pLESSON 1

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to: 

• Create your own definition of a “good life” 
• Define what ethics is 
• Articulate the nature of ethics as
philosophy and science • Identify the
different approaches to the study of
ethics  
• Appreciate the significance ethics as an academic endeavor 

THE “GOOD LIFE” CHECKLIST 

1) Check all items that define for you what good life is all about: 

Complete Family Forgiveness 

Peace of Mind
God-centeredness
Beach
Body
Trusting Relationship
Mansion
 Academic Excellence
Luxury Car
Travel
and Leisure
High Intelligence Quotient (IQ) High Emotional Quotient (EQ) Good Manners High-
end Gadgets Orderliness Blemish-free Skin Honesty Stress-free Work Stable Career
Understanding Parents/Guardians Handsome Boyfriend Liberty 
Pretty Girlfriend Respect 

2) You may add five (5) more other things that make you happy which are
not found in the  list. 

___________________________ 
___________________________ 
___________________________ 
___________________________ 

___________________________
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To process the activity, please fulfill the following tasks: 

1) Classify the items you checked or you added whether it is tangible

(material) or  intangible (immaterial). 
Ex.  
Tangible  Intangible

Toys  Love

2) From your checklist, choose the top 5 things that makes life “good for
you”. Rank them  from 1 (highest) to 5 (lowest). Explain your reasons for
choosing them and ranking them  in that order.  

3) Based on the above result, write a one-sentence summary of what

makes good life for  you. 

ETHICS is all about defining the ways to achieve and live a “good life”.  
In the Ancient Times 

For the primitive people, “good life” was never an  

issue. They lived in a utopic world. When we say “utopia”,  
we mean a “perfect place that has been designed so there  
are no problems.” There was no Individualism; no Personal  
Politics; no Selfishness.  

They were living in harmony with nature.There was an experience of

universality, though the  
concept did not exist. They have common beliefs; common  
worldview; common practices; common way of life. There were no issues on
truth, goodness, and  
beauty.  

Civilization Period 

When civilization sprang, people began to move beyond the confines

of their  communities. They travelled across borders for trade, adventure,
conquest, and  evangelization. They became scattered. They discovered that
there is a bigger world beyond  their small communal spaces. They found out
that there are other communities that exist  outside their borders.  

Trade, which is done through barter, was not only on material goods
but also on  intellectual goods (though priceless). The exchange of
intellectual goods resulted to  comparison of one’s customs, beliefs,
traditions, and many others. This prompted the idea  that “what for me is
beautiful may not be beautiful anymore when compared with others” or 
“what for me is good and true may not be the same case with others”. 
People began to philosophize and think of the reason why there were
lives more  beautiful than that of others. People began to compare their own
life with others up to the  extent of discrimination.  

Have you experienced being discriminated by someone because  

your beliefs, customs, and practices aren’t the same? 

Civilization has led man to think in a spatiotemporal dimension (time

and space). The  people’s concept of time led them to interpret nothing into
something. People began to fear  a non-existing entity. Inasmuch as the
human mind is linear, there is always an issue on the  “connected to”. Human
beings will always look for the cause and effect in all their actions.  They will
always seek for the result in all their plans and activities. 
 Human beings now see the connection between
his present actions and the consequences
thereof. 

Goodness and beauty are considered

alwaysto be connected with their daily
activities– thus becomes causal and material.

This means that your present behavior will define

your character in the future and  your eating habits today will surely have impact on
your future appearance.  

It is at this point that philosophy began to exist and started to

flourish.

There is now a transition: from asking “What was the cause of the
existence of all  things? Where did the world come from?” to “What makes a
man a human person?” Human beings now seek to understand the meaning
of life and the importance of  good things. 

We now ask several existential questions such as: 

• WHAT SORT OF THING AM I? 

• WHERE DO I COME FROM? 
• TO WHERE SHALL I BE GOING? 
• WHY AM I IN THIS WORLD? 
• WHAT AM I LIVING FOR? 
• WHAT IS MY FUTURE AND MY DESTINY? 
• WHAT MUST I DO TO LIVE WELL AND BE HAPPY? 

