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ABSTRACT: Seismic attributes are often used to identify lithology and evaluate reservoir properties. However, interpretation based
only on structural attributes and without knowledge of the Vp/Vs ratio can limit the ability to evaluate changes in heavy oil res-
ervoirs. These limitations are often due to less obvious impedance differences. In order to investigate pieces of evidence of a heavy-
oil shaly-sand reservoir from seismic data, besides geochemistry, we studied seismic attributes and characterized the reservoir using
seismic stack data and well logging data. The study area was the Muglad rift basin in South Sudan. We conducted a seismic complex
analysis to evaluate the target reservoir. To delineate the frequency responses of the different lithological units, we applied the spec-
tral decomposition method to the target reservoir. The most unexpected result was continuous bands of strong seismic reflectors
in the target reservoir, which extended across the borehole. Spectral decomposition analysis showed that the low-frequency zone
of 25 Hz dominant frequency was consistent with instantaneous attributes. This approach can identify lithology, reveal frequency
anomalies, and filter the stacked section into low- and high-frequency bands. The heavy-oil reservoir zones exhibited velocity atten-
uation and the amplitude was strongly frequency dependent.
Key words: seismic attributes, complex trace, heavy-oil, characterization, shaly-sand, Muglad Basin
Manuscript received November 13, 2017; Manuscript accepted January 18, 2018
efficiently only by identifying the geological model, reservoir Africa (Genik, 1993). Figure 1 shows a location map of the basin
configuration, and fluid content. In contrast, the attributes area (Fairhead, 1988; Benkhelil, 1989). The basin covers an area
extracted from the seismic data can be better interpreted in of about 200,000 km2 trending NW-SE in the Republic of South
combination with well data, which allows prediction of lithology Sudan. The structural evolution comprises three stages of rift-
and reservoir properties. related lacustrine deposits: pre-rift, three rifts (syn-rift), and a
In this study, we tried to characterize a heavy-oil shaly-sand sag phase (post-rift) (Fairhead, 1986; Giedt, 1990; Mohamed et
reservoir using complex seismic trace analysis, spectral decomposition, al., 2000). These three rifting phases are associated with episodes
and well logs analysis. of extension and are subdivided into Late Jurassic, Early
Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, and Paleocene. The oil reserves
2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING are located in a major reservoir of high-energy fluvial sandstone
of the Bentiu formation. The Cretaceous rock units of the Muglad
The Muglad rift basin was formed by geologic evolution of basin are shown in Figure 2. The Aradeiba fluvial-lacustrine
the rifting process during the late Jurassic–early Cretaceous. shale is identified as the potential seal (Schrufer et al., 2002).
This evolution was associated with the extension of a dextral slip The stratigraphic successions of the Muglad rift basin have
rupture that formed extensive passive rift basins in Central eleven lithostratigraphic units (Whiteman, 1971; Vail, 1978).
Fig. 1. Location map of the Muglad Rift Basin and study area, Early Cretaceous extension with NE_SW trending and Central African shear zone
trending NE-SW, modified after Fairhead (1988).
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Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1029
http://www.springer.com/journal/12303 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-018-0006-3
1030 William A. Deng, Taeyoun Kim, and Seonghyung Jang
Fig. 3. (a) Time-migrated stack section of the 2D land seismic data. The profile section in red box shows the target reservoirs. (b) Enlarged
image around the borehole. Labeled events are described as strong reflectors A, B, C, and D. C is the target reservoir.
