Number Theory

Types of numbers
The different types of numbers are
defined beloW
can be poSitive, negative or "0".
DErS.. -3, -2,-1.0. 1. 2, 3,.. are called integers. Integers
The numbers 1, 2, 3, called
... are positive integers.
n u m b e r s - 1 , -2, -3,.. are called negative integers. '0' is neither posi tive nor negaive

The numbers 1, 2, 3.. are called natural numbers.

The numbers 0, 1, 3... are called whole numbers.
2,
Rational Numbers
Any number which is a positive or a negative integer or a fraction, or zero is called a rational number. Arat
atione
number is one which can a where b # 0 and a, b are
beexpressed in the form, positive or negative integers. Ration
ationa
numbers are either terminating decimals
(e.g.. 0.25 25/100) or recurring non terminating decimals.
(e.g.. 0.333 = 1/3)

Irrational Numbers
A non
terminating, recurring decimal number is known as an irrational number. These numbers
non
cannot be
expressed in the form of a fraction such
aswhere
b
b » 0. e.g.. v2.

Surds

Any root of a number which does not have exact

value is called a surd. All surds
Surds of the form are irrational numbers. Eg. 2, V5
y. x- y are called binomial quadratic surds,
x+

surds, one being the conjugate of the other. where x+ y and x- y are called conjugate

Note
The product of two binomial quadratic
conjugate surds is always a rational
binomial quadratic conjugate surds is also
a rational
number.
number. The sum of two
Even Numbers
All integers that are divisible by 2 are called even numbers. E.g., -4, 0,
2, 16 etc.
Odd Numbers
All integers that are not divisible by 2 are odd numbers.
E.g.. -7,-15, 5, 9 etc.
Place Value and Scientific Notation
Thenumber 237 can be written as
200 +30 +7. Or 2* 102 + 3* 10'7
The digit 7"' is called the units 10°
digit. The digt '3' is called the tens
The number 0.237 can be written as2*10" digit and the digit 2' is called the hundreds Ogi.
+ 3*102 +
7*10»
The digit 2' is called the tenth
digit. The digit '3' is called the hundredth
digit. diqit and the digit "7' is called the thousandth

Important results of operations on odd and even numbers

1. Addition subtraction of any two odd numbers
or
will always result in an even number
E.g.. 1+3 =4;5 -3 = 2. or zero.

2. Addition or subtraction of any two even

E.g.. 2 +4 = 6. 12-4 = 8.
numbers will always result in an even number or zero.

3. Addition or subtraction of an odd number with/from an

even number will result in an odd
E.g,4 +3 7; 10 3 7. number
4. Addition or subtraction of an even number
with/from an odd number will result in an odd
E.g.3+4 7;5-2 = 3. number
5. Multiplication of two or more odd numbers will resultin an odd number. E.g..3 x3 9.
6. Multiplication of two or more even numbers will result in an even number. E.g., 2x4 8.
7. Multiplication of odd numbers with an even numberwill result in an even number. E.g.. 3 x2 =6.
8. Division of an odd number by an even number will never be an
integer. The quotient will either be odd or even.
But the remainder will always be odd. E.g.
5 yields a quotient of 3 (odd) and a remainder of 1 (odd).
In the case of . we get a quotient of 2 (even) and a reminder of 1 (odd).

9 The quotient of dividing an odd number by another odd number may be odd or even. If the quotient is even,
then a remainder will necessarily exist. If a remainder exists, it will be even if the quotient is odd and the
remainder will be odd if the quotient is even.
10. The quotient of dividing an even numberbyan odd number will either be odd or even. If the quotient is odd
then a remainder will necessarily exist. Ifa remainder exists, it will be odd if the quotient is odd and it will be
even if the quotient is even.
11. The quotient of dividing an even number by another evennumberwillither be odd or even. If a remainder
exists, it will always be even irrespective of the quotient.
. An odd number raised to an odd or to an even power is always odd.
M3. An even number raised to an odd or to an even power is always even.
 Prime Numbers prime numbers. In otho
ther
which are divisible only by
themselves and1 are called
prime
number. e.g
e.g 2,3,5, etr d
2, 3, 5, 7, etc. Words, a
noSe positive integers factors viz., 1 anditselfis
called a
number which has only two integral divisible by 2