We are in constant search for the meaning of all our actions! 

DEFINING ETHICS

Etymologically, Ethics comes from the Greek word εθος (ethos) which
means  “Customs, Usage, or Character”. 
Ethics is a set of rules of human behavior, which has been
influenced by the  standards set by the society or by himself in relation
to his society (Reyes, 1989) 
The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing,
defending, and  recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. 
 Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which
studies human  acts, and provides norms for their goodness and badness
(Timbreza, 1993) 
As practical science,  
❖ Ethics deals with a systematized body of knowledge that is
applicable to human  action. 
❖ The primary consideration of Ethics is the application of human
knowledge and  its practicality to human experience. 
❖ Thus, ethics is an indispensable part of man’s daily existence. 
As a normative science, 
❖ Ethics sets a basis or norm for the direction and regulation of
human actions. ❖ It sets rules and guidelines to maintain a sense of
direction to human actions ❖ It aids man in distinguishing whether
one’s action can be considered good or  bad. 

ETHICS… 

❖ Is based on REASON. All ethical theories and all moral decisions

must have its  basis from the power of reason. 
❖ Is Different from RELIGION or THEOLOGY. Philosophy accepts
truth on the  basis of reason. Those who do not believe in God
may still have moral life.  Sometimes, those who believe in God
may even be more immoral than those  who don’t. 
❖ Studies HUMAN ACTS. Ethics particularly deals with voluntary human
conduct.

The Three Approaches to Ethics 

Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general
subject areas:  metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.  
Meta-ethics. It deals with the nature of moral judgment. It looks at the
origins and  meaning of ethical principles. 
❖ Are ethical principles merely social inventions? Do they involve
more than  expressions of our individual emotions? Meta-
ethical answers to these  questions focus on the issues of
universal truths, the will of God, the role  of reason in ethical
judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms  themselves.  

Normative ethics. It is concerned with the content of moral judgments and

the  criteria for what is right or wrong. It takes on a more practical task,
which is to  arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong
conduct.  
❖ This may involve articulating the good habits that we should
acquire, the  duties that we should follow, or the
consequences of our behavior on  others. 
 Applied ethics. It involves examining specific controversial issues, such
as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns,
homosexuality, capital  punishment, or nuclear war. 

WHY STUDY ETHICS

There are several compelling reasons for you to study Ethics. These are:

Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning of life. 

You will be guided in understanding what real happiness is 
It will help you understand that man’s ultimate goal is not acquisition of
material  goods rather his actual fulfilment lies in the development of the
moral quality 
It provides for you an idea of what right living is all about and the
importance of  acquiring good moral character 
It can give the necessary guidelines for the acquisition of his goal. 
Character-building 

THE NEED TO REDEFINE ETHICS

Our concept of goodness has changed in the course of time. Goodness

before was gauged on the basis moral norms, i.e, Maria is living a good
life because she is honest and kind. But when we began to taste a more
pleasurable life through technological advances, our concept of goodness
is now becoming dependent to physical pleasures. Hence, we begin to
look at things as moral in their capacity to provide pleasure and prevent
pain. We are now inclined to a hedonistic lifestyle. 

The present era created a situation where Ethics has to be

redefined and echoed to  every individual!

At this juncture, you are expected to do the following tasks! 

1) Go back to your answers on the two pop-up questions. 

❖ Have you experienced being discriminated by someone

because your  beliefs, customs, and practices aren’t the
same? 
❖ Based on the given definition, what benefits can you get from
studying the  ethics course? 
Would you like to add some more to your answers? If yes, please do so. 
2) Identify five things in your life that may drive you to redefine
ethics. (It may be an  experience, a habit, a belief, etc.)  
 3) Comment on this statement: 
“When man becomes civilized, the more he actually becomes uncivilized”  
SYNTHESIS
Good Life was not an issue among the primitive people in the ancient times.
In the  civilization era, it became a point of inquiry when people began to
compare their  ideas, beliefs, customs, and traditions with others.  
Civilization has led man to think in a spatiotemporal dimension (time and
space).  Human beings now see the connection between his present
actions and the  consequences thereof. Goodness and beauty are
considered always to be connected  with their daily activities – thus
becomes causal and material. 
Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of
right and  wrong behavior. It is both a practical and normative science. It
is based on reason,  different from religion or theology and it studies
human acts. The three approaches  to ethics are meta-ethics, normative
ethics, and applied ethics. 
The present era, influence by a hedonistic mentality, created a situation
where Ethics  has to be redefined and echoed to every individual! 

