12) into (10) the following expression is
obtained:
86400 x 27t (f,-f w + l )
e. 1 , R
— In — + —
1 (4)
Q, =72xl067C(r„. + 0.784 xlO" 3 //) (13)
X„ r a,R

in which X is the thermal conductivity of ice; R - inner radius of

Pipe-
2.2 Thermal balance
Considering the expression for the coefficient of external convec­
tion [5]: The thermal balance of the water through the pipe - ice - external
environment system can be expressed as:

a, =3.77- (5)
R" (14)
w being the wind velocity, and using the substitution:
in which 1 is the time.
1 1 R For the ice - pipe system, the thermal balance can be written as:
In — (6)
a R X R.
Q,-Qp+^L
92, = 0 (15)
ax

438 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH. VOL. 39. 2001. NO. 4

The thermal balance of water flow through the pipe is represented OH , r , _-„«"G~ 1
(22)
as follows: dx = '"
J„ - 'J = ""
7 „ - 0"~~~R>"
.255 r"1

30, + Q, - 2 , - 0 the expression of the parameter tw is determined from the equa­

(16)
tion (21) and is derived with respect to x as follows:

( n G 1
2.3 Mathematical/Numerical model
-0.784 x l 0 ~ ' 7 -0.255 D ? - " (23)
dx -5.33
Due to water temperature and pressure variation in time along the Rr r, )
pipe, the ice layer depth will vary as well. Therefore, generally, in which J is the pipe slope.
r = Hx,%). In the numerical simulation, the following values of Substituting the relation (23) and the values of known parameters
parameters are used: p„. = 1000 kg/m 3 , g = 9.81 m/s 2 , cw = 4185 into (20), the following differential equation is obtained:
J/(kg K), Lw = 333.3xl0 3 J/kg, p s = 917 kg/m 3 , Xg = 2.32 W/(m
K), « = 0.01.
* : 0.148^?I + 7.48X10- ° 3 l

dx R} r. „7.33 r «3
2.3.1 Constant ice layer depth along the pipe (24)
For pipes with large length (x —> °°) one may assume a cylindrical 3 ^ 1 _
0.66x10
ice cover formed on the inner pipe wall: /?: r.lnr

9r 3r dr which allows the study of ice layer depth variation in time.

■=r = 0; T - = — • (17)
As water temperature is, generally, known in practice, it can be
dJC OX lit
expressed by introducing expression (24) in equation (21):
Defining the relative radius of ice (non-dimensional parameter):
r = 1 . 2 5 6 7 , G , , 2 \R? 7 V' 7 5 +
(25)
-4G225 1
0.636x10 n4.S8 ^.4.58
0.784 x 10"-' H

and considering the hydraulic slope 7, according to the Chézy-

Manning formula: The derivative drjdx from equation (24), under certain given
conditions, varies only vs the relative radius r». The graph of this
,nlGl 1 function (fig. 2) intersects the axis of coordinates (dr„Jdx=0) for
7 = 0.255 ï 33n 5.33 (19) the following value:

as well as relations (1), (2), (8) and (9), the equation (14) takes r* = r*,, (26)
the form:
which represents the relative limiting radius towards which the

-86400Gp„x„^ + 22000M^-4
dx Ry r,"
8640071/ „ T , dr, n
(20)
■2np LR:r, — =0
' dx
Inn
2A,,

Using the relations (8), (9) and (13), the equation (15) takes the
form:

1
72 x 1067C(fM. + 0.784 x 10"1 H) .0.75
R
K fJ
864007U, „ „, drt (21)
r n
Kï
1 . ' dx
Tnr,
2X„

Considering pressure head gradient:

Fig. 2. Graph of the function drjdx

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH. VOL. 39. 2001. NO. 4 439

ice surface in the pipe tends, under the given conditions.
' G ^ i
By the forming of ice on the pipe wall, the roughness coefficient 72xl0 6 7T(f„, +0.784x10"- H) Ö/75
decreases, so that for a certain thickness of ice, characterized by yRfj
8640071? (32)
the maximal admitted relative radius: =0
1
lnr.
R 2X..
= 0.705- (27)
R,
The expression of the parameter tw is determined by the equation
the transportation capacity can be maintained without endanger­ (32):
ing the system by strongly increasing water velocity through the
Pipe- (R V'-75 -I
Protection against frost is leading to a completely free-of-ice pipe t,„ = 0.00559/ 0.784 x l 0 _ , # (33)
can result in extremely high investment costs for insulation.
vG; lnr,