All numbers with the exception of 2 are

odd numbers-as all
even
numbers are
hence will
and

ume itself
nave 2 as a factor other than '1' and the number

Composite
lo test whether a given number is Prime or
to or less than its square root, then that numb.
nber
Ta number has no factor comprising prime numbers that are equal
must be a prime number.
o determine whether a number is a prime number, test its divisibility by prime numbers upto its square root. If na
OT the prime numbers upto its square root happens to be its factor, then the number is a prime number.

llustrative Example 1
Check whether 113 is a prime number.
step 1: ldentiy the perfect squareclosestto the given number. 100s theperfect square closest to 113.
Step 2: Compute the square root of that perfect square. 10 is the square root of 100
Step 3: List prime numbers up to the square root of the
perfect square. 2, 3, 5 and 7 are prime numbers up to 10.
Step 4: Check to see ifany of these prime numbers divide the
number to be evaluated. 2, 3, 5 and 7 do not divide
113
Result: If none of the prime
factors up to square root divide the number to
prime. Else it is composite. 113 isthe
a prime number.
be evaluated, the
given number is

Relatively Prime or Co Prime numbers

Two numbers are
relatively prime or prime to each other when
words, two or more numbers are they have no factor other than '1' in common. In
coprime to each other if their HCF other
Ex. 5 and 21 are prime to each other.
(highest common factor) is 1.
Note: Two prime numbers are always co prime to
each other.
Consecutive Numbers
Numbers arranged in
increasing order and differing by 1 are called consecutive
numbers. E.g 4, 5, 6, 7,..
Real Numbers
The set of integers, rational
numbers and irrational numbers
be represented by a constitute the set of real numbers.
point a number line.
on
Every real number can
Imaginary Numbers
The square root of a
negative number is known as an imaginary number.
as no real
number exists which when These numbers are called
and suffixing "" which is squared will result in a
negative number. Such numbers are imaginary numhere
equal 1. Thus -2 is denoted either as
to denoted by prefiinn
Therefore. i? -1 and i?= -i and i 1.
=
=
i2 or 2i
Complex Numbers

Complex numbers have a real and animaginarycomponent; Eg. (C7-A.2+ ) , ett. In general, a complex
be of forma + ib, where'a' is the real component and ib' is the imaginary component. For any
numberwill the
complexnumber of the form a + ib, the number a ib is known as its conjugate.
The sum of any complex number and its conjugate will always be a real number. (a + ib) + (a -ib) = 2a, which s rea.

The product of a complex number and its conjugate will also bea real number.
(a + ib)la ib) = a* - (2b?) = a? - (-1*b) = a' + b? which is a real number.

Factors
Factors of a given number are those numbers that can divide the number. For example, the factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and
6; the factors of 24 are 1,2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24.

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The least common multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers is the smallest number which is exactly divisible by each

of the numbers.

E.g. Consider two numbers: 12 and 15

Multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, 132, ..

Mutiples of 15 are: 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, ..
The common multiples of 12 and 15 are 60, 120, 180, . . .
The least common multiple is 60.

How to find the LCM of two or more numbers?

The LCM of two numbers can be found by the product ofthe highest power of the prime factors of the two numbers
after eliminating repetition of the common factors.
intheabove example, prime factors of 12 are 2 and 3. 12 can be expressed in terms of its prime factors as 2* 3.
Similarly, prime factorsfor 15 are 3 and 5. 15 can be expressed in terms of its primefactors as 3*5
Therefore, the LCM will be 3 *22* 5 =
60.

Note
LCM is the product of all prime factors of the given numbers, the common factors among them being
in their highest degree.