LESSON 2

At the end of the topic, you are expected to: 

• Differentiate between Human Acts and Acts of Man 
• Evaluate a moral experience vis-à-vis the constituents of
human acts • Weigh the importance of freedom as the
foundation of morality 
• Classify actions as human acts or acts of man 

WHAT MAKES US HUMAN 

1) Write five qualities that makes you “human”. 

2) Choose five animals and then list atleast five ways you (as human being)
differ from  them, as well as your similiarities.  

ANIMAL  SIMILARITIES  DIFFERENCES

 Ex. Both humans and   Humans can reflect  upon
chimpanzee  chimps can predict   their thoughts,  while chimps
potential direct   probably  cannot.
consequences of  
actions- for example,  taking food
away from  another. Both can think 
about things they see,  taste and
touch.

3) From the list, identify the main ways humans differ from most of the species on
the list.

1) Which of the animals do you think is the most similar to human beings? Why? 

2) Now, try to be more specific. How do human beings differ from other species in
terms of: • Brains; 
• Language and Symbols; 

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• Social Life? 
3) Can animals be responsible for the consequences of their actions 

There are two general forms of acts: ACTS OF MAN and HUMAN ACTS.  

ACTS OF MAN 
 Involuntary Natural Acts. These include the involuntary, intuitive or reflex
acts  exhibited by man, such as the blinking of the eye, the beating of the
heart, sneezing,  yawning, breathing, scratching, and other 

Try! Confirm for yourself if they are indeed involuntary! 

• Stop blinking for five to ten minutes 

• Stop breathing for five to ten minutes 
• Stop your heart from beating 
• Stop your stomach from digesting the food you have  
taken during breakfast

Voluntary Natural Acts. They include parts of our daily activities, socially
learned  activities such as brushing our teeth, combing our hair, cutting our
nails, taking a bath,  etc.  

HUMAN ACTS 
A HUMAN ACT is an act that is deliberately performed by one possessed of
the use of reason.  Deliberately performed means that it is done freely and knowingly. 

The Relation of Human Acts to Reason 

1) Good – when they are in harmony with the dictates of right reason. 
2) Evil – when they are in opposition to these dictates 
3) Indifferent – when they stand in no positive relation to the dictates of
reason. 

Knowledge. A human act proceeds from the deliberate will. Napag-isipan. Napagnilayan.
As  an agent, you must know both the nature of the act you are about to perform
and the  possible consequences that may come after. 
Freedom. A human act is an act determined by the will and nothing else. This means that
you  are not forced nor coerced to perform an act.  
Voluntariness. It is the formal essential quality of the human act. Both knowledge and 
freedom are present. Ginusto mo. 

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A human act is a conscious, voluntary and free act (alam mo, gusto mo, at
malaya  mong ginawa). Thus, you hold responsibility for your actions. If your act
turns out to be good  then you deserve the good consequences that come after. If
your act turns out to be evil, you  are held accountable for the negative impacts. 
 Freedom is referred to here as internal or  
psychological (the freedom to decide), and not to  
external freedom (the freedom to carry out one’s  
decision).  
Internal freedom, or free will, exists when the  
decision of the will is necessary and unavoidable. It  
consists in choosing the means for an end. This includes  
the freedom to choose between doing an action or not,  
and of choosing between two possible actions. 
Freedom implies knowledge; ignorance is an obstacle to the capacity to
choose. Thus,  freedom depends on truth. Even more, freedom makes man
more capable of loving truth and  growing in the knowledge of moral values. Truth
is not the same as “opinion” or “one’s own  judgment,” but rather an objective
reality. 
A free act is always voluntary, since something is chosen through the
will (voluntas),  according to what the intellect—also led by the will—concludes
and presents. Freedom is a  necessary condition for acts to be fully voluntary.
Freedom we understand (rather than the  choice itself) mastery over one’s acts:
self-mastery and self-determination, which allow man  to master himself and to
act by himself. 
Freedom makes you responsible for your actions to the extent that they are
voluntary.  The way to acquire and develop one’s freedom is to make good use of

responsibility. At this point in time, do you consider yourself “free”?