Therefore, if for certain given (specified) conditions it results

that: where:

*litn > / v , (28) ( nG- 1

/ƒ=/ƒ,+ J. - 0 . 2 5 5 (34)
Rf r,
then, the pipe can function without thermal insulation. If condi­ V
tion (28) is not satisfied, it is recommended to determine the
thickness of thermal insulation layers accepting the formation of in which HQ is the hydraulic head available of the pipe.
an ice layer characterized by the relative radius equal to r»ad. In Deriving the expression (33) with respect to x and introducing in
this case, we must also use relation (3). (31) the known values, we obtain the differential equation:
For G = 0 in expression (24), and integrating the resulting equa­
tion with the boundary condition:
r* = RIRp for x = 0, and r* = r» ad , after introducing expression ^ = -0.00714X10- GZ 508r
( lnn)2
" v
M M
dx teR<; r [ l + 0.75(-lnr,)]
(27), we obtain the relation of maximum admissible time for wa­
ter stagnation in the pipe, xmax [days]: 1 r," 2 5 (-lnr t )
-0.625x10"' U I5 5 (35)
G - R°/ l + 0.75(-lnr !: )
R R
= 758 : 0.503 In — - 0 . 0 7 6 (29) j ^-.0.75 0.25/ i \2
R, -0.1407 J,,G r, (-lnr.)
teR°/s l + 0.75(-lnr : )
2.3.2 Variable ice layer depth along the pipe
For pipes operating at constant hydraulic and thermal characteris­ which describes ice layer variation along the pipe.
tics for a long time (x —> °°) the assumption of the forming of an ice The graph of the function (35) intersects the axis of coordinates
layer of variabled depth along the pipe is considered: (drjdx = 0) for the value of rHim.
The solutions of differential equations (24) and (35) can be ob­
dr _ dr _dr tained using the Runge-Kutta numeric integration method.
(30)
dx dx dx Separating the variables in differential equation (31) and integrat­
ing with the boundary conditions: x = 0 for tw = two and x = xu for
In this case, the expressions (20) and (21) of thermal balance tw = twa, abscissa xu of cross-section in which the freezing begins
equations (14) and (15) take the forms: (rt = Rt = R/Rf), is determined by:

P
86400Gp„.c„. — + 22000 " g " G
— ^
dx R, r:
8640071?, (31)
0
1
Inn
2T"

B-C(t:m-te)
-ln-
A 0.75
1
R nG' (36)
B - Ci 0.00559r -0.784x10-' H+\ 7-0.255
InR"7'

440 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESLARCH. VOL. 39. 2001, NO. 4

where: where A, B, C, D and E are the functions of r* and x defined as
follows:
A = 86400Gp„.c„.
2 3 A = -3069.8 xl09GO25/?Pr,175
B = 22000 P«gn G
R' B = -5372.2 x l 0 9 G 0 2 5 / ? " V 0 ' 7 5
(37)
86400 x 2K
C= C = -2.02xl0' , f ,G a 2 5 /?f ( ; 7 5 af t2^5 l n r ' 2I
I
0.0024
(U -ln-
R

Equation (36) can be solved by applying well-known numeric

-0.106x10"
G
„5.33
3

6.33
r, (lnr,)

(42)
Rf r,
methods (secant method, Newton method, iteration method).
For x = xa and x = L (r* = r* lim ), using the relation (33) are deter­ D = -1.92xl0"/?2r,
mined water temperatures twa and tw lhn, respectively.
By equating relations (1) and (3) written in differentia] form, after E = -1.264 x ! 0 6 - ^ - + 2.088 x 1 0 s G „ '
lnr, /?;." r, 5 "
integration with the boundary conditions of the variables: tw = tw0
for x = 0 and tw = twL for x = L, the minimal discharge to prevent + 0.283 x l 0 9 7 ; , G
water freezing is obtained:
Ice layer variation in time along the pipe is described by the hy­
6.l2nL(wR)"7 perbolic partial differential equation (41). The resolution of this
G =
(38) equation consists in determining the function r* = r*(x,x), which
p,c, ln?""~f'' satisfies both the given equation and the initial conditions: r*(x,0)