IllustrativeExample2
Find the LCM of 5xy>z and 3xy'z' where x, y and z are prime numbers.

The LCM wll be the productofallprimefactors of the given numbers, the common factors in their highest degree.
Thus, the LCM will be 5*3**y*z? =15x'y'z', where x, y and z are the prime factors.
 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD
Highest Common Factor (HC) Moot Point
e.g, Let find the HCF of 24 and 36.
us
of any two
The product given
Factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24. numbers product of LCM and HCE
Factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36. these two
numbers
of
Common factors to 24 and 36 are and 36 864
1, 2,3, 4, 6, 12 E.g. The product of 24
The highest common factor is 12. and 36 1s 72 and the Hc:
The LCM of 24
12.
of 24 and 36 is
ommon factor of two or more numbers greatest
is the
LCM and HCF of the t
number which divides each of those numbers leaving no remainder.|
number which The product ofL
numbers is 72 12 864
* =

e.g HCF of 24 and 36 is 12

How to find the HCF of two or more numbers?

Step 1 Express the two numbers as product of their respective prime factors.
numbers S the HCF
Step 2 product of the lowest powers ofthe prime factors common to both

IllustrativeExample 3
Find the HCF of 24 and 36.
24 expressed as a product of primefactors = 23 *3
36 expressed as a product of prime factors = 2*3.
Both 2' and 3 are prime factors common to 24 and 36. The lowest power of 2 is 2 and that of 3 i5 i.
Hence the HCF of 24 and 36 = 2*3 = 4*3 = 12.

Note: For any two consective positive integers, HCF = 1.

Fractions
Numbers of the form 3/4, 4/5, are called fractions. Afraction can be written as p/q where q #0.

f the numerator and denominator of a fraction are mutiplied or divided by the same number then the value ct
the fraction does not change.

Any fraction in which the magnitude of the numerator is less than the magnitude of the denominator
(p<qin
p/a) is known as a proper fraction. The value of such a fraction lies between-1 and 1

Any fraction in which the magnitude of the numerator is more than the
in p/g) is known as an improper tracton. Ihe
magnitude of the denominator (p>0
value ofsuch a fraction does not lie between-1 and
1.
 For anypositive proper fraction
p/q (p<a), the value of the fraction increases wne
number, k, is added to both the
3
denominator and numerator of the fraction.
eg0.75, 3+1 4
4+1 0.8,

For any poSitive proper

fraction p/a (p<g). the value of the fraction decreases when a poSitive nunmoE,
is subtracted from both the ,
numerator and denominator of the fraction.
eg0.75, 0.67.
For anypoSitive improper fraction
p/q (p>q), the value of the fraction decreases when the same portve
number, k, is added to both the numerator and
the denominator of the fraction.
5
e.g 41.25, adding 1to the numerator and the denominator, we get 5+1 = 1.2, which is less than
1.25.

For any positive improper fraction

p/q (p>g), the value of the fraction increases when a positive number,
k, is subtracted from both the numerator and
denominator of the fraction.
5
e.g.= 1.25, by subtracting 1 from both the numerator and denominator we get, =1.33>
1.33>1.25.
4

Types of fractions
2 4 7
Positive Fractions: The numbers 5T called
are positive fractions.

Negative Fractions: The numbers A7are called negative fractions.

Common or Vulgar Fractions: Fractions such 3/4, 42/34 etc are called common or vulgar fractions.

Decimal Fractions: Fractions whose denominators are 10, 100, 1000,... are called decimal fractions.

Mixed Fractions: Fractions which consist of an integral part and a fractional part are called mixed fractions. All
improper fractions can be expressed as mixed fractions and vice versa. e.g. 14 is the mixed fraction format of the

improperfraction

Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which a set of figures is repeated continually is called a recurring or periodic or
a
circulating decimal.e.g. 1/7= 0.142857., 1/3=0.33333. The dots indicate that the figure from 1 and 7 will repeat
continuously in the first number and the number 3 repeats continuously in the second number.