1) go back to your answer to the pop-question. 

• Why do you consider yourself “free”? Why not? 
2) Recall concrete experiences when you did something out of
ignorance? • Why did you do it despite the lack of
knowledge? 
3) Recall concrete experiences when you were forced to do something that is
against  your will? 
• How did you feel after doing it? 
 • How did you respond to the external force? 
4) Was there any action or decision in the past that you regret for not
taking  responsibility? 

 At the end of the topic, you are expected to: 

• State the ethical principles on modifiers of human acts applicable to a
moral  experience. 
• Determine the modifier/s present in a moral experience. 
• Apply the ethical principles governing the modifiers of human acts in 
determining the degree of moral responsibility in moral situations. 

Find time to watch the full movie or video clips of “Miracle in Cell No. 7”  
whether in its original Korean or Filipino Adaptation in YouTube or  
other media sharing sites. 
 Is the father who got convicted and executed morally responsible for  
the death of the little girl? Why? Why not? 
Did he deserve to be executed?

As moral agents, are we always fully responsible for our actions? Are the
impacts of  all our actions, be it positive or negative, always imputable
(ascribable, attributable,  chargeable) to us? What happens when one or all of
the three constituents of human acts are  absent? 
There are certain factors or modifiers that affect human acts. They as well
determine  the degree of our moral responsibility over the results of our actions.

  
1) IGNORANCE - in general, it is the lack of knowledge regarding

a certain thing.

IGNORANCE 

IGNORANCE IN ITS  
OBJECT 

1) IGNORANCE OF LAW is the ignorance in the  existence of a duty, rule or  regulation.
This may include  ignorance of penalties  attached to the law or rule. 

Ex. Mang Kanor and Aling  Ising came to Vigan for the  first time, aboard an (SUV).  They
did not know that the  City Government of Vigan  strictly prohibits motorized  vehicles from
passing  through Calle Crisologo. As  a result they were  apprehended.  

2) IGNORANCE OF FACT Is the ignorance of nature or  circumstances of an act as 

forbidden 

Ex. Sgt. Dalisay shot to  death retired Cpl. Borja, a  war veteran, due to the  latter’s alleged
provocative  actions. Sgt. Dalisay did not  know that Cpl. Borja is  suffering from PTSD and 
war shock (shell shock) and  that he was unarmed.  
IGNORANCE IN ITS  SUBJECT 

1) VINCIBLE IGNORANCE  (CONQUERABLE  

IGNORANCE) 
❖ ignorance that can be  supplanted by knowledge  by the use of ordinary  diligence -
ignorance is  due to lack of proper  diligence. 

1.a) Simply vincible- some  effort has been done but not  enough to dispel the  ignorance  
1.b) Crass or Supine- result  of total or nearly lack of  effort to dispel it  
1.c) Affected- if positive  effort has been done to  retain the ignorance. 

2) INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE - ignorance that ordinary  and proper diligence cannot  dispel.
This is attributable to  2 causes: 

(a) the person has no  realization of his lack of  knowledge  
(b) the person who realizes  his ignorance finds his effort  ineffective or nearly lack of  effort
to dispel it 

IGNORANCE IN ITS  RESULT 

1) ANTECEDENT  IGNORANCE 
that which precedes all  consent of the will 
ex. The chef served a  poisonous mushroom not  knowing that it can cause  the death of
its customers 

2) CONCOMITANT  IGNORANCE 
acompanies an act that  would have been performed  even if the ignorance did  not exist.  

ex. A student misses his  ethics class but even if he  knows, he will still miss 

3) CONSEQUENT  IGNORANCE 

that which follows upon the  act of the will  

ex. A doctor suspects that  the patient’s disease is  cancerous but deliberately  refrain from
making sure,  and does not inform the  patient 

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING IGNORANCE 

1) Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person cannot be held

morally  responsible/liable if he/she is not aware of the state of his/her
ignorance

2) . 2) Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and
corresponding  accountability over the act.  