to the well logging data. Figure 3b shows enlarged image around 3.1. Seismic Complex Trace Analysis
the well. Strong seismic reflectors shown as A, B, C, and D were
identified as feature-variations of reflectors related to bed interfaces. To obtain geological information from the post-stack seismic
Especially C indicates the target reservoir. data for local variation of physical properties, it was necessary to
The useful application of 2D seismic stack section is more use the complex seismic trace analysis. Complex seismic trace is
expansive in area and shows regional trends. The complex analysis often used to calculate seismic attributes. The seismic attributes
was applied to the migrated data to obtain a family of basic include geological information such as signal analysis of earthquakes
attributes: mainly instantaneous amplitude, instantaneous phase, (Farnbach, 1975), instantaneous attributes from seismic stack
instantaneous frequency, the first and the second derivative of data (Tarner and Sheriff, 1977; Sicking, 1978; Barnes, 1991) and
instantaneous amplitude, and cosine power of instantaneous verification of thin layers on the seismic stack (Robertson and
amplitude. Nogami, 1984). In this study, we applied the reflection strength,
In this study, the vertical axes of seismic figures are presented 1st and 2nd derivatives of reflection strength, instantaneous
in two-way travel time. For depth approximation, the seismic phase and frequency, and cosine power of the reflection strength
transit time (check-shot) along the wellbore was used for a time- to the heavy-oil shaly-sand reservoir to determine geological
depth relationship. The depth at which reservoir formation characteristics.
occurs from the checkshot was estimated using the approximate
time-depth relationship. Then, 1.2 seconds of TWT as equivalent 3.1.1. Reflection strength and its 1st and 2nd derivatives
to 1.28 km of depth (Fig. 4). The major reflections (discontinuities, Seismic complex trace F(t) is defined by seismic trace F(t) in
sequence boundaries, and unconformities) show clear continuity the real part and its Hilbert transformation g(t) in the imaginary
adjacent to, or around the well and were comparatively characterized part such as F(t) = f(t) + ig(t) (Tarner and Sheriff, 1977). If we
by strong amplitude. display f(t) in the real part and g(t) in the imaginary part in
The borehole data was provided by a single well drilled as a terms of amplitude and phase, it becomes f(t) = A(t) cos (t)
vertical hole to a true vertical depth (TVD) of 1,760 m. This well and the imaginary part g(t) is g(t) = A(t)sin (t). So the complex
was discovered oil-bearing reservoir in Lacustrine Bentiu sand trace becomes
(Fig. 2). Wireline logs data were used to predict various petrophysical
i t
or other geological parameters in the depth of the borehole. F t = f t + ig t = A t e . (1)
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Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1031
Fig. 4. Example of time-depth relationship to calculate depth at which each seismic events of interests occurs from the well data. Depth is
shown in meters and two-way traveltime in seconds.
From f(t) and g(t), we can compute the instantaneous amplitude phase is
(reflection strength) A(t) and the instantaneous phase (t).
gt
The instantaneous amplitude is t = tan –1 --------- . (3)
f t
At = f t + g t = Ft .
2 2
(2)
Since the profile from the instantaneous phase is appropriate
Equation (2) displays the variation of reflection strength to show the discontinuities of reflectors, faults, pinch-out, and
(amplitude of envelope) between the upper and the lower reflections from different dips, it is effective for discriminating
interfaces. The reflection strength has its maximum at phase the seismic stratigraphic reflectors.
points not picks or troughs of the seismic real trace. It also
occurs at the interfaces where several reflections are stacked. 3.1.3. Instantaneous frequency
The reflection strength is related to the variation of petrophysical Since the phase variation with respect to the times from
properties such as the unconformity, the rapid variation of Equation (3) is
the sea bottom, and gas reservoir (Taner and Sheriff, 1977).