Terminating Decimals: Anumber that has finite number of digits after the decimal point is a terminating decimal,
e9, 1/5 = 0.2. The number of digits after the decimal is finite.

On the contrary, 1/6 =

0.16666., the number of digits after the decimal point is infinite and hence, 1/6 is not a
terminating decimal.
Addition of Fractions
the numerators.
if the fractions have the same denominators, just add
fractions into equivalent
fractions having the
the same
ea.

If the fractions have different denominators,

then convert the
find the LCM of denominatore.
denominator -which can be donebytaking the
LCM of denominators. i.e., we and
denominator.
then add the product of numerator and the quotient of
LCM divided by the

IlustrativeExmaple 4
Find the value
of
The LCM of the denominators i.e. 7 and 10 is 70.
5,
56 60 63 179
Express each of the 3 fractions into equivalent ones with 70 as denominator. So, +
10 70 70 70 70
Mixed fractions can be added
by adding the integral and fractional part separately or
proper fractions. by converting them into im-
E.g.3+ 11/12 can be added as either
a44,113.412)-{1"5) =3+-3+1460 460 60 60
283
60
Or by converting the mixed
fractions into 1 (19*12+
improper fraction,+-912+11"5)
60
115) 283
283
60
LCM and HCF of fractions
LCM of numerators
LCM of fractions 3
HCF of denominators E.g. LCM of and 3(LCM of numerators)
2(HCF of denominators)
HCF of numerators
HCF of fractions LCM of
denominators E.g. HCF
ofand 1(HCF of numerators)
4(LCM of
Note that, the product of the two denominators)
fractions is always equal to the product of
LCM and HCF of
The
the two fractions.
product of the two fractions =

4 28 The product of the LCM and HCF

ofand
In general, 1 is never a factor of a proper traction, as in most cases 1 will be a
multiples are never factors except when the two are same. multiple of a
proper fraction and
Multiplication offractions
d the product of two fractions, multiply
their numerators and then divide this by the productor teu
Eg. 3'8
4*9

pivision of fractions
a
Ta divide afraction by another fraction . multiply a by d

Fundamental laws of operations on Numbers

a) Commutative Law of Addition: a +b = b +a
b) Associative Law of Addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Additive ldentity is "0": a +0 = a
Additive Inverse: a + (-a) = 0. -a is the additive inverse of a and vice versa.
d
e) Commutative Law of Multiplication: a *b = b*a
Associative Law of Multiplication: (a b) *c *
=
a
*
(b *c)
Multiplicativeldentity is "1": a* 1 = a
9 Multiplicative Inverse: a * (1/a) = 1. 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of a and vice versa

Distributive law: (a + b) * c = a*c + b ' c

Multiplicative property of "0": a *0 = 0

K) Multiplicative property of"-1":(-1)* a= -

a where b 0.
b

m) where b, c# 0

2 . d ad
n b cbc Whereb, C# 0

Indices
The expression, a = a*a*a*a*a
a" a*a*a*..n times.
imilarly for any positive integer n,
=

In a, a is called the base and n is called the index.

 Fundamental laws of Indices
Let m and n be real numbers, then

1. a a amn
2. (am) am
3 am/an= am", where a¢ 0
4. (ab) = a *bm
and "n" are positive negative integers, Docits
or
OT indices hold good irrespective of whether "m"
S
negative fractions.

Properties of Indices
1. a 1, where a # 0

2.