3) Affected/Pretended ignorance does not excuse a person from his/her bad

actions; it  actually increases their malice.
 1) PASSION or CONCUPISCENCE – is a feeling, such as anger, of fear,
of joy, or of  despair. It refers more specially to those bodily appetites or
tendencies as experienced. 

PASSION 

1. ANTECEDENT PASSION 

• occurs when it springs into action  unstimulated by the will. 

• is that which precedes the placing of an  action according to the passion or in  spite of it.  
• If a lawful act is placed despite the  passion, the will has achieved greater  freedom and
gained merit.  

For example, a young man who continues  to study and pray in spite of sexual passion
that he did not arouse has made his action  
more voluntary and meritorious since he  has asserted his freedom at some cost.

CONSEQUENT PASSION 

follows the free determination of the act  and is freely admitted and consented to  and
deliberately aroused. - the will directly  or indirectly stirs them up - however great  does not
lessen the voluntariness since it  is willed directly or indirectly. 

ex. Planned revenge or assassination,  reading pornography, singing hymns of  praise

PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PASSIONS 

1) Antecedent Passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish

accountability  for the resultant act. Example: Sa sobrang saya mo (passion) na
nakita yung pangalan mo sa  official list ng honor students, naitulak mo yung
bestfriend mo at siya ay nagalusan.  Accountable ka, though hindi fully, sa nangyari
sa bestfriend dahil hindi naman siya  intentional.  
2) Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may even increase
accountability.  Ito ay dahil intentional na inarouse mo yung passions mo. 

3) FEAR – is a mental agitation brought on by the apprehension of some

present or imminent  danger. It is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is
confronted by an impending harm  to himself or loved ones (Agapay 1991:24)
Fear maybe slight or grave. 
Note: May pagkakaiba ang 1) Ginawa mo na “may” takot at 2) Ginawa
mo “dahil sa” takot. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FEAR 
1) Acts done “with” fear are voluntary. The person concerned remains morally
responsible of  his/her action, whether good or bad, right or wrong.  
❖ Nagcheat ka dahil “may takot” kang bumagsak. The fear does not justify your
act of  cheating.  
❖ Tinolerate mo nalang yung pangangaliwa ng kasintahan mo dahil “may takot”
ka na  hiwalayan ka niya. The fear does not justify your act of toleration. 
❖ Itinago mo ang iyong asawa na pinaghahanap ng batas dahil sa crime of
murder dahil  “may takot” mo na lumaki ang mga anak mo na walang ang
ama nila sa kanilang tabi,.  The fear does not justify your act of obstructing
justice.  
2) Acts done “because of” intense fear or panic are simply involuntary. A
person when acting  out of extreme fear is not morally accountable of
his/her action or conduct.  
❖ You were having classes in the fifth floor when suddenly fire razed so quickly
in the  storage room near the classrooms. The fire alarm rang. Everybody is
in panic. As you  rushed going down through the fire exit, you accidentally
pushed one of your  classmates which resulted to a serious physical injury.
Here, the panic justifies your  act of pushing your classmate. 
❖ You are in a money heist situation. Nakatutok yung baril sayo, you were
asked to open  the vault of the bank (of which you are not allowed) and you
did exactly what was  asked. Your act of opening the bank vault will be
morally justified by the existence of  intense fear of getting shot.  

4) VIOLENCE – is an external force applied by a free cause for the purpose of

compelling a  person to perform an act which is against his will.  
PRINCIPLE GOVERNING VIOLENCE 
1) Any action resulting from violence is simply involuntary. Let it be clear,
however, that this  does not justify violence. 