dA t d t
The 1st derivative of the instantaneous amplitudes ( ------------- ) is ------------- = t , (4)
dt dt
the time variation of the instantaneous amplitude. This shows
that the energy variation of reflection is the proper information the substitution for instantaneous phase makes the instantaneous
to get the physical information from the fracture zone (Turner, frequency,
1994). The 2nd derivative of the instantaneous amplitude
gt
t = ----- tan–1 --------- ,
d 2
A t d
---------------
2 ) is the maximum value of the instantaneous amplitude, (5)
dt dt f t
which is useful for revealing reflection interfaces. The 2nd
derivative of the instantaneous amplitude shows all interfaces dg t df t
in the seismic signals and rapid variation of petrophysical f t -----------
dt
- – g t -----------
dt
properties. t = -----------------------------------------------------
-. (6)
f t + g t
2 2
3.1.2. Instantaneous phase The instantaneous frequency is the frequency at a point in the
From the seismic complex trace Equation (1), the instantaneous time domain like the instantaneous phase. This displays rapid
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1032 William A. Deng, Taeyoun Kim, and Seonghyung Jang
variation around pinch-out and the interface between hydrocarbon production of low-frequency seismic signals for hydrocarbon
and water. The low-frequency shadows are indicators of strong detection (Liu and Marfurt, 2007).
low-frequency energy beneath gas sands, condensate, and oil
reservoirs. It is well known that the low-frequency shadows 3.3. Wireline Logging Analysis
occur when the attenuation of high-frequency components of
seismic signals is greater than low-frequency components We used wireline logging data for identifying the target
(Taner et al., 1979). reservoirs such as natural gamma ray (GR), caliper (CALI), the
spontaneous potential (SP), bulk density (RHOB), neutron
3.1.4. Cosine power of instantaneous amplitude porosity (NPHI), shallow and deep resistivity (LLS and LLD),
The cosine power of the instantaneous amplitude displays the and sonic logs. The wireline logs were obtained in a single
number of peaks and troughs in a seismic trace (Stark, 2009), borehole for characterizing the petrophysical properties and
which is defined as: distinguish the different lithology units of the heavy-oil shaly-
sand reservoir.
f t = A t cos N* t , (7)
The shaly-sand reservoir can usually be expressed as relatively
where N is a spin factor. This provides better details on simple logs or a combination of logs. The computation of shale
stratigraphic and structural features. volume, lithology reconstruction, and reservoir determination
are essential to identify the matrix and to quantify reservoir
3.2. Spectral Decomposition characteristics. The sandstone model parameters used to establish
a clean sand lines are; density (2.65 g/cm3) and neutron (appr.
Time-frequency analysis has extensive applications in seismic –0.07) for dry solid point. And shale line parameters are; density
data processing and interpretation. One important application (2.3 to 2.85 g/cm3) and neutron (appr. 0.1 to 0.4) to the 100%
is its use as a direct hydrocarbon indicator and in lithology porosity of fluid point.
prediction (Partyka et al., 1999; Castagna et al., 2003). Spectral
decomposition has been incorporated in seismic processing 4. FIELD DATA APPLICATION
workflow for spectral analysis, noise filtering, and energy
compensation as a seismic interpretation tool. Many types of We used seismic attributes to evaluate the heavy-oil shaly-
research on the frequency-domain have been discussed sand reservoir from post-stack seismic data. These attributes
(Chakraborty and Okaya, 1995; Prokoph and Barthelms, 1996; provide a rapid qualitative understanding of the lithology,
Ebrom, 2004). The complex nature of the subsurface layers structure and reservoir properties. Seismic attributes analysis
having seismic signal variations in the time domain make more using complex seismic trace, spectral decomposition, and wireline
difficult in oil and gas exploration. To obtain better results and logging data revealed information on hydrocarbon-bearing
to reduce the risk, one needs to implement high-resolution formation intervals. For accurately characterized the reservoir, a
time-frequency analysis. When the seismic wave propagates, in workflow for conducting attributes analysis was used (Fig. 5).
general, the amplitude, frequency bandwidth, and dominant The workflow is a process to identify a heavy-oil shaly-sand
frequency decrease. To evaluate the signal varying in time and reservoir. We had conducted a workflow for investigating pieces
frequency, the average instantaneous power spectrum of the of evidence of the heavy-oil shaly-sand reservoir.
seismic trace is estimated (Gabor, 1946).