3. Va.ie theg root of "a" raised to the power of "p".

In particular - a
Unit Digit of Powers of Numbers
The last digit or the unit
digit of a number raised to an integral index repeats at regular intervals.
For instance notice the unit digit of indices of "3". 3'
3,3 =
9, 33 =
27, 3
81, 3 243, 3 729.
= =

3'and 3 have same unit

digit. 3 and 3 have the same unit digit and so on. If 3 is the unit
the unit digit repeats every fourth
consecutive term of the index of the number. Numbers
digit of a number, then
depending upon the unit digit of the number. exhibit exactly three patterns

Pattern 1: If 2 or 3 or 7 or 8 is the digit in the unit's place of the base

fourth value of the index. To find the unit number, then the unit's digit repeats every
digit such a number, raised to a
of
integer, divide the power (index) of that number by 4 and find power that is a positive
the remainder.
f the remainder is 1 then the unit
digit is the same as that when the unit
1.If the remainder is 2 then the unit digit of the number is raised to
digit is the same as that when the unit
digit is the same as that when the unit digit the number is raised
to 2. If the remainder is 3 then the unit of
to 3. If the remainder is "o" then the unit
digit is the digit of the number is raised
raised to 4. i.e., the cyclicity is '4" same as that when the
unit digit of the number is
LllustrativeExample 5
Find the unit digit of (122)* ,
Tho nit diait of the
number is "2". We know that the unit
digit of a number
fourth term of the index. ending in "2" repeats every
Hence, find the remainder when94" I5 divided
by "4". The remainder is "2"
Therefore, 122 will have the same unit digit as that of 22,
which is 4.
 : if 0 or 1 or 5 or 6 is in the unit's place of the base number. all powers of the number contain tnesam
at
P a t t e r n

digit in the unit place. i.e., the cyclicity is 1

e.g,6' 6, 6 =
36, 6 216, 6 =
1296
nathern3: If4isin the unit place of the base number, the unit diait willbe "4" if the power is odd and the unit dignt
will be 6 if the power is even.
4' =
4, 4 =16, 4 64, 4 256.
if the unit place of the base number, the unit
Simiarly,
and the
91sin digit will be 9if the power is an odd number
unit digit
will be 1 if the power is an even number.
9 9.92 = 81, 9 =729, 94 = 6561.

The table below summarizes the unit's place of the powers of 2,3, 7 and 8.

2'2 3 3 7 Z 8'&
22 4 72 49 8 64
2 8 3 22 73 343 8 512
24 16 34 81 7 2401 84 4096

Tens digit of powers of"7

7 = 07;72 = 49; 73 = 343; 74 = 2401;7 16807;

YOU will notice that the tens digit of powers of 7 repeat in the following pattern {0, 4, 4, 0}, {0, 4, 4, 0} etc.,

Tests of Divisibility
1. By 2-A number is divisible by 2 when its units place is 0 or divisible by 2. E.g. 120, 138.
All even numbers are divisible by 2.

2. By 3-A number is divisible by 3 when the sum of the digits ofthe given number is divisible by 3. E.g 288,
19272.
Note that if n is odd, then 2 + 1 is divisible by 3 and if n is even then 20 -1 is divisible by 3.

Os or are divisible by 4.
3. By 4-A number is divisible by 4 when thelast two digits ofthe number are
Eg. 145896, 128, 18400.
As 100 is divisible by 4, it is sufficient if the divisibility test is restricted to the last two digits

4. By 5-A number is divisible by 5, ifits units digit is 5 or 0. E.g. 895, 100.

both 2 and 3. That is, the number should be an even

5. By 6-A number is divisible by 6, if it isdivisible by
number and the sum of its digits should be divisible by 3.

You will save time by testing for divisibility of 2 before testing for divisibility of 3.

number and break it into groups of three digits each. Add the
6. By 7-Start from the Right Hand Side ofthe
alternate groups and subtract the rest from the sum. if the final result is divisible by 7, then the original
number is divisible by 7.
 g5265173 is broken as 595 265 173. Add 595 and 173 and
subtract 265 from
thesum. 595 + 173
265 = 413 which is divisible by 7. Hence, 595265173 is divisible by 7.

the same peration to get 6 +

370
Let us take another number 6740370. Break it as 6 740 370. Then repeat
740 364 which is divisible by 7, Hence, 6740370 is also divisible by

oy8-A number is divisible by 8,if the last three diaits of the number are 05 or are diviSible by 8. E.a
28,45000. As 1000 is divisible by 8, it is sufficient if the divisibility test is restricted to the last three

digits
8. Anumber is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. eg. 810, 92754