❖ For example, you are being forced to take down your post that aims to raise
your  concerns about online classes amidst pandemic by professors who
throw violent  words at you and threaten to fail you. If you ever delete the
post even if the post is  valid, your act of deleting will remain involuntary
because you were violently forced. 

5) HABIT – is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts,

for acting in  a certain manner. 
PRINCIPLE GOVERNING HABIT 
1) Habits do not destroy voluntariness and acts from habit are always voluntary,
at least in  cause, as long as the habit is allowed to endure.

THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

 1. ACT IN ITSELF/OBJECT
- To consider an act in itself is to regard its nature
- ACT - not simply a mental or bodily activity requiring an expenditure of
energy
- it is physical tendency towards a definite result
- we are dealing here with the human act performed, the deed done as:
    A. end of the act (finis operis)
    B. end of the agent (finis operantis) - motive of the doer
- In physical sense - some actions are bad because they produce such evils as
pain, hunger, illness or death
- In moral sense - actions are bad because they disturb the harmony within
the acting person. They are unfit to the natural and spiritual tendencies of the
human soul
- Moral evils also produce physical harm and damage of oneself and others -
they are moral evils because what they destroy is the innate goodness, the
Image of God in our human nature. Thus, moral evils are those that go against
the natural law.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC EVIL

INTRINSIC - implies a quality inherent in a thing

- Thus, an intrinsic evil act is an act which is evil in itself

INTRINSIC EVIL ACT - certain actions are in themselves objectively good

and certain others are objectively evil. Men have always regarded certain acts
as good in themselves because as a matter of fact, they are good
-  by its nature, that is, by its functional purpose is wrongful
-  natural law - tendency of man to actualize his potentials as a rational
creature, that is, to       
    be a person
|- an act which prevents man from realizing his true worth as a person is intrinsically
evil
- ex. Murder, robbery, rape, adultery, lies, slavery - they contradict the demands of
reason for justice, truth an decency
- these actions are evil, not only because they cause unjust harm and suffering to others
but above all, they dehumanize their perpetrators, reducing them to the level of beasts/
animals/irrational

EXTRINSIC - implies a quality which is superficially added to a thing

(Example, a coat of paint covering surface of the wall without modifying the
essentiality of the wood constituting the wall)
- extrinsic evil - an act which in itself is not evil but is made evil nonetheless on
account of something else
- extrinsic evil act - that which, although good or indifferent in itself, is however
prohibited by the law.
2. MOTIVE OF THE ACT/ INTENTION OF THE AGENT

- it is the purpose which the doer wishes to achieve by such action

- it gives direction and motivation to an act - without a motive, an act is
meaningless, and accident
- it comes FIRST in the mind as intention and occurs LAST in the action as its
culmination or fulfillment

WHAT IS A GOOD MOTIVE?

- one which is consistent with the dignity of the human person
- one which is in accordance with the truth, justice, prudence and temperance

BAD MOTIVE - one which grows from selfishness - such motive provokes action
detrimental to others
- Excessive indulgence of the self - a form of personal injustice to oneself, nursing the
greed that destroys others

Ø THE END DOES NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS

- to the doer - an act is a means of achieving an aim or purpose
Ex. we study - to acquire knowledge, to pass the course, to receive a degree, to qualify
for a job

Wrong = to attempt at a good purpose by evil means

Examples:
- Student may not cheat in an exam in order to graduate
- Employee may not fake his documents in order to be promoted in job
- Public official may not accept bribe in order to finance a health center

The axiom "The End does not justify the Means"

- means that the worthiness of purpose does not make an evil act good
(nothing is more pernicious than for a hoodlum to believe that he is justified in
robbing the rich because he wants to share the loot with the poor - Robin Hood)

Ø INSIGHTS ON THE EFFECTS OF THE MOTIVE ON THE ACTION

(Paul Glenn)

A. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong (an
objectively evil act performed for an evil purpose takes on a new malice from the evil
end. If it has several evil ends, it takes on new malice from each)

B. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself (An act
which is objectively good but done for an evil end is entirely evil. If the evil end is the
whole motive of the act, an act is gravely evil if the evil end is gravely evil, and an act
is only partially evil if the evil is neither gravely evil nor the whole motive of the act)

C. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit

(an objectively good act performed for a good purpose takes on a new goodness from
the good end if it has several good ends)

D. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive
 E. An objectively evil act can never become good by reason of a good end

3. CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ACT

Morality - takes into account the circumstances surrounding an act

 WHAT
- refers to the act itself and to the quality and quantity of the results
of such act.
- What is the extent of the act? Was the injury inflicted serious or
slight? Was the amount stolen large or small?