= R, = R/Rj and * ( x ' 0 ; = 0- The solution of the partial differen

in which: L is the pipe length; twL - water temperature in the final
cross-section.
2.3.3 Variable ice layer depth in time along the pipe
However, generally, the ice layer formed on the pipe wall varies
both in time and along the pipe: r, = r*(x,X). In this case, the ex­
pressions (15) and (16) of the thermal balance equations take the
forms:
dx
tial equation can be obtained using numerical finite-difference
integration (grids method) by "crossways" procedure.
The values r*,; for the function r»(jc/,x/) are computed at the nodes
O'j) of a straightlines grid (i = x/h,j = x/s) from the plane xOx,
where h and 5 are the length and the time step.
3. Numerical applications and results

( ~^ Suppose a metallic outdoor pipe has the following characteristics:

72xl0 6 7t(f„ + 0.784 xlO-'tf) G = 2.0 m/s, Jp = 0.015, R = 0.60 m, L = 4000 m, H0 = 10 m, te =
\RJ j -10 °C, w = 4.96 m/s. The numerical simulation model developed
(39) above is used.
- - 2 7 t p L /? r — - = 0
1 lnr.
,. k
" ' dx Fictitious radius is determined by the expression (7): Rf -
7
2A.„ 060e o.615/(4% ü.6)" _ o.80m, then, for ratio Rt = R/Rf= 0.6/0.8 =
0.75, using relation (27) the relative admissible radius results:
nad = 0.705 x 0.75 = 0.528.
In the initial assumption of a constant external heat exchange on
.86400GP c ^ + 22000 B ^ g l J -
the circumference of the pipe a computer program is used to solve
(40) the differential equation (24), and we obtain r,iljm= 0.529 and xHm=
72xl0 f, 7t(/„ +0.784x10"'//) 27 days (for an admissible error of 0.00005). Also, the maximum
vy admissible time of water stagnation in the pipe determined by the
computer program is xmax = 6.01 days.
in which water pressure head H follows from (34). Based on the obtained numeric results, in figure 3 the variation
By equation (39) the expression of the parameter tw is deter­ diagram is represented for the ice layer during its forming, which
mined, which then is derived with respect to x. Substituing in (40) has as asymptote the horizontal line r*/im= 0.529. Figure 4 shows
the relations thus obtained and the values of known parameters, water temperature variation along the pipe for xljm = 27 days. The
the second order differential equation results in: following values are obtained for water temperature: 0.0190 °C
in input cross-section (x = 0) and 0.0037 °C in the final cross-sec­
. d2r, „ 3 r , dr, „dr, dr. tion (x = L). Therefore, after the time x = xtim, for an input water
A—— +B-—- + C—- + D—- + E = 0 (41) temperature fu0 = 0.0190 °C, a constant ice layer along the pipe
dxdx dx d t dx dx
will be formed. This ice is characterized by the relative radius
Him'

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH. VOL. 39. 2001, NO. 4 441

 r,0.8 0.10
ÜQ7
Ice o nrifl
Q6 *
as
üliijn
Water 0.06
0.4
no/.
03
02
002
0.1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 1000 2000 3000 WOO

^-TiLdaysl ■" xlm]
Fig. 3. Ice layer depth variation in time
Fig. 6. Water temperature variation along the pipe with a variable ice
layer depth (for x = x,„„)

a020
~b- 0 days — ,
°^ 0.015 r
K 0.7
^4;i ~ -2
—
i' aoio 2&>f 0.6
r
«lim ^r^-io , . ■■

0.5

0.005
OA

03
1000 2000 3000 «XX)
0.2
-x(m]
01
Fig. 4. Water temperature variation along the pipe with a constant ice
layer depth (for x = x//ra)
1000 2000 4000
lm]