9 By 11-A number is divisible by 11, ifthedifference between thesum of the digits in odd places and those
in even
places of the number is either 0 or a multiple of 11.
E9.121,65967. In the first example, sum ofdigits in odd places is 1 +1 =2. The number in even place is
2. Hence, the
difference,
1+1-2 0. =

in the second example, sum of digitsin odd places is 6 +9 + 7 = 22 and those in even places is 5+ 6=
and the difference is 1. Therefore, both these numbersaredivisibleby 11.

10. By 12-Anumber is divisible by 12, if it is divisible by both 3 and by 4. i.e., the sum of the
digits should be
divisible by 3 and the last two should be divisible by 4. E.g. 144, 8136. You
digits will save time by testing
for divisibility of 4 before testing for divisibility of 3.
11. By 13-To find whether a number is divisible by 13, start
it into groups of three
from the Right Hand Side of the number and break
digits each. Add the alternate groups and subtract the rest from the sum. If the final
result is divisible by 13, then
the original number is divisible by 13.
E.g.595265073 is broken as 595 265 073. Add 595 and 073 and subtract 265 from
265 403 which is divisible the sum. 595 +073
by 13. Hence, 595265073 is divisible by 13.
Let take another number, 6740370. Break it
us
as 6, 740 and 370. Then
+370-740 364 which is repeat the same operation to get 6
divisible
by Hence, 6740370 is also divisible by 13.
13.
This test is similar to that for "7". The
difference is in finding whether the result of the
13 in this case
against testing whether the result is divisible by "7" operation is divisible by
12. By 25-A'number is divisible by 25,
digits are 0. e.g 14500, 2358975
if the last two digits of the number are divisible by 25 or the last
two
13. By 75-A number is divisible by 75, if
it is
digits should be divisible by 3 and the last simultaneoulsy divisible by both 3 and 25. i.e., the sum of tne
two digits should be divisible by 25. e.g 375, 1725.
Test for divisibility
of 25 first before
testing for divisibility of 3.
14. By 125-Anumber is
divisible by 125, if its last three right hand digits are
digits are Os. e.g 1254375, 12000. divisible by 125 or the last three
As 125 divides 1000, it is sufficient to test for the last
three digits alone.
15 If p is a prime number, then for any
E.g. 4-4 60 and it is
whole number w, we- wis divisible by
=
divisible by 3. p.
 +Y= * y*" +*.y
16.
+
x".y?+ . .
+
") when 'n' is odd.
35 is divisibie Dy
Theretore, wnen ' n Is
odd, x* + y is divisible by x + y. e.g 3 + 23 =
35.

-y= (x* yx*" x**.y

17. ... y) when 'n' is even.
+
.
divisidie Dy
Theretore, wnen 'n is even, x i s divisible byx + y.
-

e.g 72 -37 =
40, which is

18. - K - yx*" + *y +... + y) for both odd and even 'n.

Therefore, - is divisible by x - y. e.g - 24 = 6545, which is divisible by 7

Important resultss

The tens digit of 3 is always even for any positive integer, n.

1.
The sum of five successive integers is always divisible by 5.
2.
of an odd number when divided by 8 leavesa remainder of 1.
3. Thesquare
4 The product of 3 consecutive positive integers is divisible by 6.
24.
number is divisible by
The product of 3 consecutive positive integers, the first of which is an even
3 leaves a remainder of 1.
6 Ifa number is not a multiple of 3, then its square divided by
The last digit of the product of any nine consecutive numbers is always o.
1 +
divisible by 11. E.g. 28 8
The sum ofa two digit number and a number formed by reversing its digits is
8.
= 110 which is divisible by 11.
is divisible by 37.
9. A three digit number in which all the digits are same
10-7 is divisible by 3 for any positive integer,
n.
10.
then p2 1 is divisible by 24.
If "p" is a prime number greater than 3,
-

11.