Spectral decomposition is produced by decomposing the 4.1. Complex Seismic Trace
seismic amplitude into its constituent frequency (decomposes)
and replacing the single trace with a number of traces corresponding Interpretation of seismic attributes using a complex seismic
to the input attributes. In this study, we used the matching trace depends on the geologic setting of the study area, acquisition
pursuit method (Mallat and Zhang, 1993) for decomposing the and processing procedures. The seismic stack section of the
seismic signals. The matching pursuit method decomposes the Muglad Basin is shown in Figure 3a. The observed amplitude
signal in five steps; i) generate a complex trace using a Hilbert was related to the actual reflection coefficient, which is an
transform, ii) generate amplitude, phase, and dominant frequency, indication of the difference in contrast above and below the
iii) determine the time location of the maximum amplitude of target zone. The computation of complex seismic trace attributes
the envelope, iv) determine dominant frequency and phase was accomplished using Equations (2), (3), (6) and (7), which
angle, v) subtract the real part of the complex wavelet from the express the real seismic trace as a function of time-dependent
real seismic trace. The potential benefit of this method is the amplitude and phase. Therefore, the reconstructed complex
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Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1033
Fig. 6. Results of the complex analysis. (a) is input stack image, (b) is the reflection strength, (c) is the first derivative of (b), (d) is the second
derivative of (b), (e) is the instantaneous phase, (f) is the instantaneous frequency, and (g) is the cosine power of (b).
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1034 William A. Deng, Taeyoun Kim, and Seonghyung Jang
seismic trace is essentially a scalar quantity. The attributes lateral direction, we expected to see anomalies at the locations of
analysis for the stack image gives geological information for the the heavy-oil shaly-sand reservoirs. We also expected a hydrocarbon-
heavy oil shaly-sand reservoir. Figure 6 shows the instantaneous related low-frequency zone under the reservoir. Figure 7a shows
attributes reconstructed from the seismic reflection data. In an example of the input stack section across the reservoir
comparison to the seismic time section of Figure 6a, the high interval where the spectral decomposition was applied. Figures
amplitude reflection in Figure 6b is indicated by arrows. This 7b–e show the results of the time-frequency energy distribution
illustrates several geologic features based on the seismic reflections. of the seismic data generated using matching pursuit
The high amplitude reflection is believed to be a thin bed (1/4 decomposition of 8, 25, 50 and 80 Hz respectively. The variation
wavelength vertical resolution limit), hydrocarbon-bearing shaly- of frequencies with time is clear continuous. In the 8 Hz profile
sand reservoir. The faults in Figure 6a are seen as discontinuous in Figure 7b, we found strong amplitudes at the low-frequency
thin lines with low reflections and hardly recognizable. From under the target formation and comparable at 1.2–1.5 s. Figure
the instantaneous amplitude in Figure 6b, the undesired effects 7c shows the decomposition frequency spectrum of the reservoir
were removed revealing a true reflection property, which effectively interval of interest with a dominant frequency of 25 Hz. From
indicates geological structures and reservoir location. The high petrophysics, the Bentiu formation showed good sand development,
values of reflection strength (the dark/light color represents a which was thinner than a temporal seismic thickness of 1.2 s.
high/low value of reflection strength) are associated with the The resolved profile at 25 Hz showed the reservoir extent at 1.2 s
reservoir section, while the low values of reflection strength are with strong energy. However, the amplitudes were weak at the
associated with non-reservoir units (shale). Figures 6c and d higher frequency profiles (Figs. 7d and e).