Considering then an input water temperature fvv0 = 0.1 °C and

Fig. 7. Ice layer depth variation vs time along the pipe (fwo = 0.1 °C)
solving the differential equation (35) and as well as the equations
(36) and (33) using the computer program, the following values Considering water temperature in the final cross-section twL = 0
are obtained: r*Um = 0.529, twllm = 0.0037 °C for x = L = 4000 m °C, the minimal protection discharge Gmin = 3.96 m 3 /s is obtained
andx ( , = 607.5 m, twa = 0.0646 °C. Based on the computed results, by relation (38). For this discharge the relative limit radius and
in figures 5 and 6, the variation diagrams for ice layer, and water the water velocity have the following values: r*Um = 0.704 and v
temperature along the pipe are presented. =3.98 m/s. Therefore, in this case, ice is formed on the pipe wall
Final numerical results obtained by solving the partial differential in a thin layer (R-Rfr*lim = 3.68 cm) and as a result the flow ve­
equation (41) in more than 2000 computational nodes, using a locity does not increase significantly (13.7 %), at given flow ve­
computer program, are represented in figure 7. Since r*Um = 0.529 locity in the pipe without ice (v0 = 3.5 m/s).
> r«ad = 0.528, the pipe can function without thermal insulation.
Water velocity in the pipe has the maximum value: vmax = G/[n(Rf
4. Conclusions
rt,J2] = 3.79 m/s.
The numerical model for simulating variation in time along the
pipe of ice layer in outdoor pressurized pipes has an increased
r* 0.8
generalization and accuracy level as compared to the relations
»XQ Ice determined in [7], for it considers also the disturbances of the
I 0.6
r external air flow.
*lim
0.4
Also, the model developed in this study offers the possibility to
Water choose an optimal protection solution for the pipes against water
0.2 freezing, based on the economic consideration, and to prevent this
phenomenon in operation. Hence, it is recommendable to install
along the pipes exposed to wind a control system formed of suffi­
1000 2000 3000 4000
cient number of telethermometers with automatic signal and
"-xlm]
transmission, which indicates the moment when the water tem­
Fig. 5. Ice layer depth variation along the pipe (fH0 = 0.1 °C) perature reaches limit of 0 °C.

442 JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 39. 2001. NO. 4

 L - thermal conductivity of material layer 7' of pipe
Notations
X - thermal conductivity of ice
cw - specific heat of water p? - ice density
dx - length of pipe element pK - water density
G - discharge through pipe i - time elapsed
Gmin - m i n i m u m protection discharge XUm - stabilization time of ice
g - gravitational acceleration xmax - m a x i m a l admitted time for water stagnation
H - water pressure head
H0 - available hydraulic head of pipe References/Bibliographie
J - hydraulic slope
J - pipe slope 1. B O G O S L O V S K I , P.A., Ledovti rejim truboprovodov
L - pipe length ghidwelectriceskih stanjii, Gosenergoizdat, M o s k v a , 1950.
Lw - specific solidification heat of water 2. C A R L I E R , M . , Hydraulique générale et appliquée, Eyrolles,
N - n u m b e r of material layers Paris, 1980.
n - M a n n i n g roughness coefficient 3. D É M I T O V I T C H , B. and M A R O N , I., Elements de calcul
R - inner radius of pipe numérique, Mir Moscou, 1979.
Rf - fictitious radius of pipe 4. IAMANDI, C , Hidraulica instalafiilor, Editura Tehnica,
r - radius of inside cross-section for discharge Bucuresti, 1985.
r* - relative radius 5. L E C A , A., M L A D I N , C , S T A N , M., Transfer de cdldura si
rnim - relative limiting radius corresponding to m a x i m a l ice masa, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1998.
layer depth 6. M A N E S C U , Al., S A N D U , M., I A N C U L E S C U , 0 . , A l i m e n t a r i c u
ie - external air temperature apa, Editura Didactica §i Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 1994.
tg - ice melting temperature 7. O A N C E A , N., S A R B U , I., R E T E Z A N A., Prevenirea inghepjlui
tw - water temperature apei in conductele aeriene, Rev. Hidrotehnica, nr. 3, 1984.
two - input water temperature 8. S A R B U , I., Numerical and optimizing methods in building
twL - water temperature in final cross-section equipments design, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1994.
v - water velocity 9. SARBU, I., Refrigerating systems, Editura Mirton, Timisoara,
W - wind velocity 1998.
x - abscissa of considered cross-section 10. S M I T H , G.D., Numerical solution of partial differential equa­
xa - abscissa of cross-section in which freezing begins tions, C h a n n d o n Press, Oxford, 1978.
a,, <x - coefficients of internal and external heat convection

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH. VOL. 39, 2001, NO. 4 443