Algebraic expressions
useful.
The following algebraic formulae are

(a +b)2 a +2ab +b
a-b) a2-2ab+b2
a+b+ c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
a +b+ c
a +bl a+b3+ 3ab(a +b)
a3- b-3ab(a - b)
(a-bP
a-b2 (a+b(a-b)
(a+b)a-b) + b2
a+b (a + b(a~-ab + b)
(a-b)(a2 + ab + b)
a-b c- ab- bc - ca)
b + cMa2 + b2 +
a+b+d-3abc (a +
 lustrative Example 6
108? (100+8)2 11664

100 + (2x 100x8) +8' = 7225

100x 15) + 15
=

852 (100- 15=

1002-(2 x
+4) 20*-4
=384
16x 24 (20-4(20

Number of factors for a positive integer

"N.
ofapositive integer
, b a n d "e" be the only prime factors
E where p, q, rare positive integers, then "
sexpressed in terms of its prime factors as ap* ba*c',
(D+ 1q+1Mr+1) positiveintegralfactors including"ano
nave

llustrative Example 7
How many positive integral factors exist for the number 1452
Express 1452 asa product of its primefactors. We get, 1452 =22 *3*112
Hence, thenumber of positive integral factors for 1452 is (2 + 101+1(2 + 1) = 18.

LlustrativeExample 8
How many
integral divisors does 1980 have excluding 1 and itself?
Note that the two terms
factors and divisors can be used
interchangeably.
Expressing 1980in terms of its prime factors we get, 1980
Hence, 1980 has (2 + 1(2 + 1(1 + 2 x2 x3x3x5x 11 =
22x 32 x5' x11
1)(1 + 1), 3 *3*2*2 36
Excluding 1 and itself, the number has
=

factors. =

(36-2) 34 factors. =

Number of ways of
expressing a number as
a
product of two factors
If a
positive integer "N" has "x" positive
integral factors, then N can be
ways. expressed as a product of two factors in X

llustrative Example 9
Express 140 as a
product of two
140 can be factors.
expressed asa product of its prime factors
Therefore, the number of as
22*5*7.
factors for 140 (2+1(1+1X1+1)=

So, 140 can be

=
3*2*2 =
12.
expressed as a product of two factors 12
inor 6 ways.
odd umber of factors for perfect squares
When p nerfect square is expressed as aP O u c t
(power) that will be an even number. product ofot its prime factors, all the oime
prime factors will be raised to an index
tactor
"N"is
4"N" isaa perfec
perfect square and
i.e., "a", "b" and "c" are its
nd r will necessarnly be even numbers. prime factors and if N is expressed as ap* bi*c, then P,
4
the number of factors for "N" i.e., (p + 1) (q + 1)(r + 1) will be an odd number.

Numberof ways of expressing a perfect square

as a product of two factors
Two different possibilities arise.

Product of two, difterent numbers. In this possibility, we do not a

product of its square roots.
count the perfect square being expre
Product of two numbers. In this possibility, we count the perfect square being expressed a product of its square
roots.

(1) As a product of two DIFFERENT factors in h {(p + 1Xg + 1 r + 1).. -1} ways (Excludes, N = VNx VN)

(2) Asa product of two factors in h {(p +1q +1 + 1).. +1} ways.(Includes N
=NxVN)
lustrative Example 10
in how many ways can 2964 be written as the product of two factors?
2964 can be expressed a product of its prime factors as 22 x3 x13' x 19
So, 2964 can be written as a product of two factors in ((2 +1(1 + 1X1 + 1X1+1)), i.e., 12 ways.

llustrative Example 11
In how many ways can 900 be written as a product of two different factors?
We can express 900 a product of its prime factors as 22 x3 xS*
Sincethe powers (indices) of all the prime factors of 900 are even, the given number is a perfect square.

+1)- 1}
We can expressthe number as a product of two differentfactors h {(2 +1X2 +1)(2
=
h {27 1} -

13