 WHERE
- refers to the circumstance of place where the act is committed
- Where was the act committed?

 WITH WHOM
- refers to the companion or accomplices in an act performed. This
includes the number and status of the persons involved. The more
people involved in the commission of an act, the greater and more
serious is the crime

 WHY
- refers to the motive or intention of the doer

 HOW
- refers to the manner how the act is made possible
- under what condition? Was the action performed by the agent done in
good or bad faith?
- How an act is performed contributes to the malice of an act

 WHEN
- refers to the time of the act
- when was the act committed?

Observations:

A. The moron, the insane, the senile, and the children below the age of
reason are considered incapable of voluntary acts and therefore are
exempted from moral accountability.
- But actions against these persons are normally regarded most cruel
due to their helplessness in defending themselves

B.  Persons with higher educational attainment are presumed to know

 "better" than those with little education. Accordingly, their liability is
higher. Indeed, "to whom much is given, much is expected."

C. Persons vested with authority have higher accountability than

those who merely follow their order or command. This is the meaning
of "command responsibility" which makes a superior or official
accountable for the actuation of those under their authority.

D. The relationship between people involved in act may modify the

nature of such act.
- In this sense, adultery is different from fornication, and parricide
from homicide

Other Observation:

A. Circumstances may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of an

evil act

B. Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of a

good act

C. Some circumstances may alter the nature of an act

Ethical Principles:

A.  An indifferent act becomes good or evil by reason by reason of its circumstance
B. A good act may become evil by reason of circumstance
C. A good or evil act may become better or worse by reason of the circumstance and
may even take on new goodness or malice from its circumstance
D. An evil act can never be made good by circumstance
E.  A circumstance which is gravely evil destroys the entire goodness of an objectively
good act
F.  A circumstance which is evil but not gravely so does not entirely destroys the
goodness of an objectively good act.

CONCLUSION:

Distinction between good act and evil act - it is not an illusion of the mind
- There are good actions and there are evil actions and their realities do not come from
out mind
- Evil is not man's invention - rather, it means that man uses his freedom to do wrong
- only man can do something morally wrong - because only man has the power to
choose between what is good and what is wrong

Ø To be an authentic person is to be a responsible person. He knows how to use

his freedom only as an instrument to do good.
 At the end of the topic, you are expected to: 
• Explain the different kinds of end in human acts. 
• Identify the proximate, remote, intermediate and final end of your chosen
career  path. 

Purpose Dashboard Check 

Instructions: Focusing on your sense of meaning and purpose, do a self-
assessment  regarding your current or intended career path. Use the four
different barometers below to  identify where you find yourself on each of the
scales. 

RESOURCES

refers to the availability of both  external and internal resources  and opportunities to
sustain your  current or intended career path refers to your level of interest  and
engagement in what you are  currently doing and living 

I LIKE IT 

Refers to your level of interest and engagement in what you are currently doing and living

CONFIDENCE
related to whether or not you  believe you can sustain your  current
career path 

AUTHENTICITY
whether or not your current or  intended career path fits who you  are 

Current Purpose Questions:  

Review the dashboards above and reflect on what life and career
questions arise for  you when doing so. Consider up to three questions that can
 become a focus for your  purpose exploration at this time. (For example, do I
have what is needed to be successful in  this field of study/work? Or, how can I
bring more of my true self into what I am doing each  day?) 

ACTION STEP: What is one action step you can take to move more in the
direction you  feel you must go? 

