Classical Electrodynamics

Chapter 1
Review of Electrostatics
 Classical magnetism is accurate, intuitive, and self-consistent as
long as we restrict it to the macroscopic realm.
 Thus, there is no valid concept of an “electron” in classical
electromagnetism.
 Instead we speak of an “electric charge” which is a large collection
of electrons or other electrically-charged particles.

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb found experimentally that for two electric point charges
exerting a force on each other:
i. Force is directly proportional to charge
ii. Force is inversely proportional to the distance between the charges
iii. Force is central
iv. Force is attractive for oppositely charged bodies.

( )
= ̂ 21= ̂ 21 = ∗
| | | | | |

( )
=
| |

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Because of the linearity of the vector spaces, we have the
superposition of forces

( )
=∑ = q ( ⃗) where

( )
( ⃗) = ∑ ℎ
ℎ

 What if we want to know the field due to an extended

charged distribution at point ‘p’?

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 To find the electric field due to continuous charge distribution,
we must sum over all the infinitesimal fields felt by all the
infinitesimal bits of charge that make up the extended object.

( )( )
⃗ =∫ where

= ℎ .

= ′ ℎ .

= ℎ .

( )
∴ ⃗ =∫
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
Example Find the electric field of a uniformly charged
disk at point ‘p’ with the surface charge density .
The electric field associated with the ring is and due
to symmetry, only the portion of the electric field
along z direction is non zero.
=| |
= , ℎ =2 ′
2 ′
= =2
( ′ + )
′
= =2
( ′ + )
=2 [−( + ) ]

=2 [ − ]
HW: Find the electric field at ( )
≫ Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Gauss’s law
 Take a point charge and fix a simple closed
mathematical surface around it (called a Gaussian
surface)
 At some point x on the surface, there is a vector
normal to the surface and an electric field vector
arising from the point charge .
Take Coulomb’s law for a point charge:
( − ′)
⃗ =
| − |
Flux of the vector field

⃗ = =

Where = Ω in the radial direction

∮ =∫ Ω=4
=4
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes 6
Markos Mehretie(PhD)
  Even though we derived the equation above using a point
charge, it is valid for any charge distribution with total
charge completely enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
=4 =4 , =

Gauss’s law in integral form for a charge distribution

 From the divergence theorem,
= ,

= =4 ( )

=4 ,

HW: Using Gauss’s law find the electric field for

Spherical, cylindrical and planner symmetry.
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Since the static electric field ( ) is an irrotational
field, its curl is zero.
× =0
And, also from the generalized Coulomb’s law
( ⃗ − ⃗ ′)
= ′ ( ′)
| − |
The vector factor in the integrand, can be written as the
negative gradient of the scalar
| |
( ⃗ − ⃗ ′) 1
=− ( )
| − | | − |
( ′)
⟹ =− ′
| − |

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Since the curl of the gradient of any scalar function of
position vanishes ( × = 0), we can write the field
as a gradient of some scalar function = −
(analogous to × = 0, . , = − ).
( ′)
=− =−
| − |
( ′)
= ′
| − |
= − =− =4
⟹ = −4π Poisson’s equation.
How to solve the Poisson’s equation?
Before going to solve Poisson’s equation, let’s discuss a little
about Dirac function.
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Dirac delta function
 Consider the following mathematically improper
function:
0, ≠0
= ℎ
+∞, =0
∫ =1
 If we shift the step function by ′ ′
− = 0 for ≠ and

− ( ) = ( )

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Multiple dimensions

 = ( − ) ( − )
 = − − −
Dirac deltas obey the property
1
= ( )
 This identity shows us that the units o a Dirac delta are
the inverse of the units of its operand.
 The general expression for the three-dimensional Dirac
delta in any orthogonal coordinate system , v, w with
incremental length elements , , is given by
( − )= − − ( − )

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 For example, in spherical coordinates, ( , , ) , the
incremental length elements are , , .
 This means that = 1, = , = leading to

( − ) ( − )
− ′ = ( − )
 Point charge: ( ) can be written by menas of delta
functions.
= − where X’ is the position of the point
charge.
Since ∫ − = 1,
( − ′) ( − ′)
= ′ ( ′) = ( − ′)
| − ′| | − ′|
( )
= ′ = ′ Electric field due to point charge.
| |

Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes

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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 The solution of Poisson’s equation is the sum of the
homogenous and particular solutions.
= + ( )
=0 .
is chosen to satisfy the boundary conditions.
= −4π
Solving particular solution- Green’s function
 Green’s Method: Since the PDE is linear, we can use the concept
of superposition principle.
 The Green’s function for the particular solution is the potential
for a unit point charge with no potential at boundaries.
′ = −
, =4 ( − ′) the source is at the position X’
= ′ ( ′) ( − ′)

= ( , ′)
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 From the divergence theorem,
∮ =∫
Let = , where & are arbitrary scalar fields.
= , ≡

= ( + ) ……. 1

And, if we interchange & , the Green’s 1st identity becomes:

∮ = ∫( + ) then subtract it from the

Green’s 1st identity

− = ( − ) …… 2

Which is valid if & are continuous with continuous partial derivatives

up to the 2nd order in the closed region.
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 Our original Poisson’s equation
= −4 1
= −4 ( − ′) 2
If we multiply eqn(1) by G and eqn(2) by , and also
integrating and subtracting,
− + 4 , − 4 − =0

However, analogous to Green’s 2nd identity,

− = ( − )

1
= ( , ′) + ′( − )
4 ′ ′
 This is the Green function solution to the electrostatic equations.
 The Green function G can be thought of as a weighting parameter
that makes this approach work.
Classical Electrodynamics lecture notes
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Markos Mehretie(PhD)
 For Dirichlet boundary conditions ( ′ is known on the
surface of integration) we demand that G = = 0 on the
surface by use of the proper F so that the first term in the
surface integral vanishes.
1
= ( , ′) − ′( )
4 ′
( )
 For Neumann boundary conditions ( is known on the
)
surface of integration) we demand that =− on the
surface where is the total surface area.

1
= ( , ′) + +< >
4
Where the last term is the average potential over the whole
surface and can be made to
Classical vanish
Electrodynamics with
lecture
Markos Mehretie(PhD)
notes a surface at infinity.
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