show the first and second derivatives of the reflection strength
respectively. The reflectors are sharpened and suggest absorption 4.3. Analysis of Wireline Logging Data
of energy. The discontinuities of the reflectors in the reservoir
interval suggest the presence of fault blocks, which led to the We made simple comparisons of wireline logging results that
distortion of seismic signals. The reflection intensity is significantly were useful in testing the petrophysical parameters, which are
more effective in delineating the lithology and structures. The important in the low-frequency zone. The data were obtained
strong reflectors, which appear on all images, suggest that the from a single borehole which is confined to the Cretaceous
continued interfaces associated with the seismic velocity ratios Bentiu formation. In the stratigraphic context, this formation is
of sand/shale could differentiate lithologies. The instantaneous comprised of shaly-sand with a few silts. It is regarded as the
phase in Figure 6e shows that the phase variations indicate the main oil-producing reservoir in the Muglad Basin. The drilling
bed continuity, faults, and the sequences boundaries. Compared target of the well was the lacustrine fluvial sandstone of the
to Figure 6a, the phase behaviors display variations in energy Bentiu and the Aradeiba formations (Fig. 2). Figure 4 showed a
of different reflectors due to the acoustic impedance. The time-depth relationship curve which had been calculated from
instantaneous frequency in Figure 6f highlights the contrast the borehole interval velocities. The curve provides guidance for
between frequency values. The higher frequencies correspond the interpretation of seismic reflection data across the borehole.
to sharp interfaces of shale layers, while the lower frequencies We only discuss the essential results of this analysis, which
correspond to sand-rich layers. The low-frequency anomaly include density and gamma rays. Both of these act as lithology
zone corresponds to the characteristics of unconsolidated sands indicators of the reservoir rock. Through petrophysical analysis
with heavy-oil saturated pores. Figure 6g is the result of the based on curve comparisons, we obtained two facies, which are
cosine power of the instantaneous amplitude. This is effective for mainly sand and shale as the dominant lithology in the
determining the phase changes between two interfaces. reservoir. Figure 8 shows the well log result sections along the
borehole. The gamma-ray log shows prominent peaks in the
4.2. Spectral Decomposition different parts of track 1 around zone A and has high values. In
zone B, the values are predominantly low. This suggests sandstone
We applied the spectral decomposition technique to analyse facies. A simple comparison of other curves in the interval around
properties of the seismic trace in order to investigate the effects depths of 1,206 to 1,222 m and 1,311 to 1,325 m indicates at two
of the frequency-dependent attribute. The study area has a heavy- main shale layers dominated reservoirs in zone A and sand
oil shaly-sand reservoir as the target formation. The sequences dominates the reservoir and hydrocarbon bearing reservoir in
show significant amplitude changes along the borehole location zone B. Shale indicators are obtained by the resistivity curves
due to the presence of the heavy-oil shaly-sand between 1.2 and overlaying in track 2 and by the SP deflection in track 1. The
1.5 s. To investigate the time-frequency variations along the deflection of the CALI curve is an indicator for shale. The
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Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1035
Fig. 7. Results of the spectral decomposition. (a) Input stack along the target reservoir interval and thin bed response at 1.2 second, (b) 8
Hz spectral decomposition profile corresponding to (a), the low-frequency at 1.2–1.5 s is comparably strong, (c) 25 Hz profile shows the low-
frequency with comparable amplitude and the extent of the reservoir at 1.2 s, (d) 50 Hz profile, (e) 80 Hz profile. (d) and (e) show the atten-
uation of the low-frequency around 1.2 s.
resistivity log is useful in fluid detection. It shows that the wave velocity to rocks saturated with heavy oil in zone B decreased
sandstone layers in zone B contain hydrocarbons at a depth of slightly with increasing depth. This velocity decrease is fundamental
1,325 m. The shale shows resistivity values of 6 to 15 ohm-m petrophysical evidence for the in situ reflection of the seismic
and density values of approximately 2.20 to 2.30 g/cm3. When waves. It shows that the location of heavy oil is related to P-wave
the sandstone density value was 2.30 g/cm3, resistivity was indicated velocity.
as 12 to 18 ohm-m with a low GR reading. This could be due to In general, the ability to distinguish permeable and impermeable
the presence of non-conducting hydrocarbons. In track 3 the zones is determined by the presence of mudcake. Permeable
RHOB curve lies to the right of the NPHI curve and readings zones are indicated by the presence of sandstone. In contrast, the
were parallel in some parts and overlapping in other parts. The impermeable zones are indicated by high values of the density log
in situ P wave velocity obtained from the sonic log of the heavy and low values of NPHI.