We do not act aimlessly. When we act, it is because we enjoy doing it or

we want to achieve something by our act. Every human act is done for an end. An
end is a purpose or  goal. It is that for which an act is performed. It is the final
cause of an act. For instance, some  may read a certain book for pleasure; others
for instruction, others again to practice  obedience: the act is the same, the ends
are various. 
As discussed in the preceding topics, a human
act is a voluntary act. It is an act of the will and
the will cannot act unless the intellect proposes
to it something to which it may tend, i.
e., something good. The will is only another
name for the rational appetite -- that is, the
power of tending to a good which the
intellect  proposes to it. The good intended is
the end of the act.  
KINDS OF END 
End of Act - The natural termination of an activity. 
End of Doer (Agent) - It is a personal purpose intended by the person performing
the  act. It is called “motive”, the reason why a person performs an act. 
Proximate End - is the purpose which doer wishes to accomplish immediately by
his action. (eg. The proximate end of eating is the satisfaction  
of hunger) 
Remote End – is the purpose which a doer wishes to accomplish in series of 
acts. (eg. The remote end of the proximate end of eating is the  
promotion of health.) 
Intermediate End - Is the purpose which is desired as a means for obtaining 
another thing. (eg. All of those activities leading towards  
graduation.)
 DSSP 2020 | NOT FOR SALE/UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION 
Ultimate End - Is the purpose which is desired for its own sake and not because 
of something else. (eg. A student may assign his graduation as an  
ultimate end.) 
All human ends are directed, in last analysis, to an all-sufficing absolutely
ultimate  end. This is the completely satisfying end or good; it is the Supreme and
Infinite Good; it is the  Summum Bonum; and for theists, it is God. 

Aside from God, can you think of another ultimate end  

that is Supremely and Infinitely Good?

END AS SOMETHING GOOD 

The concept of end coincides of that of good.
According to  Aristotle, good means either: good as
an end itself or good as a means to another end.
Apparent good – it is evil viewed or disguised as
good. When someone desires evil as an end, it is  
only because he views it, subjectively, as something
good. Every human activity is intended for the
attainment of  something good.
 

1) Fill in the table below. Identify the proximate, remote, intermediate and ultimate
end of  the doer in the following: 
a) A young man entering medical school. 
b) A classmate cheating during exams. 
c) A college instructor conducting classes strictly and devoutly. 
d) 
ACT  PROXIMATE  REMOTE INTERMEDIATE  ULTIMATE
END/S END/S  END/S END

2) Now turn to your chosen career path. Ask yourself: Why did I choose this course
over  others?  
Identify, as specific and as many as you can, the proximate, remote,
intermediate, and  ultimate end of your chosen course. Follow the same
procedure above. 
 SYNTHESIS

A HUMAN ACT is an act that is deliberately performed by one possessed of

the use of reason. Deliberately performed means that it is done freely
and knowingly. 
A human act is a conscious, voluntary and free act (alam mo, gusto mo, at  
malaya mong ginawa). Thus, you hold responsibility for your actions. If your
act  turns out to be good then you deserve the good consequences that come
after.  If your act turns out to be evil, you are held accountable for the
negative  impacts. 
There are certain factors or modifiers that affect human acts. They as well 
determine the degree of our moral responsibility over the results of our
actions.  These are ignorance, passion, fear, violence, and habit.  
Our goal is not to simply justify our wrong doings using these obstacles. We 
become better persons if we overcome Ignorance, Passion, Fear, Violence
and Habit. 
If we are ignorant (vincible), we must strive to know, to learn. Being
knowledgeable and learned lead us to choose the right actions. There is no
excuse for a learned and wise man. 
If our temptations (passions/cravings) are so strong, we must strive to quell
them. A reasonable person cannot be overcome by emotions. 
Slight fears must not make us do evil things. This is where our bravery is 
tested. In the existence of grave fears, true courage is tested. 
Our violent environment, realistically speaking, hamper our
moral  development. We often times grow to become violent persons because
of it.  However, to grow morally, we must choose to overcome violence by non
violence. We must strive to act righteously even in the presence of violent 
forces. 
Good habits must be kept. Bad habits must be changed. 
Every human act is done for an end. An end is a purpose or goal. It is that for 
which an act is performed. It is the final cause of an act.