oil sand zone was measured versus depth. The relation of P-
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1036 William A. Deng, Taeyoun Kim, and Seonghyung Jang
Fig. 8. Summary of well logs section. Track 1: Caliper log (red), gamma ray log (black), and spontaneous potential log (blue). Track 2: Shallow
(red) and deep (black) resistivity. Track3: Density (red) and neutron-porosity (blue) logs. Track 4: Sonic log.
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Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1037
characterizing lithology and structures. For example, a comparison with the instantaneous amplitude profile which showed a high
of seismic reflection data with water and hydrocarbon saturation amplitude value that probably represents a reservoir bed. The
show that the phase is shifted and energy redistributed across instantaneous frequency which appears as lines of low-frequency,
frequencies (Goloshubin et al., 1996). The sandy oil-saturated suggests an unconsolidated interval of hydrocarbon saturation.
interval appears as low-frequency and high amplitude. It is This contention is supported by the fact that the instantaneous
hypothesized to be widely distributed in the Cretaceous formation frequency attribute of seismic waves evaluates reservoir distribution
(Goloshubin et al., 2002; Azeem et al., 2016). Reservoir qualitatively in heavy oil sand. The time-frequency profile, resolved
characterization in a mesoscopic (bedding) scale was used to at 25 Hz, indicates a low-frequency zone. From the spectral
identify the reservoir zone and to illustrate important elements decomposition panels, the elliptical shape along the frequency
of seismic attributes in reservoir evaluation. The instantaneous direction with the narrow bandwidth was shown at 1.2 s and the
frequency was a unique feature of a thin bed. frequency ranged between 15 Hz to 30 Hz. The integration of
The category of traditional time-frequency transform has multiple seismic attributes techniques with wireline logging data
useful properties such as improving resolutions and inexpensive interpretation suggests a reduction of geotechnical risk associated
computation (Young, 1999). Spectral decomposition is applied with some reservoirs. The complex seismic trace analysis may
to seismic data and is 2D (time axis = ordinate and CDP axis = not reveal the facies in thin shaly-sand but may indicate the
abscissa) expanded to the third dimension by adding a frequency reservoir by major reflectors. Further research is recommended
axis. The new arrangement of time-frequency-CDP constitutes to evaluate the nature of the reservoir fluid. However, the
the basis for reservoir characterization by fixing the frequency. seismic attribute analysis is eventually important prior to the
The spectral decomposition energy distribution in the frequency seismic interpretation.
range is effective for oil and gas detection (Castagna et al., 2003;
Yang, 2003; Ebrom, 2004; Fahmy et al., 2005; Goloshubin et al., ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
2006). The low-frequency is highly significant because waves are
slow inside an oil-saturated layer at the specific low-frequencies. This work was supported by the Energy Efficiency & Resources
This corresponds to low velocity and high amplitude. Figures Core Technology Program of the Korea Institute of Energy
7b–e show frequencies sorted into individual horizons and Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP), granting financial
represent the spectral amplitude of individual frequency (8, 25, resources from the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE),
50, and 80 Hz) versus time. The results were generated from 1 Republic of Korea. (No. 20142510101810) and by the Basic
Hz increments to 100 Hz, but only peak frequency and peak Research Project of the Korea Institute of Geoscience and
amplitude were selected with respect to frequencies 8, 25, 50 Mineral Resources (KIGAM) funded by the MOTIE, Republic
and 80 Hz. Figure 7c displays the heavy oil reservoir with the of Korea (No. 18-3312).
high amplitude.
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-018-0006-3 http://www.springer.com/journal/12303
Seismic attributes approach for shaly sand reservoir 1039
http://www.springer.com/journal/12303 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-018-0006-3